Improving the Reading Readiness of Young Children in Houston

A u g u s t 1 0 , 2 0 1 5

Prepared by: Allison Shea

This report was commissioned by the Barbara Bush Houston Literacy Foundation to further examine the issues surrounding early literacy, outlined in the “Houston’s Literacy Crisis: A Blueprint for Community Action” in April 2014. The purpose of this report is to provide an in-depth exploration of practical, early-childhood literacy and development programs that could be implemented within the City of Houston. This report begins by framing the complex issues surrounding early literacy development and the vital role primary caregivers play in the school and reading readiness of their children. The second half of the report describes various programs currently working to improve early literacy among at-risk populations, primarily by educating primary caregivers about fostering their children’s emergent literacy skills, thus helping to break the Cycle of Low Literacy in Houston.

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Table of Contents Executive Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 4

The Barbara Bush Houston Literacy Foundation .......................................................................................... 6

Snapshot of Houston..................................................................................................................................... 8

Population Diversity .................................................................................................................................. 8

Economy.................................................................................................................................................... 9

Houston’s Families .................................................................................................................................. 10

The Cycle of Low Literacy in Houston ................................................................................................. 10

Primary Caregivers in Houston ........................................................................................................... 12

Indicators Kindergarten Reading Readiness ........................................................................................... 15

Texas and Early Childhood Education ......................................................................................................... 17

Literacy and Emergent Literacy .................................................................................................................. 19

The Complexities of Literacy ....................................................................................................................... 21

Impacts on Early Literacy Development ..................................................................................................... 23

The 30 Million Word Gap ........................................................................................................................ 25

Health and Socioeconomic Status .......................................................................................................... 26

Prenatal Health ................................................................................................................................... 26

Adequate Nutrition ............................................................................................................................. 27

Oral Care ............................................................................................................................................. 27

Ocular and Aural Care ......................................................................................................................... 28

Lead Toxicity ....................................................................................................................................... 28

Asthma ................................................................................................................................................ 29

Playtime and Socioeconomic Status ....................................................................................................... 30

The Importance of Play ....................................................................................................................... 30

Hurdles for Children from Low-Socioeconomic Homes ...................................................................... 31

Primary Caregiver Education and Socioeconomic Status ....................................................................... 31

The Role of Caregiver Beliefs about Literacy ...................................................................................... 32

Home Literacy Environments ...................................................................................................................... 33

Caregivers and Developing Home Literacy Environments ...................................................................... 34

Case Study: The Word Gap Among Mexican- and White-Americans ..................................................... 35

The Development of Very Young Children ................................................................................................. 36

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Early Brain Development ........................................................................................................................ 36

Measuring Development ........................................................................................................................ 37

Tips for Reading with Young Children ..................................................................................................... 42

Early Interventions Help Children ............................................................................................................... 44

Economic Impact of Falling Behind ............................................................................................................. 45

Screen Time................................................................................................................................................. 47

The Appropriate Use of Technology ....................................................................................................... 48

The Digital Literacy Gap .......................................................................................................................... 50

Cultural Alignment ...................................................................................................................................... 51

Structural ................................................................................................................................................ 52

Attitudinal ............................................................................................................................................... 53

Cultural .................................................................................................................................................... 55

Adapting programs ..................................................................................................................................... 56

Designing a Program ................................................................................................................................... 57

Key Partnerships ......................................................................................................................................... 59

Programs at Museums and Libraries .......................................................................................................... 60

The Importance of Museums and Libraries ............................................................................................ 60

Museum and Library Programs ............................................................................................................... 61

Programs Offered by Health Care Providers ............................................................................................... 74

The Importance of Prenatal Care Centers .............................................................................................. 74

Prenatal Care Programs .......................................................................................................................... 75

The Importance of Pediatricians ............................................................................................................. 79

Postnatal and Pediatricians ..................................................................................................................... 80

Programs to Improve Child Health ............................................................................................................. 82

The Importance of Early Healthcare Interventions and Nutrition .......................................................... 82

Early Screenings ...................................................................................................................................... 83

Access to Nutrition .................................................................................................................................. 88

Community Based Programs ....................................................................................................................... 93

The Importance of Community Group Efforts ........................................................................................ 93

Technology Applications Supporting Literacy Development .................................................................... 106

The Importance of Technology Based Programs .................................................................................. 106

Website Based Programs ...................................................................................................................... 107

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Text-and Email-Based Programs ........................................................................................................... 110

Faith Based Programs ............................................................................................................................... 113

The Importance of Faith Based Programs ............................................................................................. 113

Faith Based Programs ........................................................................................................................... 114

Limitations of this Report.......................................................................................................................... 117

Recommendations for Implementing Programs .................................................................................... 117

Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................. 118

Bibliography .............................................................................................................................................. 121

Picture Bibliography .................................................................................................................................. 134

“If human beings are perceived

as potentials rather than

problems, as possessing

strengths instead of weaknesses,

as unlimited rather than dull

and unresponsive, then they

thrive and grow to their

capabilities.”

-Barbara Bush, Former First

Lady

4

Executive Summary

This report offers practical recommendations and programs to address the literacy needs of Houston’s youngest, most at-risk residents ages 0 to 5. Children at-risk for academic failure frequently come from low-socioeconomic backgrounds and start school behind their more affluent peers as they are unprepared for formal education.

Children born into low-income families are frequently unprepared to learn when they enter formal education due to a variety of environmental factors associated with growing up in low-income households. Children exposed to early and prolonged poverty are less likely to experience age- appropriate cognitive and physical development due to a lack of access to play, adequate nutrition, stability at home, and a literacy rich environment. These and many other factors combined make children from low-income households unlikely to be prepared for formal education. This report provides an in-depth examination of just one of these factors, the quality of literacy environments. The home’s literacy environment is directly correlated with the development of the emergent literacy skills necessary to obtain before being able to learn to read and write.

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Children from low-income families frequently lack these foundational skills when they enter kindergarten, causing them to start their formal education behind their peers. The absence of these skills is attributed to their early environments being devoid of literacy rich experiences. The obtainment

Adequate

Nutrition

Play

Stability

Literacy Rich

Environment

School

Readiness

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of emergent literacy skills relies heavily on the actions of the child’s primary caregivers, typically parents, who have the role of the child’s first teachers. The primary caregivers can foster emergent literacy skills by talking, reading, and singing with very young children. Unfortunately, many low-income primary caregivers are unaware of their vital role regarding their child’s development. This lack of understanding is the root of Hart and Risley’s (2003) term coined The 30 Million Word Gap. This gap refers to the difference in the number of words heard by children growing up in mid- and upper-level income families versus those growing up in families receiving welfare. By the time children are 3 years old, those from low-income households have heard, on average, 30 million fewer words than their affluent peers.

Starting kindergarten having heard 30 million words fewer puts children from low-income families at a disadvantage as compared to their more affluent peers. If they are not able to traverse this gap and read at grade level by the end of third grade, the research indicates they will be “four times more likely to drop out of high school than proficient readers” at the end of third grade (Weldon, n.d.). Being able to read proficiently by the end of third grade is extremely important because between these two grades the curriculum transitions from learning how to read to reading to learn (Feister & Smith, 2010). For students who are unable to read on grade level, nearly half of the printed fourth grade curriculum is incomprehensible (Weldon, n.d.).

Not only does mitigating the school readiness gap early help more children successfully complete public education, but it also is an economically sound strategy for the City of Houston. For every dollar invested in early education there is a return of up to $17, the result of “money saved on special and remedial education, criminal justice costs, and welfare rolls, as well as increased tax revenue from a more capable workforce” (Karoly et al., 2005; Rolnick & Grunewald 2003; Sesame Workshop, n.d.).

Houston is an extremely diverse city and this report focuses primarily on literacy development; therefore, no one program contained in this report will serve as a complete solution to the literacy crisis faced by at-risk children in the city. Programs will need to be adjusted to fit the needs of individuals and communities, taking into account the diversity of cultures represented across Houston. Therefore, all the programs discussed can be adjusted to meet cultural and linguistic needs while capitalizing on the unique resources of individual communities and neighborhoods. Making the appropriate adjustments will result in the implementation of effective programs. In addition, it may be fitting for communities and neighborhoods to implement several of the programs contained in this report simultaneously.

The success of any program requires active participation. However, many low-income families feel isolated from the mainstream culture. Therefore, parent and caregiver education programs must find ways to make them feel welcome and comfortable. This can be done by enlisting the help of trusted community members such as pediatricians, faith-based leaders, and/or individuals who share defining characteristics and experiences with caregivers. Another way to make caregivers feel comfortable is to design programs that are courteous to and understanding of their families’ culture, values, and language.

The programs contained in this report focus primarily on educating primary caregivers about:

Their role as their child’s first teacher. The importance of reading, talking, singing, and engaging in literacy rich activities with their

child.

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The numerous, practical strategies they can use to encourage emergent literacy skills so children are prepared to enter formal education.

The Barbara Bush Houston Literacy Foundation

In 2013, Former First Lady, Barbara Bush invited her son and daughter-in-law, Neil and Maria Bush, to continue her legacy as “The First Lady of Literacy” by establishing the Barbara Bush Houston Literacy Foundation (BBHLF). The Foundation was created to deepen the awareness of and increase the capacity of the literacy related services and supports offered in the City of Houston. The BBHLF’s focus is on improving the quality of life for Houstonians across all ages through the power of literacy- the ability to read, write, speak clearly and think critically. However, the Foundation also seeks to make Houston a model for other cities across the country struggling with literacy crises of their own.

Since September 2013, the BBHLF has continued the Former First Lady’s work by expanding awareness of the value of literacy and building the capacity throughout the Houston community by mobilizing community resources – funding, volunteers and services – to dramatically increase the literacy rates among people of all ages.

In addition to being the home of Former President and First Lady Bush for nearly half a century, Houston is the fourth largest and most diverse city in the United States. The Foundation’s report, Houston’s Literacy Crisis: A Call for Community Action, describes the city’s literacy crisis and calls for addressing the issue to become a top priority. The BBHLF describes literacy as a fundamental right of everyone because it is a foundational skill towards success in life. Yet, Houston’s high illiteracy rates are preventing its citizens from reaching their full potential and will stunt the city’s economic potential. For this reason, in its Houston’s Literacy Crisis: A Blueprint for Community Action, the Foundation provided practical, high-impact strategies to increase literacy in Houston by outlining goals, strategies, and specific actions that, if acted upon, would begin to systematically solve Houston’s literacy crisis.

This report builds off the suggestions contained within the Blueprint for Community Action by providing an in-depth examination of practical, early-childhood literacy and development programs that could be implemented by the City of Houston. The report first frames the complex issues surrounding early literacy development and the vital role primary caregivers play in school and reading readiness. The second part of the report describes various programs currently working to improve early literacy among at-risk populations, primarily by educating primary caregivers about fostering their children’s emergent literacy skills by talking, singing, and reading with their very young children. By educating primary caregivers how to foster literacy skills in their children, the Cycle of Low Literacy can begin to be broken.

“If you help a person to read,

then their opportunities in

life will be endless.”

-Barbara Bush, Former First

Lady

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BBHLF outlines its plan of action for mobilizing the Houston community in their Blueprint for Community Action. The plan contains six goals, the first three of which are addressed in this report.

1. Raise awareness of Houston’s literacy crisis. 2. Ensure every child enters kindergarten ready to read. 3. Ensure every child reads proficiently by the end of 3rd grade. 4. Ensure every young adult graduates on time with the literacy skills needed for the workforce

or higher education. 5. Ensure every functionally illiterate adult is able to integrate into the workforce and succeed

in everyday life. 6. Establish a sustainable system that supports and builds capacity for ongoing literacy.

Mission: The Barbara Bush Houston Literacy Foundation is dedicated to improving the quality of life for Houstonians across all ages through the power of literacy – the ability to read, write, speak clearly, and think critically.

Vision: Every member of the Houston community will have the opportunity to become literate in order to reach his or her fullest potential in life.

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Snapshot of Houston

Population Diversity

Houston is the fourth largest city in the United States with a population of approximately 2.2 million (United States Census Bureau, 2015). More than 28% of the city’s population is foreign born, contributing to its incredible diversity. If fact, Houston has surpassed New York City to become the most ethnically-diverse, major metropolitan area in the United States (Kever, 2012; United States Census Bureau, 2015). The foreign-born population in Metro Houston is roughly 1.4 million, exceeding the entire population of the city of Dallas (Greater Houston Partnership, 2015). This incredible level of diversity is further reflected by the more than 90 different languages spoken in the city daily (Coffey et al., n.d.). Roughly three quarters of the of the city’s population over the age of 5 speaks a language other than English at home (United States Census Bureau, 2015).

Figure 1 illustrates the racial composition of Houston using 2010 Census Data. However, these broad, racial categories do not offer insight into the population’s true diversity. The graph shows 43.8% of Houston’s citizens identify as Hispanic or Latino; however, this categorization does not describe country of origin. Despite sharing a language and broad racial identification, significant cultural diversity exists among Spanish-speaking countries and peoples.

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25th

Largest Economy

in the World

Figure 1: Houston Population by Race created using 2010 Census Data (Source: United States Census Bureau. (2015). Quickfacts Beta: Houston city, Texas Data file]. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/quickfacts/table/PST045214/4835000,00.

The Hispanic or Latino population is the single most substantial racial block in Houston and is also the one growing most rapidly (Landry et al., n.d.). Those identifying as White comprise the second largest block at 25.6% of the population, though African American’s are not far behind at 23.7%. Those identifying as Asian comprise 6% of the population while American Indian, Alaska Natives, Native Hawaiian, and Other Pacific Islanders comprise less than 1% of the Houston’s population (United States Census Bureau, 2015).

The Houston community is proud of its profound diversity; however, with this diversity comes unique challenges. One of these challenges is to help immigrant families and their children assimilate into the wider community while remaining respectful of their cultures and values. Another is to ensure that children from different cultures and backgrounds “have similar access to family support services and high-quality early learning and development programs so that they get off to a strong start” (Landry et al., n.d., 12).

Economy

Houston has all the hallmarks of a global city including its diverse population, large economy, high volume of international trade, high concentration of corporate headquarters, robust and deep foreign investment, large foreign born population, international research centers, substantial transportation infrastructure, and diverse

Houston's Population by Race Using 2010 Census Data

Hispanic or Latino (43.8%)

White alone, not Hispanic orLatino (25.6%)

Black or African American alone(23.7%)

Asian alone (6.0%)

American Indian and AlaskaNative alone (0.7%)

Native Hawaiian and OtherPacific Islander alone (0.1%)

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cultural scene (Greater Houston Partnership, 2015). In April 2015, Houston further secured its position as a truly global city when it became one of just five cities in the world and the only city in North America to serve all six inhabited continents (Greater Houston Partnership, 2015). The city now provides nonstop air service to 74 countries and annually trades with “virtually every country in the world” (Greater Houston Partnership, 2015, 3). The result of this high volume of trade is the Houston-Galveston Customs District overseeing more than $250 billion in foreign freight each year (Greater Houston Partnership, 2015).

With a gross regional product of $517.4 billion, were “metro Houston a sovereign nation, it would rank as the world’s 25th largest economy” (Greater Houston Partnership, 2015, 2). The city is home to 26 of the ’15 U.S. Fortune 500 companies’ headquarters and 70 of the 100 largest non-U.S. corporations on the ’14 Fortune Global 500 list (Greater Houston Partnership, 2015).

Houston’s economy has been set apart by its presence in the oil and gas industry. In fact, Houston’s dominance in the energy industry has made it the focal point of that industry in much the same way as Paris and Milan are for the fashion industry (Greater Houston Partnership, 2015). In addition to the undeniable influence of the energy industry, several other industries are booming in the city, including the petrochemical, medical, and manufacturing fields. The demand for

employees in these industries has increased dramatically; however, employers have had to recruit employees from outside Houston. The jobs in these industries almost always require the completion of a post high school education. With just 1 in 5 children in the Texas Gulf Coast Region “graduating from high school and completing some form of post high school credential” there is a disconnect between the skills employers in Houston require and the skill set of Houston’s population (Landry et al., n.d., 6). Simply put, a high school degree is not sufficient for employment in the high tech industries developing in Houston. Across the Texas Gulf, most people need post-high school training to secure a job that pays a living wage. Current “trends suggest that the 2016 market will demand a workforce in which nearly 55% of jobs will require an associate or higher degree” a demand Houston’s population is not prepared to meet in the near future (Landry et al., n.d., 9). The city’s lack of preparedness is systemic and predicted to continue if interventions are not implemented. Sixty percent of children in the Houston area enter kindergarten unprepared to learn (Landry et al., n.d.). If this trend is allowed to continue and the needs of young children are ignored, the gap between skills demanded and skills supplied by native Houstonians will widen even further.

Houston’s Families

The Cycle of Low Literacy in Houston

The systemic challenges facing Houston are the result of families being trapped in a Cycle of Low Literacy. Figure 2 illustrates this cycle and demonstrates the complexity of the literacy crisis in Houston. Because there is not a starting point and all age groups are impacted by low literacy, breaking this cycle is difficult.

Houston is the focal point for the

energy industry in the same way

Paris and Milan are for the fashion

industry. (Greater Houston

Partnership, 2015)

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Programs that only address the early literacy development of very young children without involving their primary caregivers have little chance of success. This is because the primary caregivers and the family’s immediate adult social network serve as the primary influence over children in the years leading up to the start of formal education. While the BBHLF recognizes the importance of addressing the literacy needs of individuals in all age ranges, this report and the programs contained within focus primarily on how to start Houston’s youngest residents on a successful path to literacy. Their journey begins before they are born, with proper prenatal care. High-quality prenatal care allows for healthy early development, the impacts of which will be explored below. The importance of proper prenatal care illustrates the vital role primary caregivers have in their children’s success. After the child is born, the experiences in the first years of life are predictive of their academic success will also be discussed in-depth later. However, it must be noted here that the experiences primary caregivers provide the young child with play an undeniable role in their school readiness and future academic success. These experiences are shaped by the environment they grow up in and early relationships with their primary caregivers. The almost singular influence of primary caregivers over children in their formative years makes the involvement of primary caregivers essential to the success of programs addressing early literacy.

Figure 2: The Cycle of Low Literacy (Baker-Finck et al., 2014, 6)

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Primary Caregivers in Houston

To break the Cycle of Low Literacy, caregivers and very young children must be educated simultaneously. The programs contained in this report focus on increasing the emergent literacy skills of very young children and educating caregivers about literacy and how to help their children obtain the emergent literacy skills essential for school readiness. Because of the key role caregivers play in these programs it is important to garner their support and participation. Thus, to be successful these programs must be sensitive to the needs of the primary caregivers and should provide practical, concise information and be as culturally relevant as possible.

Preparing multiple versions of materials for families may be necessary due to the diverse parenting styles, languages, and levels of literacy among caregivers in Houston.

Parenting styles are influenced by culture and time constraints due to work and other responsibilities (Landry et al., n.d.). It is important to be sensitive to cultural differences in parenting style in order to retain participation. Caregivers are likely to be repelled by programs they feel are judgmental of or in too much conflict with their culture and beliefs.

Multi-lingual materials, reflecting the linguistic diversity of Houston’s population, will increase primary caregiver attention and participation. If money is an object, translations can be prepared in the dominant languages found within the community. This kind of effort would be particularly helpful in reaching caregivers who are not literate in English but are literate in their primary language.

Simplify the language of printed materials. One in five adults in Houston is functionally illiterate. These families are likely trapped in the Cycle of Low Literacy. To get these caregivers involved, it is particularly important to provide materials at an accessible level. All reading materials prepared for and sent home with primary caregivers should be written at no more than a fifth grade reading level, thus increasing the chance of understanding and decreasing the chance of feelings of isolation and frustration.

An example of the appropriate level of writing to use on materials disseminated to caregivers can be found in Figure 3. This is a page from the “Books Build Connections Toolkit” produced through the collaboration of the American Academy of Pediatrics and the Too Small to Fail, a joint initiative of the Clinton Foundation and Next Generation. The toolkit provides easy-to-read materials for primary caregivers and instructs caregivers on how to encourage their child’s love of literacy and reading.

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Figure 3: Family Resource: Helping Your Child Learn To Read (Source: American Academy of Pediatrics and Too Small to Fail Tool Kit. Retrieved from https://www.aap.org/en-us/Documents/booksbuildconnections_helpingyourchildlearntoread.pdf )

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Learning begins at birth; therefore, a child’s first and most influential teachers are those present in the first years of life while the architecture of the brain is being rapidly established. For many children in the Texas Gulf Region, these earliest teachers are a combination of caregivers, families, neighbors, and other primary care providers. Fifty-seven percent of very young children in the Texas Gulf Region reside with primary caregivers who work outside the home, resulting in the involvement of additional adults in the care taking of children during their formative years. Twenty-two percent of children in the Greater Houston area receive informal child care such as the kind received at home by a family member, friend, or neighbor. Brandon (2004) described some reasons families decide to use informal child care methods are:

Regardless of the reason families have for using informal caregivers, these caregivers usually have a personal relationship with the child’s family and share their cultural values. However, these caregivers rarely have “the background or training needed to support… [the child’s] learning and development” (Landry et al., n.d., 9). These adults have the ability to stimulate neural connections in the young child’s brain by engaging them in developmentally appropriate activities though they may not realize their influence or how to use it to benefit the child (Landry et al., n.d.). Because of the tremendous influence these adults have on the young child’s early learning, it is important to expose them to the materials presented to primary caregivers through these programs as well. Primary caregivers should be

Monetary barriers

•Many low-income families, even those receiving child care subsidies find paying for formal child care difficult.

Personal preference

•Many minority and immigrant families are more comfortable leaving their children in the care of people who share their cultural and ethnic background.

Family structure

•Immigrant families are more likely to have one caregiver working full-time while the other remains in the home. They are also more likely to have other adult family members living in the household who can offer informal child care services.

Geographic location

• Low-income families are more likely to live in neighborhoods with fewer services including child care.

Language barriers

•Newly arrived immigrant families in particular have difficult accessing services such as child care due to having only rudimentary English.

Social capital

•Many low-income families lack the social capital to understand how to successfully navigate the child care market.

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Children Living in Poverty Under Age of 5 in Houston

Children LivingBelow the PovertyLine (38%)

Children LivingAbove the PovertyLine (72%)

More than 60%

of Houston’s children

will enter school

unprepared to learn

encouraged to share the resources they receive with the other adults responsible for the young child’s care so all of the child’s earliest teachers are aware of the developmentally appropriate activities they should be engaging the child in, as well as the importance of providing a word rich environment.

Indicators Kindergarten Reading Readiness

Just over 8% of Houston’s population is under five years old (United States Census Bureau, 2015). Yet if current trends continue, 60% of those children entering their first year of formal education in Houston Independent School District, the fourth largest district in the nation, for kindergarten will lack letter identification, 62% will not be ready to count, 78% will lack number recognition, and 59% will be unable to write their own name (Early Matters Coalition, n.d.). Children who are unable to perform the tasks listed above lack the prerequisite, foundational skills needed to master the kindergarten curriculum which centers on reading, writing, and mathematics.

Blackwell et al. (2015) explains each school district in Harris County selects from a list of fifteen, state-approved early literacy assessments to measure school readiness. However, the assessments are too different to be normalized. Therefore, the results cannot be compared between the 25 districts contained in Harris County. To combat the early literacy crisis in Harris County, understanding the problem is necessary. Data “can inform modifications to curriculum, can guide the distribution of resources, and can aid teachers in gaining the knowledge and professional skills necessary to mitigate the literacy crisis” (Blackwell et al., 2015, 6). Yet, there is currently no way to compare the data collected from the diverse school districts in Harris County. For this reason, Blackwell et al. (2015) recommended the school districts recognize their common agenda and select a standard assessment for all children entering kindergarten in order to glean an understanding of the needs of their students.

Despite the current lack of a common assessment, it is clear the children most consistently lacking the fundamental skills necessary to be prepared for school come from economically disadvantaged households. Many children from economically disadvantaged homes experience additional challenges to the development of these necessary pre-literacy skills including language barriers as well as a word and

literacy deprived home environment. Thirty-eight percent of children in Houston under the age of 5 live below the poverty line. Children from low-income families are considered at risk for academic failure partially because they are less likely to attend prekindergarten, but also because they more frequently enter school with limited language skills, as well as health, social, and emotional problems, which may interfere with their learning (Rhode Island KIDS COUNT, 2005; Fitzpatrick, 2010). Children from low-income families have limited language

Figure 4: Percent of Children Living Under the Poverty Line (Source: Baker-Fink et al., 2014).

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skills because they tend to be spoken to less frequently and often grow up in homes that lack literacy related resources. For example, books which are the cornerstone of many emergent literacy skills are less common in low-income households. Just one book is available for every 300 children in low-income homes (Baker-Finck et al., 2014). Nationally, 61% of low-income children have no children’s books in their home (The Campaign for Grade Level Reading, 2015). Children growing up in poverty face a plethora of additional challenges related to their economic condition, all of which play a role in their limited acquisition of fundamental skills. As will be discussed below, many of these challenges can be addressed through various caregiver education efforts.

As discussed above, Houston’s economy is increasingly reliant on a skilled workforce. Many Houston employers now require employees to poses a degree or certification beyond a high-school diploma. If the city of Houston is to create a long-term pipeline for this workforce, interventions are needed beginning at the earliest ages. The extent and form of those interventions will need to take remains unknown due to the lack of uniform data as discussed above. While selecting a common assessment, the school districts of Houston County should keep in mind specific strategies used to help prepare young children to read at grade level. Figure 5 is from the Get Georgia Ready Campaign for Grade Level Reading and illustrates four major components or pillars that when working together help all children, regardless of their socioeconomic status, achieve grade level literacy skills. Selecting an assessment that can measure these areas may be helpful in addressing the early literacy crisis.

Figure 5: Four Pillars to Help Children Learn (Adapted from Weldon, 2015, 4)

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It is clear that currently the majority of Houston’s children, particularly those who are of low-income families, are not ready for school when they enter formal education. If these children are not caught up and reading on grade level by the end of third grade, they are four times more likely to drop out of school than those who read on grade level. Students who drop out of school will not have the qualifications to obtain most jobs that pay a living wage in Houston (Landry et al., n.d.). Houston’s youngest residents cannot wait for the county’s school districts to settle on a common assessment. They cannot wait for schools to collect and analyze data. They cannot wait for schools to debate what kind of interventions to provide. Nor can they wait for those interventions to be implemented. Their lives are happening now. While the school districts take the steps necessary to improve the serves they will provide to children in the coming years, Houstonians should do their best to attend to the needs of their youngest residents through the use of early literacy programs. This report contains various programs currently working to help ensure children, especially those from low-income families, are exposed to the literacy and word rich environments that will help them enter school ready to learn and succeed. The success of these programs rests on the involvement and education of caregivers as well as various community, medical, and faith-based organizations.

Texas and Early Childhood Education

In 2007, the federal government passed the Improving Head Start for School Readiness Act of 2007 requiring each state to establish a State Advisory Council on Early Childhood Education and Care to be designated by the Governor. Each council’s purpose was charged with improving the availability of high-quality services for children from birth until they enter formal education. In 2009, Governor Rick Perry established the Texas Early Learning Council to be coordinated out of the Children’s Learning Institute. In 2010, the newly established Council received a three-year grant from the federal government to assist them in the development of programs and intervention targeting four priority areas: parental outreach and communications; early childhood workforce and professional development; collaborations and standards; and data systems and quality ratings and improvement systems (Texas Early Learning Council: About the Council, n.d.; Texas Early Learning Council: Federal Legislation, n.d.).

Figure 6 was created by the Texas Early Learning Council and identifies the specific needs of the state as well as recommended strategies for addressing each of the needs with the end goal of improving the school readiness of young Texans.

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Figure 6: “Texas Early Childhood Path to School Readiness” (Source: Texas Early Learning (n.d.) Council. Retrieved from http://earlylearningtexas.org/About-Us.aspx).

In addition to helping end the Cycle of Low Literacy in Houston, the implementation of any combination of programs contained in this report would directly address three of the needs identified by the Council. The first is the need for a parent and child-focused early childhood education (ECE) system. The second is to provide increased access to high-quality programs for underrepresented families. The third need is to form “cross-sector” partnerships.

Various libraries, museums, healthcare professionals, local governments, community organizations, and faith groups have worked together, forming cross-sectional partnerships in order to establish caregiver and child-focused programs. Most of these programs are designed for underrepresented families including minority and low-income families. Further, many of these programs have been evaluated and have supporting data that shows they have had positive impacts on school readiness and emergent literacy development.

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Children most at risk for academic failure and those starting the furthest behind frequently have had the most substantial gains in emergent literacy and school readiness after participating in these types of programs. For example, the Family and Child Experiences Survey observed two nationally representative cohorts of 3- and 4-year olds enrolled in Head Start, a federally funded program that prepares low-income, young children for school by offering educational and other services to low-income families. The survey found children in the lowest percentile nationally made the most substantial gains in their “vocabulary, early writing skills, letter and word recognition, and early math skills” (Fischer et al., 2013, 130).

The Texas Early Learning Council can learn from the already established programs included here, using them as case studies as they continue to formulate and implement statewide strategies for improving young Texans for school.

Literacy and Emergent Literacy

The development of literacy skills is a dynamic process similar to learning the intricacies of a language and social interactions (Britsch & Meier, 1999). While literacy acquisition is a dynamic process, certain foundational skills must be developed before a child begins to read, such as gaining an understanding of oral language and sound structure (Frusciante, 2009). These basic skills are fostered when caregivers talk, read, and sing with children. Yet, low-income children have fewer opportunities to develop these fundamental skills because they are exposed to less oral language. The 30 million word gap demonstrates the extreme disparity in exposure to language and thus the opportunity to develop even the most basic skills associated with literacy and school readiness.

The skills that will lead children to successfully be able to read and write are known as emergent literacy skills and must be developed early. This is not to say that infants and toddlers should be expected to read or write (Coffey et al., n.d.). In fact, expecting young children to master literacy “skills before they are ready” can lead to elevated levels of stress and “may actually harm brain development” (Frusciante, 2009, 2). The focus for very young children should be on the development of emergent literacy skills.

Emergent literacy is the continuous process young children go through as they acquire the skills necessary to become readers and writers and are independent from the formal education associated with beginning to read (Kassow, 2006). Whitehurst and Lonigan (1998) and Teale (1987) speculate that emergent literacy does not begin at a designated age. The process is initiated by specific environmental stimuli, most commonly through exposure to a combination of oral language (speaking or singing) and print language leading to the development of

Literacy- The ability to read, write, speak clearly, and think critically.

Five vital components contribute

to the development of literacy:

developmental health home environment play formal instruction technology (Frusciante,

2009).

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print awareness. Both types of language are developed by watching and interacting with adults (Frusciante, 2009). Additional environmental factors that can either stimulate or stunt the development of emergent literacy skills include the developmental health of the child; the amount of time and type of play they engage in; their exposure to and the quality of formal instruction; and the amount of time and types of technologies they use (Frusciante, 2009).

Some of the first emergent literacy skills to develop “include book handling skills, recognition of words in their environmental context, graphophonetic skills (such as where words begin and end), phonological skills, and other metalinguistic skills (such as context-dependency, and the processes of reading)” (Puchner, 1995, 309). Eventually, children start to develop an understanding of syntax and word choice (Kassow, 2006). While children need not have the ability to read upon entering school, it is necessary for children to possess at least some of the emergent literacy skills listed above.

There are two hypotheses regarding how children develop their literacy skills. The first is the “Linearity Hypothesis.” This hypothesis “predicts that children will demonstrate universal features of writing before they demonstrate knowledge of the language-specific characteristics of a writing system (Tolchinsky, 2003)” (Puranik & Lonigan, 2011, 2). Therefore, the scribbles produced by young children are not random. Rather, they contain certain universal features characteristic of writing including “linearity (writing units/marks are organized in straight lines), discreteness (segmentation), and lack of iconicity (writing units are abstract)” (Puranik & Lonigan, 2011, 2). When these features appear in a child’s scribbles, the child has begun to demonstrate their awareness that writing and drawing are different and that writing in some way represents oral language (Puranik & Lonigan, 2011).

The second hypothesis is known as the “Unified Hypothesis.” This hypothesis postulates children’s literacy development and knowledge of print is not uniform or linear. Instead, children learn the various aspects of writing in no particular sequence. The order of development instead depends on their experiences with print language (Gombert and Fayol, 1992; Goodman and Goodman, 1979; Hiebert, 1981; Smith, 1976). While the order of skill development is not relevant, this hypothesis also states the development of a certain set of skills is necessary before a child is able to read and write.

While there is evidence to support both hypotheses as to the order children acquire reading and writing skills, the research consistently indicates the experiences and home literacy environments can help or hinder the development of the necessary literacy skills a child needs to be ready for school. As this report has already mentioned, experiences at home appear to be related to differences in economic circumstances,

resulting in a greater availability of print resources for children from high-income households (Frusciante, 2009).

Emergent Literacy- The foundational skills

and understanding of language required

before a child can begin to read and write.

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Simply owning books, however, does not guarantee emergent literacy skills will be acquired. The kinds of interactions caregivers and particularly mothers engage their children in with books and their literacy beliefs influence the child’s emergent literacy more than the presence of age-appropriate books (Frusciante, 2009). Caregiver-child interactions play a much more dominant role in predicting the developmental and educational outcomes of children than the presence of books or the caregiver’s educational attainment (Kassow, 2006). Because the home literacy environment is more than just the availability of books and is determined so significantly by the “child’s early exposure to and participation in literacy activities with parents” or primary caregivers, most of the programs below not only focus on providing books to children who might otherwise have access to them at home, but also on teaching caregivers how to help foster emergent literacy skills while reading to their child (Kassow, 2006, 2).

The Complexities of Literacy

As described above, literacy is a complex and multidimensional skill, the foundations of which are taught outside formal instructional settings. Various social and cognitive variables are instrumental in the development of literacy skills. These variables interact with and affect each other, as well as literacy development over time. However, literacy is not unidirectional and therefore affects social and cognitive variables as well (Puchner, 1995). Complex “relationships between literacy, early childhood development, [and] families” develop as a result (Puchner, 1995, 307). The Learning Capacity and Literacy Model proposes families influence the literacy levels of individuals in the family while each individual simultaneously influences the literacy skills of the family as a unit (Puchner, 1995). In other words, caregivers influence the attainment of literacy related skills among their children. At the same time, the literacy level of caregivers can be impacted positively as their child’s literacy improves. Due to the dynamic nature of literacy development, literacy programs targeting economically disadvantaged children should consider the family to be a learning unit, and recognize caregivers as important allies (Nickse, 1989). Most of the programs included here engage the family unit and expect the unit to profit from their shared experience.

Figure 7: Factors Affecting Learning Capacity and Literacy of Children (Puchner (1995, 308)’s adaption based on Levinger, 1992, 28).

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Just as with a busy city street, there are a myriad of influences impacting a child’s learning including their literacy. Figure 7 above is Puchner (1995)’s visual adaptation of the various influences concurrently working to impact the literacy and learning capacity of children. As seen in the diagram, the individual characteristics of the child include health/nutrition, cultural and familial supports, as well as their natural aptitude. Notice all the arrows are double sided. This is because each of the individual characteristics is related to and acting upon the other variables. For example, observe the variables related to a child’s aptitude. A child’s aptitude may impact how the family responds to the child. A child with a high natural aptitude might receive more encouragement and warmth from his caregiver while a child with limited natural aptitude might be received with frustration. At the same time the way caregivers interact with a child may influence the child’s aptitude. A caregivers’ warm reception and faithful attendance to a young child’s needs may lay the foundations for healthy social, emotional, physical, and cognitive development. Positive caregiver “behaviors, such as being warm and supportive, were…related to positive child behaviors, such as focused attention and enthusiasm” while reading together (Kassow, 2006, 7).

As seen in Figure 7, the characteristics of a child do not work alone to influence literacy development. There are points of influence impacting children both directly and indirectly that are external to the child. Variables indirectly impacting the child include caregiver education, family literacy programs, and women’s literacy programs. These aspects impact caregivers and their education directly. The positive outcomes of such programs can change how caregivers react to

and support their child’s learning. Another variable impacting literacy and learning capacity indirectly is child-to child interactions. Child-to-child interactions typically do not focus specifically on developing literacy skills. However, through play with other children, many cognitive skills valued in education including problem-solving are developed. In addition, as children play they communicate with one another, developing the receptive and expressive language skills associated with emergent literacy (Puchner, 1995).

Direct influences on children’s learning capacity and literacy include programs designed specifically to increase the child’s learning and literacy such as early childhood education and classroom supports as well as health interventions. As will be discussed later, healthy brain and physical development is important for children because a healthy child is able to concentrate on their learning and misses fewer days of school.

The complexity of literacy development is comparable to the chicken and egg conundrum. The various components of the home literacy environment result in different literacy outcomes for children in the years prior to formal education. Which develops first, the child’s interest in learning to read or the caregiver reading to the child thus causing them to be more interested in reading? (Bus, 1993; Bus, 1994). The two are likely related “a parent’s success in eliciting

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responses from the child…may raise the child’s interest resulting in more reading” or the child playing with a book may influence the caregiver’s decision to read it with the child (Kassow, 2006, 4). Because of the complex relationships between the child’s early environment and experiences, the programs below are designed to engage both caregiver and child in literacy development. The programs also attempt to help caregivers make changes to their daily routines and homes so as to support emergent literacy skills among their children.

Impacts on Early Literacy Development

Rather than attributing early classroom academic performance to traditional indices of cognitive ability such as I.Q., school readiness must be examined holistically. To truly understand the early academic performance and school readiness of individual children, their early childhood experiences, home learning environment, and economic status should be considered (Griffin & Morrison, 1997; Hart & Risley, 2003). When children are not ready for school, it not only makes learning more difficult for the student, but also places significant financial stress on the educational system as it must provide extra resources to assist students needing to “catch up” (Blackwell et al., 2015, 7). School readiness is defined as having the requisite set of skills and competencies necessary to be prepared for kindergarten including “physical well-being, emotional maturity, social confidence, cognitive skills, language richness, and general knowledge” (De Feyter and Winsler, 2009, 412).

School readiness is linked to poverty. Therefore, adequately addressing these issues requires a holistic view of a child’s early environment and experiences. All of the intricate and complex environmental trends children are exposed to in their first years of life contribute to early achievement disparities. Major factors contributing to early literacy development can be seen in Figure 8 below. While this list is not exhaustive the factors listed including: the child’s relationship with primary caregivers, adequate nutrition, access to healthcare and preventative screenings, as well as a safe, word rich home environment in which the child is encouraged to play and explore contribute to healthy development.

Each of the programs included in this report require long-term commitment and cooperation from stakeholders. These stakeholders include literacy foundations, school districts, non-profits organizations, healthcare providers, faith-based organizations, community groups, families, and other caregivers. To gain the trust of families, program coordinators must know about the populations they are working with and be sympathetic to the compounding factors that make early literacy development and school readiness difficult for low-income families. By working with trusted members of the community, such as doctors and religious leaders, mutual understanding and trust is more likely to develop. Understanding and trust are the cornerstones of successful programs.

School readiness – Having the requisite skills and competencies to be prepared for

kindergarten including “physical well-being, emotional maturity, social confidence, cognitive

skills, language richness, and general knowledge” (De Feyter and Winsler, 2009, 412).

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Stimulating home learning environments are associated with higher socioeconomic households, partially because low socioeconomic families have more difficulty providing the healthy and stimulating environment conducive for the cognitive development of young children. While it is important to reinforce that low socioeconomic status families can provide literacy rich home environments, they are less likely to have the time and material resources to do so. For this reason, Whitehurst and Lonigan (1998) describe family socioeconomic status as the strongest predictor of how a well a child will perform in the first grade. Children living in poverty prior to entering prekindergarten “are much less likely” to possess the cognitive and early literacy readiness skills of “children living above the poverty threshold” (Blackwell et al., 2015, 11). Lipina and Posner (2012) attribute the findings of Whitehurst and Lonigan (1998) to the fact that children from low-socioeconomic families are exposed to fewer words and literacy skills, which are important factors to success in school.

Socioeconomic status alone does not directly impact brain development. However, growing up in a low-socioeconomic status home is correlated with lower capacity for “cognitive processes, such as language, executive function, attention, and memory” because of the conditions children in poverty frequently encounter (Lipina & Posner, 2012, 3). The detriments associated with poverty are greater during the critical years of development, the first five years of life, more than during later years of school. Children from disadvantaged backgrounds are impacted in such a dramatic manner not only by their home learning environment is more likely to be sparse, but also because they are less likely to have access to quality healthcare, engage in playtime, and have caregivers who are educated about the importance of fostering emergent literacy skills.

These are some of the factors contributing to the school readiness of children. All of these factors have been linked to socioeconomic status. Thus, children from low-socioeconomic homes are less likely to be adequately prepared for school.

Figure 8: Pieces of School Readiness of Children

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The 30 Million Word Gap

In their ground breaking research, Hart and Risley (2003) explored the existence of the early achievement gap. They found one of the substantial environmental indicators leading to early disparities in school readiness was the child’s economic environment. Hart and Risley (2003) tracked 42 families for 2 ½ years, beginning when the child was between 7 and 9 months old. The goal was to see what early experiences accounted for the apparent “intractable differences in rates of vocabulary growth…among 4-year-olds” (Hart & Risley, 2003, 6). They found by the age of 3 children growing up in families receiving welfare heard 30 million fewer words than children from high-income families. This finding, seen in Figure 9, suggests a difference in the experiences, educational and otherwise, between children from different economic backgrounds prior to formal schooling (Hart & Risley, 2003). Further these experiences impact how prepared children are to enter school.

The average child on welfare heard half as many words an hour (616 words) as the “average working-class child (1,251 words per hour) and less than one-third that of the average child in a professional family (2,153 words per hour)” (Hart & Risley, 2003, 8). Children from economically disadvantaged backgrounds not only hear fewer words, they also know significantly fewer. As shown in Figure 10, by age 3 many children from low-income families have learned about 300 words compared to children from high-income families who have learned closer to 1,200 words (Miller et al., 2015). The disparities in the number of words both heard and learned results in children from economical disadvantaged families being behind their affluent peers in at least one aspect of school readiness, language richness.

Children from low-socioeconomic families and ones with low levels of primary caregiver education enter school with smaller vocabularies and speak less frequently than their peers from families from higher socioeconomic homes. This is partly attributed to evidence that indicates that mothers and other primary caregivers from lower income brackets speaking less frequently to their children and using a less rich vocabulary (University of North Carolina Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, 2008, 1). In addition, caregivers with less education and less income tend to address their children using discouraging diction. Language is used to punish children from economically disadvantaged households more frequently than for children from professional class households. Children from low-income

Figure 9: The Number of Words Addressed to Children Differs Across Income Groups (Source: Hart & Risley, 2003, 8).

Figure 10: Children’s Vocabulary Differs Greatly Across Income Groups (Source: Hart & Risley, 2003, 7).

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families hear language from their caregivers that communicates disapproval or punishment twice as often as they hear encouraging language. This early experience with language causes many children from impoverished homes to develop a distain and disinterest in language (Miller, 2015). This early language gap is significant because a child’s vocabulary at age 3 is predictive of their grade three reading achievement (The Campaign for Grade-Level Reading, 2015).

Health and Socioeconomic Status

Health is a major determinant of success in school. Healthy children are more often ready to learn when they enter kindergarten, are more likely to attend school regularly, and are more likely to be successful in school (Guide 1: Supporting Healthy Births and Infancy, 2015). However, children growing up in poverty are faced with many barriers to healthy development beginning even before they are born. Low-income mothers often do not have access to high-quality prenatal care needed for early brain and physical development (Guide 1: Supporting Healthy Births and Infancy, 2015).

Proper healthcare continues to be vital as children grow and should include comprehensive screenings, follow-ups, and early interventions when necessary. Especially important aspects of health to monitor are oral, ocular, and aural health; asthma and toxin management; nutrition; and physical activity (Guide 1: Supporting Healthy Births and Infancy, 2015). Children from low-socioeconomic families are especially at risk for health related issues because they are less likely to have access to early, preventative screenings or live in homes free of harmful toxins, such as lead. Overall, children from low-income homes do not receive early interventions as often as high-income children resulting in health related issues going largely unaddressed.

Prenatal Health Adverse birth outcomes including premature birth and low birth weight are “more prevalent for unmarried women, those with low levels of education, and black mothers-all groups with high poverty rates” (Brooks-Gunn & Duncan, 1997, 60). Low birth weight is associated with physical health, cognitive, and emotional complications, persisting into adulthood. Children born with low birth weights are also more likely to have learning disabilities and repeat grades, making proper prenatal care imperative (Brooks-Gunn & Duncan, 1997).

Programs designed to aid low-income mothers in accessing quality prenatal care are beneficial because they start children on the path to a healthy life, even before they are born. In addition, these programs are logical partners for literacy programs. A program working with prenatal care facilities could also provide education about the importance of early literacy development. Parents who attend prenatal

“Health, nutritional state, parental knowledge and individual expectations have been shown to

influence school-based learning (Wagner and Spratt, 1988; Myers, 1992).” (Puchner, 1995,

310)

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classes trust their instructors, making prenatal clinics valuable caregiver educators for both low-and high-income families.

Adequate Nutrition Adequate nutrients are necessary for proper brain and physical development, beginning during pregnancy. However, the need for proper nutrients continues after birth. Those children with poor nutrition during the brains’ early, most formative years, “score much lower on tests of vocabulary, reading comprehension and general knowledge than those who are adequately nourished (Brown and Pollitt, 1996)” (Guide 6: Promoting Healthy Food Choices, 2015, 5). Two of the most common problems associated with poor nutrition for young children are iron deficiency and skipping breakfast. Anemia, the result of low iron levels, “leads to a shortened attention span, irritability, fatigue and difficulty concentrating” (Guide 6: Promoting

Healthy Food Choices, 2015, 5) Anemic children struggle in school and tend to perform poorly on “vocabulary, reading and other tests (Parker, 1989)” (Guide 6: Promoting Healthy Food Choices, 2015, 5).

Children who miss breakfast similarly perform worse on tests including those asking them to differentiate between images. These children also “have slower memory recall” than their peers who had eaten breakfast (Guide 6: Promoting Healthy Food Choices, 2015, 5). A healthy diet as described in the Dietary Guidelines for Americans is one that “emphasizes fruits, vegetables, whole grains and fat-free or low-fat milk and milk products; includes lean meats, poultry, fish, beans, eggs and nuts; and is low in saturated fats, trans fats, cholesterol, salt (sodium) and added sugars” and can help lead to better mental and physical health (Guide 6: Promoting Healthy Food Choices, 2015, 5).

Oral Care The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2009-2010 out of the CDC found that a quarter of children between the ages of 3 and 9 living in poverty have untreated dental needs (Guide 4: Ensuring Oral Health, 2015). Children from low-income and minority families are already more at risk of missing school. This risk is elevated when children do not have access to oral care (Guide 4: Ensuring Oral Health, 2015, 5). Forty-one percent of Hispanic children experience untreated tooth decay. Meanwhile,

the W.K. Kellogg Foundation reported in 2012 37% of African-American children experience untreated tooth decay (Guide 4: Ensuring Oral Health, 2015). These symptoms frequently result in reduced concentration and attention span as well as absences from school. Research conducted in Los Angeles County indicated “children with dental pain were four times as likely to have a low grade-point average and missed significantly more school days than their peers without dental needs” (Guide 4: Ensuring Oral Health, 2015, 9).

Many children living in poverty rely on Medicaid for healthcare, which often does not cover oral care. According to Pew, only 44% of children enrolled in Medicaid in 2009 received dental care (Guide 4: Ensuring Oral Health, 2015). When oral care is neglected painful tooth decay and sleep loss can result, making concentrating on learning more difficult.

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There are several ways to address the lack of access low-income children have to adequate dental care, including:

The incorporation of regular screenings, teeth cleanings, and preventive services as part of school-based services similar to how many schools conduct vision and hearing screenings.

Integrating oral health into primary care. Covering dental visits under Medicaid. Introducing children to oral health during preschool programs such as Early Head Start and Head

Start. These programs are already established and have caregiver education components. Thus, they could include information to educate caregivers as to why oral health is important.

Encouraging the establishment of public-private partnerships to help provide dental services to children identified as in need of care and treatment (Guide 4: Ensuring Oral Health, 2015).

Ocular and Aural Care Developmental screenings that help identify concerns regarding vision and hearing are appropriate and can help determine what interventions may be necessary early, reducing their impact on the young child’s early learning and development. Community groups have a history of recruiting libraries and doctors to organize free screenings for young children. For example, the Oregon Elks Clubs work with The Casey Eye Institute to provide screenings and follow-up care for children enrolled in Head Start programs in the state (Guide 2: Ensuring Early and Appropriate Screenings and Intervention, 2015). Through these programs difficulties can be identified that may severely impact a child’s ability to succeed in school, especially if not addressed early. Many of these problems have simple solutions, but frequently go unaddressed in low-income households.

Most visual impairments are easily corrected. However, if left uncorrected “vision difficulties can sabotage academic success” (Guide 2: Ensuring Early and Appropriate Screenings and Intervention, 2015, 5). Approximately 20% of school-aged children are either near-or far-sighted which can make reading difficult and can lead to headaches, resulting in absenteeism and behavioral problems. A “study conducted by the Shiley Eye Center at the University of California San Diego found that preschool children whose vision was corrected with glasses showed gains on standardized tests of academic achievement” (Guide 2: Ensuring Early and Appropriate Screenings and Intervention, 2015, 7).

Similarly, “uncorrected hearing impairments in young children have been linked with lifelong speech and language deficits, poor academic performance, as well as social challenges and emotional difficulties. For a child born with a hearing loss, effective intervention within the first six months of life significantly improves [their] future [educational] prospects” (Guide 2: Ensuring Early and Appropriate Screenings and Intervention, 2015, 5).

Lead Toxicity Another serious yet commonly unaddressed health risk facing low-income children is lead poisoning because they are more likely to live in older, substandard housing developments or near former industrial sites. Lead is toxic and exposure to it can result in “serious, and often irreversible, cognitive impairment in children, with the greatest risks to the youngest children” (Guide 2: Ensuring Early and Appropriate Screenings and Intervention, 2015, 5). Children with elevated levels of lead in their blood are more at-risk for academic failure, behavior issues, learning disabilities, grade retention, dropping out of school, and decreased cognitive function behavior issues (Guide 2: Ensuring Early and Appropriate Screenings and Intervention, 2015; Brooks-Gunn & Duncan, 1997). Figure 11 from the U.S. Centers for

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Disease Control and Prevention and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services describes the effects lead exposure can have on young children and what caregivers can do to help minimize their child’s exposure of lead.

Asthma

About seven million children in the United States have asthma, a chronic disease causing inflammation in the lungs and the narrowing of airways leading to wheezing, coughing and shortness of breath. The disease frequently develops before the age of 5 and is one of the most common chronic diseases for children that age. Asthma is also the “most significant health-related cause of school absence among children” with 14 million missed school days attributed to asthmatic complications and flare ups each year (Guide 5: Controlling Environments and Managing Asthma, 2015, 5). However, even children who have not yet started school have their learning negatively impacted by asthmatic complications, including frequent trips to the hospital and low energy. As with many other health related diseases, asthma disproportionately affects minority children from low-income, urban households.

As is the case with lead poisoning, children from low-income, urban households suffer from asthma more frequently because they are more likely to live in homes with environmental triggers. Free programs offering families tips on managing the environment in their homes by removing as many triggers as possible and using medication can help reduce the impact of asthma on early learning by

Asthma- A chronic disease that affects the lungs, causing inflammation and a narrowing of

the airways.

Figure 11: Lead Exposure (Source: U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2007).

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reducing the frequency of flare ups. When symptoms are manageable attendance at school increases and children have more energy for learning.

Playtime and Socioeconomic Status

The Importance of Play Research on play has found it to be critical to a child’s learning and development. Through play children learn about the world around them and explore their creativity. Physical activity and play supports the functions of the brain related to critical learning (Ratey 2008; Rosewater 2009). In addition, physical activity enhances the critical components of development necessary for school readiness in children from birth through age 5, including motor skills, social skills, and brain development (Walker et al.,

2008). Because play is a natural way for children to grow, it should be encouraged. It is recommended that toddlers have at least 60 minutes of unstructured play per day (Guide 7: Increasing Physical Activity, 2015).

As children interact with their environments, both indoor and outdoor, through play with their peers they develop cognitive and emergent literacy skills (Guide 7: Increasing Physical Activity, 2015). When playing, “children engage in representational and symbolic thoughts and actions…using one object or symbol to represent another…[which is a necessary cognitive skill]

for learning to read and write, because words that are used to read and write are symbols or representations of thoughts and objects” (Connecticut State Department of Education, 1998, 3). Since play enhances cognitive development and emergent literacy skills through symbolism having expensive or “up-to-date” toys is not necessary. In fact, child “creativity is enhanced by basic…toys, blocks, dolls, and art supplies” (Milteer & Ginsburg, 2012, 208). These toys are inexpensive but prepare children the most academically (Milteer & Ginsburg, 2012).

Over the last decade, there has been an increasingly “heavy emphasis on standards and testing at earlier and earlier ages” (Frusciante, 2009, 4). Despite this push, it is important not to forget children need play to learn and that it is imperative for their proper brain development. Play encourages many positive developmental changes for young children without decreasing student performance on standardized tests. In fact, providing time for physical activity “may result in enhanced cognitive function, better attendance, fewer disciplinary problems and improved student behavior (Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, 2011)” (Guide 7: Increasing Physical Activity, 2015, 6). Milteer and Ginsburg (2012, 205) write that when children are given time to play throughout the day, including recess “children’s capacity to store new information” is increased and their cognitive capacity is enhanced. As standards become the focus, playtime is being cut out of many schools; however, playtime should remain a part of the early childhood curriculum not only because it may increase student performance on tests, student learning, and student development, but because it may be one of the few opportunities low-income children have to engage in such play.

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Primary Caregiver- An individual “primarily responsible for a child who cannot take care of himself or

herself. This may be a biological parent, an adopted or foster parent, or another legal guardian who

consistently assumes the primary responsibilities of caring for the child’s needs” (Coffey et al., n.d., 80).

Hurdles for Children from Low-Socioeconomic Homes As described above, play is an important component of child development and “is a natural tool for children to develop resiliency as they learn to cooperate, overcome challenges, and negotiate with others” (Milteer & Ginsburg, 2012, 204). Unfortunately, children living in poverty often do not have enough opportunities to engage in play, thus impeding “their healthy social-emotional development” (Milteer & Ginsburg, 2012, 204).

Children from low-socioeconomic families are less likely to have safe play areas such as parks and playgrounds, as they are less common and less well maintained in low-income areas. These neighborhoods typically lack the community resources to provide children with safe and supervised places to play including community centers, parks, and playgrounds. If parents or other trusted caregivers are not available to watch children play outside those children are more likely to engage in sedentary, isolated, indoor activities such as watching television or playing video games. In addition, low-income caregivers are frequently preoccupied with providing food and shelter to their families leaving them with less time, energy, and resources to make playing with their children a priority. The implications of play deprivation may be substantial for low-socioeconomic children’s social, emotional, cognitive, and physical well-being (Milteer & Ginsburg, 2012).

Neighborhoods and communities, working together, can provide safe play environments for young children. The establishment of “joint use agreements between schools and other organizations (including local government and youth-serving organizations) to allow for community use of school facilities, including indoor and outdoor play areas, beyond school hours” is one way to increase participation in safe play for low-income children (Guide 7: Increasing Physical Activity, 2015, 6; Milteer & Ginsburg, 2012). Another recommendation is to work with local Parks and Recreation Departments to ensure they are providing adequate opportunities for families to engage in low-cost, physical activity and play with children. This could be accomplished by ensuring parks and playgrounds have safe equipment or through the sponsorship family activities in the community parks. Communities and neighborhoods could decide, independently, to organize playgroups for young children. Caregivers could establish a schedule and take turns supervising the children in the group (Guide 7: Increasing Physical Activity, 2015).

Primary Caregiver Education and Socioeconomic Status

The primary caregiver’s educational attainment is often correlated with the early literacy achievements of their children. Cunningham & Stanovich (1998) found children with highly educated caregivers were more likely than their peers with less educated caregivers to have “acquired the necessary literacy skills by grade three” to begin reading to learn (Blackwell et al., 2015, 11). However, some researchers argue caregiver education alone does not account for the differences in literacy abilities of children.

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They have found caregiver attitudes and awareness of the importance of fostering literacy development is more important than caregiver educational attainment alone. Naturally these two concepts appear to be intertwined.

Caregiver education is correlated with “both parent reading beliefs and regular participation in literacy activities” (Blackwell et al., 2015, 11). Caregivers with higher levels of educational attainment tend to value education more highly than caregivers who have not had similar educational experiences. The extent to which caregivers value education is often instilled in their children through the home literacy environment they create. Generally, caregivers who highly value education are more likely to create richer home literacy environments as compared to caregivers who place less value on education.

Furthermore, a study published by the Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill explored the interactions between mothers and their children while “reading” a wordless picture book. Mothers with less education spoke less frequently, used smaller vocabularies and less complex language during the recorded interactions. These findings supported the traditional conception that caregiver education plays a dominant role in how caregivers foster their child’s early literacy development. However, a more complex picture appeared. The study found the mother’s parenting style and knowledge of child development was more significant to the interactions than either income level or education level. Mother’s with a greater understanding of child development spoke more and used more complex language while engaging with their children (University of North Carolina Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, 2008). Based on these findings, programs focusing on educating new and expecting caregivers about the development of their child in the first few years of their lives and the important role of literacy development are valuable. Such programs are valuable because mothers and other caregivers who are aware of their child’s developmental and cognitive needs are more likely to engage with their children in literacy activities regardless of income and educational level.

The Role of Caregiver Beliefs about Literacy The beliefs and knowledge caregivers hold regarding literacy can be measured by looking at various home activities including caregiver-child shared storybook reading, the home literacy environment, oral language, and vocabulary supports (Blackwell et al., 2015). Caregiver perceptions and values can

impact the development of their child’s literacy skills in a positive way. This is because children appear to respond to caregiver expectations. Caregivers with high expectations for their children’s learning and those interested in developing their child’s literacy skills have children with more advanced emergent literacy skills and letter knowledge (Skwarchuk et al. 2014, 66).

These positive impacts are observed regardless of family income and even more prevalent among immigrant families. Caregivers with low-literacy skills but who understand the importance of such skills can demonstrate to their children the value of literacy through trips to the library or having books at home. Therefore, caregiver knowledge and beliefs regarding reading and literacy “may provide a mechanism for changing literacy outcomes” among young children

“There are many little

ways to enlarge your

child’s world. Love of

books is the best of

all.”

-Jacqueline Kennedy,

Former First Lady

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(Blackwell et al., 2015, 12). This concept is illustrated by the “immigrant advantage.” The children of immigrants are often at a disadvantage in terms of English proficiency, income, and caregiver education levels. Yet they commonly outperform their native peers. Their success is partly attributed to the optimism of caregivers. Kao and Tienda (1995, 16) explain that, “children of immigrant parents consistently performed scholastically at the level of or higher than their native counterparts.” They claim the optimism immigrant caregivers bring with them to the United States spurs success among their children.

Caregivers arrive with high educational and career aspirations for their children. These expectations impact the expectations children have for their own educational performance (Kao & Tienda, 1995). When caregivers and their children share educational expectations, achievement is facilitated (Hao & Bonstead-Bruns, 1998). Helping parents to understand this link may increase their self-efficacy regarding their child’s literacy trajectory (Blackwell et al., 2015).

Indicators of the value caregivers place on literacy can be demonstrated in many ways. When children observe their primary caregivers engaging in literacy rich activities in their daily lives, they come to see those activities as natural and important. Some of these activities include:

Time caregivers spend reading for pleasure. Exposure of children to books prior to the beginning of formal education, developing emergent

literacy skills. Reading frequently with the child. Allowing children to observe their caregiver reading a newspaper. Having children watch the caregiver write a grocery list (Bracken & Fischel 2008; Blackwell et al.,

2015).

Home Literacy Environments

Since literacy gaps appear before children begin formal education and because these differences in literacy cannot be attributed to differences in aptitude alone, there must be some other way to account for these differences. Disparities in literacy “arise from conditions outside of school” known as the home literacy environment (Blackwell et al., 2015, 10). There is not a definitive definition of a home literacy environment. However, researchers generally include in their definitions that the “home literacy environment may include, or be effected by factors such as socioeconomic status, parent education level and cultural background” (Oest 2011, 9). Other definitions are more specific and include “parents reading (books, magazines, newspapers, bills), writing (shopping lists, menu planning, checks, letters),

“Children are likely to live

up to what you believe of

them.”

-Lady Bird Johnson

Former First Lady

“You know sit with your arm

around a little kid and read. It

not only teaches them to read

but it keeps the family strong”

-Barbara Bush, Former First

Lady

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opportunities and materials available for the child to draw and write on, the number of books in the home (adult and child), library visits with parent, opportunities for the child to “read” independently, and engaging in shared-book reading with parents” as examples of home literacy (Kassow, 2006, 2). In other words, the home literacy environment is comprised of the opportunities to help the child develop literacy skills. A home learning environment can be rich, stimulating the child’s learning or poor thus hindering the child’s cognitive and emergent literacy development including their “oral language, letter knowledge, reading ability and comprehension” (Blackwell et al., 2015, 11-12).

Griffin and Morrison (1997) created a scale to understand the way home literacy environments predict literacy skills in kindergarten and how those effects can persist through second grade. After collecting measures on language, reading, general knowledge, and math skills for 295 children, they found the home literacy environment predicts language-based literacy skill variances among second graders, though not number-based literacy skills. Only some of the differences in literacy preparedness among kindergarteners can be attributed to IQ. Therefore, home life and learning environments influence the preparedness of children for school (Griffin & Morrison, 1997).

Griffin & Morrison’s (1997, 233) “simple and easily administered measure of the home literacy environments proves to be psychometrically strong and uniquely predictive of differences in early literacy skills.” Included in their measures were traditional components of home literacy environment such as “the amount of reading materials in the home, and the frequency of library visits, adult literacy-related behaviors, adult-child reading, and television viewing” (Griffin & Morrison, 1997, 233). Rich home literacy environments are associated with the development of emergent literacy skills and predict higher performance on receptive vocabulary and general knowledge tests as children approach formal education. Further, these early experiences persisted through at least the end of second grade, indicating they continue to play a role in achievement (Griffin & Morrison, 1997, 240). Many of the programs included below provide caregivers with the knowledge and basic recourses to create literacy rich home environments.

Caregivers and Developing Home Literacy Environments The home literacy environment is extremely important for the development of a child’s emergent literacy skills and should have a variety of resources and opportunities for the child to engage in learning (Zucker and Grant 2007). Payne et al. (1994) “examined the influence of home literacy on the development of language skills in an economically homogeneous sample. They found that the home literacy environment captured between 12% and 18.5% of the unique variance in language skills after taking out the effects of parent IQ and parent education” (Griffin & Morrison, 1997, 234). Despite strong correlations existing between caregiver demographics including income, maternal education, as well as caregiver beliefs and knowledge about literacy and early language development, the actions taken by caregivers and the home literacy environment they created impacted the emergent literacy skills of their children (Burchinal et al. 2002; Blackwell et al., 2015).

Additional research has found caregiver actions taken to create rich home literacy environments rather than their income and education level plays a substantial role in the development of emergent literacy skills among young children.

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Engaged caregivers provide a literacy rich environment at home not simply by providing books, but by interacting with their children as they read. Rather than simply reading the story, the “parent assists the child in becoming interested in books” by making reading together part of the child’s normal routine (Kassow, 2006, 2). It is common for engaged caregivers to discuss pictures and words with their children as they work through the book. These caregivers also ask questions about the plot to guide comprehension.

While the frequency with which caregivers and children shared book reading was “found to be related to language skills, emergent literacy, and reading achievement of school-aged children,” socioeconomic status was found to “not play a role” in these outcomes (Kassow, 2006, 6). The same positive results associated with reading frequently and engaging in shared book reading were seen among families with both high-and-low socioeconomic status (Kassow, 2006).

The variance in emergent literacy exists beyond family demographics. A substantial component depends upon the quality of the home literacy environment created by primary caregivers. Therefore, even low- socioeconomic families with low caregiver education levels can provide high-quality home literacy environments. Additionally, a supportive home environment also appears to help children develop literacy skills. When caregivers are warm and supportive rather than hostile, intrusive, or detached, cognitive development is stimulated. The children of these caregivers display more focused attention and enthusiasm when reading (Frosch et al., 2001; Kassow, 2006). By attending programs, like the ones included in this report, caregivers can learn how to provide the kind of environment that is conducive to emergent literacy development, despite their individual educational attainment or income.

Case Study: The Word Gap Among Mexican- and White-Americans Fuller et al. (2015) found a widening gap in cognitive development between Mexican-American children and their White counterparts as they progressed from birth to 24 months. At 9 months Guerrero et al. (2013) found the scores of a nationally representative birth cohort of Latino and White children on the Bayley mental scales were statistically equal. However, at 24 to 36 months, a gap of one third of a standard deviation opened between the two groups (Fuller et al., 2015).

Mexican-American children often are on par with White children at birth because Mexican-Americans mothers typically receive high-quality prenatal care. Quality prenatal care is attributed to the low incidences of premature births and low birth weights among Mexican-Americans. The benefits of robust birth outcomes appear to persist for the first nine months. Despite the healthy prenatal practices of Mexican-American mothers as well as similar emotional growth and physical health (except higher rates of obesity) in both poor and affluent neighborhoods, young Mexican Americans began to lag behind their White peers in cognitive and language growth. By 24 months, just one-fifth of Mexican-Americans kept pace with or exceeded the cognitive development of White toddlers (Fuller et al., 2015). At this age, Mexican-American children

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already had measurably “weaker pre-literacy skills, less complex (school related) oral language, and less familiarity with print materials” (Fuller et al., 2015, 140). To account for potential language bias negatively impacting Mexican-American children, children whose primary language spoken at home was Spanish were tested in Spanish. However, the cognitive gaps were observed regardless of if Mexican-American children were assessed in English or Spanish.

Two-fifths of Mexican-American children lived below the federal poverty line in the first 9 months of their life, compared to 12% of Whites (Fuller et al., 2015). Mexican children living above the poverty line were better able to keep pace with their White peers. Yet, as previously discussed, many factors impact a child’s cognitive and literacy development in addition to poverty including the home learning environment, primary caregiver engagement in linguistic development, and other primary caregiver behaviors such as alcohol use, tobacco use and mental health (Hess et al., 1984; Gelfand & Teti, 1990; McCormick et al., 2006; Fuller et al., 2015). These factors combine to result in Mexican children generally entering “kindergarten with weaker pre-literacy skills (in English or Spanish), familiarity with print materials, and knowledge of mathematical concepts, relative to White peers (Fuller et al., 2010; Reardon & Galindo, 2009)” (Fuller et al., 2015, 142).

Fuller et al. (2015) identified primary caregiver education as a significant predictor of cognitive preparedness for school and cognitive development. They found Mexican-American mothers who had completed more than a high school education frequently engaged their children in learning activities and provided steady praise. Mexican-American children of mothers with more than a high school education kept pace with White children in terms of cognitive development (Fuller et al., 2015). Twenty-nine percent of mothers whose children kept pace with white peers completed some or more college compared to just 17% of children in the “poor-growth group” having mothers who completed some or more college (Fuller et al., 2015, 157). Once again, the kind of home environment established by more educated caregivers, both White and Mexican-American, was more conducive to emergent literacy development and reflected their values regarding education. Children from homes with educated primary caregivers were exposed to more complex oral language at home. In addition, these caregivers were more likely to offer children strong emotional support and facilitate learning activities (Fuller et al., 2015). Overall, these children were exposed to more “children’s books, labels, and print materials, [which] are predictive of children’s cognitive functioning as they enter school (Bradley, Corwyn, Pipes McAdoo, & García Coll, 2001; Clarke-Stewart, 1979; De Feyter & Winsler, 2009)” (Fuller et al., 2015, 145).

The Development of Very Young Children

Early Brain Development

Learning, including literacy related skills, does not start when formal education begins. Rather a child’s learning begins at birth, and some researchers purport that it begins prenatally. From birth to age three the child’s brain develops more quickly than at any other time in their life (American Academy of Pediatrics, June 2014). Through age five “as many as 700 neural connections per second” are formed (Sesame Workshop, n.d.). While neural

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connections will still be developing quickly for the next two years, the human brain has accomplished 80 percent of its growth by age three, before the start of formal education (Coffey et al., n.d.). Since a significant amount of the brain’s development occurs before the child enters formal education, the child’s early experiences have a substantial impact on their school readiness, in addition to their cognitive ability (Griffin & Morrison, 1997; Blackwell et al., 2015). In order for the brain to develop appropriately in the first few years, it is important for very young children to have high-quality interactions with their primary caregivers and to be exposed to a literacy and learning rich experiences.

Pediatricians have been working to understand the impact early exposure to reading has on the development of the very young child’s brain and reading skills. The recent findings of Dr. John Hutton, MD, provide insight into the impact reading has on the brain development for young children. In April of 2015, Hutton presented to the Pediatric Academic Societies evidence that reading to young children is “associated with differences in brain activity supporting early reading skills” (American Academy of Pediatrics, April 2015). In addition, Hutton’s study provides direct evidence that early reading creates “connections in the brain that promote language development” (American Academy of Pediatrics, April 2015).

Nineteen healthy preschoolers were recruited for Hutton’s study, 37% of whom came from low-income families. Researches used a questionnaire completed by the primary caregiver of each child to take the temperature of each child’s home literacy environment and the type of cognitive stimulation the child received at home. Three areas were explored: parent-child reading, parent-child interaction, and specific parent taught skills. Measures of parent-child reading included “access to books, frequency of reading and variety of books read” (American Academy of Pediatrics, April 2015). The metrics for parent-child interactions were based on time spent talking and playing while parent taught skills included counting and shape recognition. The team found “greater home reading exposure was strongly associated with activation of specific brain areas supporting semantic processing (the extraction of meaning from language)” (American Academy of Pediatrics, April 2015).

One of the most strongly activated areas of the brain was that supporting mental imagery suggesting visualization is essential for comprehension. Being able to “see the story” becomes essential for comprehension as children begin to read books without pictures.

Hutton’s work is the first to show reading to children prior to kindergarten has a meaningful and measurable impact on the child’s brain. Overall, the development of the areas of the brain that are impacted most significantly by reading to very young children, are the same areas that are critical for the development oral language and later for reading (American Academy of Pediatrics, April 2015).

Measuring Development

The Texas Infant Toddler and Three-Year-Old Early Learning Guidelines were written to “help Texans understand what very young children should know and be able to do at different points in their development” (Coffey et al., n.d., 3). The Guidelines not only outline “what children should know (understand) and be able to do (competencies and skills)” at specific age ranges, but also how caregivers can support their child’s healthy development (Coffey et al., n.d., 4). The document details the physical, emotional, lingual, and cognitive changes the

“Never discourage anyone…who

continuously makes progress no

matter how slow.”

-Plato

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young child is experiencing and offers guidance to caregivers about how they can foster this development, how to select a high-quality early care program/what to look for, and how to respond to a child’s needs (Coffey et al., n.d.).

Texas’ Early Learning Pathways “aligns with the Texas Infant, Toddler, and Three-Year-Old Early Learning Guidelines and the Revised Texas Pre-kindergarten Guidelines” and outlines for primary caregivers the skills and behaviors typical of children at each stage of development (Hughes, 2013, vi). Caregivers can use the resource to follow their child’s emerging skills and behaviors and to see if they are developing roughly on track. Texas’ Early Learning Pathways emphasizes the importance of caregivers understanding that children develop at different paces. For this reason Texas’ Early Learning Pathways provides only typical age ranges, rather than specific ages for the four developmental domains.

The four domains are as follows: social and emotional development, language and communication development, cognitive development, and physical health and motor development.

Social and emotional development. A child’s development in this domain relies on the development of trust, emotional security, and relationships with others. The appropriate development in these areas leads to a healthy social competence. Appropriate social and emotional development depends on:

Consistent and loving relationships between caregivers and children. These types of relationships help children develop appropriate social behaviors including making friends, helping others, and displaying empathy. When caregivers pay attention to the very young child and respond appropriately to their needs, a secure attachment is formed, helping the child to feel “safe, relaxed, loved, and supported” (Coffey et al., n.d., 11). Children “who do not develop secure attachment relationships with at least one primary caregiver are at high risk for lifelong difficulties in regulating their emotions and behaviors and forming healthy relationships as older children and adults” (Coffey et al., n.d., 11). Early relationships, whether responsive or unresponsive, guide the child’s expectations for future relationships (Coffey et al., n.d.).

The development of self-awareness and self-concept. Young children must learn what they like and do not like, and how they feel (Hughes, 2013). Self-awareness beings when children “explore their own bodies, respond to their own names, and recognize themselves in a mirror” (Coffey et al., n.d., 34). Caretakers can aid in the development of self-awareness by identifying emotions and body parts as well as by encouraging children to express their ideas. Individuals with “a clear and positive sense of identity and who can recognize and talk about their feelings are better able to form healthy relationships with others and to resist negative peer pressure” (Coffey et al., n.d., 34).

The development of self-control. Children need to develop self-control so they are prepared for the routines and regulations they will encounter when they enter school. Children who have developed self-control are able to follow rules and routines (Coffey et al., n.d.). These children also understand certain behaviors are appropriate only in specific situations. “Self-regulation does not always mean stopping behavior” it is more about knowing what is appropriate for specific settings and situations (Coffey et al., n.d., 34).

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Language and communication. Language and communication development includes understanding language, communicating with others, and formulating emergent literacy skills. For children to be properly prepared for school, they need to listen and understand the language used by their instructors (receptive language) and be able to communicate their needs (expressive language). Both skills are essential to the development of emergent literacy skills and can only be developed through exposure to words. By hearing people around them, young children learn new words. Caregivers who narrate their actions and daily routines, point out and describe objects as well as emotions foster these skills. These skills are further encouraged when the very young children’s gestures and babbling is responded to as if they are having a conversation (Hughes, 2013; Coffey et al., n.d.). Young children learn by listening to the sounds caregivers make when using words and phrases. Simply by hearing such words and phrases, young children develop listening and comprehension skills. The typical 4-year-old child “should know and use 4,000 or more words” (Coffey et al., n.d., 50). Cognitive development. Cognitive development broadly refers to “the ability to focus attention, process information, understand concepts, remember, perceive and compare objects or ideas, and figure out how to solve problems” (Coffey et al., n.d., 77). The development of this domain lays the foundation for the skills children will use in their science, social studies, math, and fine arts classrooms (Hughes, 2013; Coffey et al., n.d.). Allowing children to touch and explore what is around them sharpens their thinking skills and encourages their natural curiosity. Adults should provide enough help to a child so they are encouraged to try new things; however, providing too much help can cause the child to become over reliant on their caretaker resulting in the child not developing adequate problem solving skills (Coffey et al., n.d.). Cognitive development has four components:

Exploration. Both exploration and discovery are indicators of the child’s development of inquiry and curiosity. Children will display this type of cognitive development as they play with their toys. They will begin to discover “cause and effect relationships and…[understand] patterns” (Coffey et al., n.d., 63).

Problem solving. Problem solving involves children noticing a problem or situation and taking “purposeful actions” to accomplish the task of resolving the problem. (Coffey et al., n.d., 63).

Memory. The development of memory allows young children to “store and use information” (Coffey et al., n.d., 64). In this way children begin to “anticipate routines, remember familiar people, and use their memory to inform their daily lives” (Coffey et al., n.d., 64).

Imagination. Play involving “make believe” shows the child’s development of their imagination. Very young children “learn new play actions through imitation” of their caregivers. By the time they are toddlers most children have developed their imagination skills enough to “begin to put pretend actions together in sequences to act out scenarios, such as taking care of a baby, making dinner, or going to the doctor’s office” (Coffey et al., n.d., 64).

Physical health and motor development. The development of the physical domains is supported by the early establishment of healthy routines including food selection and exercising. It is important for caregivers to support the physical needs of the children in their care. This includes making sure they are eating, sleeping, having their diapers changed or

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going to the bathroom, and being taken to the doctor when they are sick (Coffey et al., n.d.). A nutritious diet with a variety of healthy foods is important to support healthy physical development. For infants this means “breast milk or iron fortified formula that contains the calories and nutrients needed for healthy growth and development” (Coffey et al., n.d., 21). Pediatricians recommend “providing infants exclusively with breast milk until six months…. Breast feeding is recognized by the American Academy of Pediatrics to have a protective effect against respiratory illness, ear infections, gastrointestinal diseases, and allergies, including asthma, eczema, and atopic dermatitis” (Coffey et al., n.d., 21). The diet of older children should include “fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and dairy products” (Coffey et al., n.d., 21).

The information contained in Figure 12 below describes what children should be able to do at various age ranges leading up to their third birthday.

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Figure 12: What Children Should be Able to do with Books at Various Ages. Adapted from the Books Build Connections Toolkit created by the American Academy of Pediatrics with support of the Too Small to Fail Initiative; the Talking is Teaching: Talk, Read, Sing program; and Reach Out and Read program.

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Tips for Reading with Young Children

Emergent literacy includes the development of an understanding of language and vocabulary. Both of these skills are necessary before a child can learn to read. The following are suggestions from the National Institute for Literacy (2007) about how to increase these skills.

Talk to the child daily. Use funny voices when reading. Act out some of what is being read. Read clearly so the young child hears all the sounds. Point out pictures, talk about the pictures, identify objects in the picture, and the number of

those objects. Ask children questions about what is happening in the picture. Allow children to play with books when they are young on their own. Help the child hold the book correctly and turn pages. As children start talking, ask them more questions. Encourage children to answer questions in whole sentences.

When children first begin to read they should be encouraged. However, pushing young children to read before they are developmentally prepared may lead to frustration and an early disdain for reading. Caregivers must be careful not to discourage their child as the child may develop an aversion towards reading easily during this time. Mascott (n.d.) recommends the following for caregivers:

Do not interrupt if they make a mistake as long it does not interfere with the meaning of the sentence.

Do not tell the child to speed up or slow down (model pacing and intonation when reading to the child).

Do not disrupt them if they are reading. Do not laugh at any mistake they make while reading. Do not get frustrated towards the child. Try to make reading as comfortable as possible. Pick books that are at the appropriate reading level and read them many times. Help them break down words they do not know into the parts they do know.

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Figure 13, from the National Institute for Literacy (2007), is a printable checklist for caregivers of young children. The check list has reminders of ways to foster emergent literacy skills.

Figure 13: Guide for Developing Emergent Literacy Skills in Toddlers. (Source National Institute for Literacy. (2007). Shining stars: Toddlers get ready to read. Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Retrieved from: https://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/documents/Shining_Stars_Toddlers.pdf).

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Early Interventions Help Children

Nationally, just 48% of poor children born in 2001 were ready to learn when they started school (American Academy of Pediatrics, June 2014). Children from middle income families were more likely to be ready for school; with seventy-five percent ready to learn (American Academy of Pediatrics, June 2014). Early deficits, when not adequately addressed persist and even widen throughout the child’s academic career making interventions necessary (Hart & Risley, 2003). However, even interventions as early as kindergarten must be intensive to “address not just a lack of knowledge or skill, but an entire general approach to experience” seen by age 3 (Hart & Risley, 2003, 9). Even early interventions in kindergarten are often not successful because teachers simply do not have the time to provide the necessary intensive, individualized attention to catch students up when they have classrooms of 20 or more children.

Children who begin kindergarten behind are more likely to fall farther behind their peers as they progress through school than to catch up. Miller (2015) explains the peers of low-income children “are not going to slow down. Their peers are not just ahead; they are actually running faster in vocabulary and reading development, which means that the gap will continue to grow.” As mentioned above, children who continue to lack the “necessary literacy skills” at the end of third grade will fall further behind when reading to learn becomes a necessity to access the curriculum in higher grades (Feister & Smith, 2010, 9). Reading proficiency in the third grade is not only related to future academic successes, but also graduation rates, college readiness levels, dropout rates, and incarceration” (Feister & Smith, 2010, 9). While third grade is the traditional “line in the sand” the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development is able to use kindergarten assessments to accurately predict which students will struggle to read at grade level in third grade (Miller, 2015).

The programs contained in this report help address the 30 million word gap while encouraging the emergent literacy skills necessary for school readiness. Many of the programs found below target low-income families because the children from those families are more at risk for not receiving literacy rich support at home. Hart and Risley (2003) found a correlation between economic status and the number of words heard. Feister and Smith (2010) further explored this link while writing about the connection between economic status and school readiness. Exposure to language and economic status both contribute to school readiness. Poverty is a complex issue; however, literate and well-educated individuals live in poverty less often. By educating low-income caregivers about the importance of helping their child enter school ready to learn and teaching them how they can foster the necessary skills, it is possible to break the Cycle of Poverty in addition to the Cycle of Low Literacy in Houston.

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Economic Impact of Falling Behind

Children experience rapid brain development in the years prior to kindergarten making these years the most economically efficient time to implement interventions for children at risk for academic failure. This is because learning is most easily accomplished while the brain is still rapidly developing. Once the connections are established, rewriting pathways is both more difficult and costly. By the time children enter formal education at age 5, an achievement gap is already apparent. This gap is correlated with the early experiences of children touched on above and typically widens as the students moves through public education. If not corrected by third grade, the gap is unlikely to shrink especially as the educational focus shifts from learning to read to relying on reading to learn in grade four. Indeed, by the age of 12 the remediation necessary to catch students up is economically inefficient due to the stage of cognitive development the student has entered (Heckman, 2006). The diminishing returns of education as people age are illustrated in Figure 14. After just a few years of formal education, the return on investment in human capital is exceeded by the opportunity costs of catching the child up.

Figure 14: Rates of Return to Human Capital Investment (Source: Heckman, 2006, 1901). This graph represents the rates of return to human capital when investing in disadvantaged children. As seen above, “the payout per year per dollar invested in human capital programs at different stages of the life cycle for the marginal participant at current levels of spending. The opportunity cost of funds (r) is the payout per year if the dollar is invested in financial assets…. An optimal investment program from the point of view of economic efficiency equates returns across all stages of the life cycle to the opportunity cost. The figure shows that, at current levels of funding, we overinvest in most schooling and post-schooling programs and underinvest in preschool programs for disadvantages persons” (Heckman, 2006, 1901).

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Children starting kindergarten behind their peers have a hard time “catching up” according to NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. Children who begin formal education behind are at risk for low academic achievement, grade retention, misclassification as in need of special education, and dropping out of school, all of which are economically costly (De Feyter & Winsler 2009). For example, the average cost per student receiving special education services is approximately $16,921 per year. This means a child receiving special education services costs public schools on average about $9,369 more a year to educate than the average general education student (National Education Association, 2015). However, research indicates just one year of prekindergarten can diminish the readiness gap, thus decreasing the number of students receiving special education services and is sufficient for the state to begin receiving positive economic returns.

The Perry Preschool Program was one of the first experiments performed to examine the impacts of high-quality prekindergarten on high-risk children. One hundred twenty-three disadvantaged 3-and 4- year-old Africa-American children were enrolled in the Perry Preschool. These children were identified as at risk for school failure based on their socioeconomic and demographic conditions (Woodard, 2004). Children assigned to the treatment group received high-quality prekindergarten comprised of home visits and classroom lessons. The control group was not enrolled in prekindergarten. Follow-ups at age 40 showed the treatment group had “higher rates of high school graduation, higher salaries, higher percentages of home ownership, lower rates of receipt of welfare assistances…and fewer arrests” (Heckman, 2006, 1901). Based on these economic indicators, the return to society was $16 for every dollar invested (Woodard, 2004). The results of the Perry Program indicate substantial returns on investment are possible when high-quality programs target young, disadvantaged children.

The intensity and narrow scope of the Perry Preschool Program limits the experiment’s generalizability; however, additional research has found similar returns on investment. High-quality programs save school districts approximately $3,700 per child over their K-12 careers (Belfield & Schwartz, 2006). These savings are the result of less grade retention. First graders with one year of prekindergarten are 30% less likely to be retained in first grade (Frede et al., 2009). Not only do schools benefit short term from reduced costs, but long term economic gains are associated with completion of preschool education. Other, less intensive, yet still high-quality prekindergarten programs have shown that just one year of preschool is estimated to have a return of $7 per every tax dollar spent, with the largest return seen on the students most at risk (Reynolds et al., 2002). This group consistently improves their reading and writing scores more than their higher socioeconomic peers.

Invest in Children, a community-wide initiative in Ohio, aimed to “increase the development, funding, visibility, and impact of early childhood services” (Fischer et al., 2013, 130). The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Fourth Edition was given to participants in spring 2008, fall 2008, and spring 2009. T-test showing the differences between the spring 2008 and spring 2009 scores showed “[a]chievement scores improved on all tests for those who started the study in the 50th percentile or below” (Fischer et al., 2013, 133). While African-American children began with significantly lower test scores in spring 2008 than their White peers, they showed greater improvements after entering the program. African- American children gained 1.77 more points than White children over the course of the year (Fischer et al., 2013). These findings indicate students most at risk for academic failure not only benefit from early interventions, but can actually close the gap while simultaneously having positive returns on investment for society as a whole.

Just one year of high-quality prekindergarten is sufficient to achieve positive returns economically and close the achievement gap. However, a gap in the skill levels of children is apparent even before they are eligible for most prekindergarten programs. If high-quality prekindergarten can help shrink the

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school readiness gap, high-quality programs, intervening even earlier are likely to close the gap even more efficiently. As discussed above, economic returns on investment are the greatest while children’s brains are still undergoing significant development. For this reason early interventions designed to address early disparities are economically responsible.

Screen Time

Daugherty et al. (2014) point out the need to update the definition of screen time to account for new technologies as well as the impacts developmentally appropriate technology can have on young children. As digital technologies become more prevalent in daily life, physicians, policymakers, educators, and primary caregivers have become increasingly concerned with the impact such technologies have on early childhood development. The undeniable fact is that technology is part of the world children live. In the past five years, an increasing number of applications designed for digital devises target children. Seventy-two percent of top selling paid applications in the Education Category target preschool age children (Guernsey et al., n.d).

Since 1999, technologies designed specifically to engage children in learning have increased dramatically. These applications claim to be developmentally appropriate for small children and to help in their skill and cognitive development, particularly numeracy and literacy. Indeed even the devices housing these applications are designed for children. They are easily manipulated and durable, encouraging movement and active learning in children (Daugherty et al., 2014).

While it is clear technology is part of the world children live in, the concern is whether some or all of these technologies have a detrimental impact on the development of a very young child’s cognitive, social, and gross motor skills. A study out of the University of California, Los Angeles found that children with high exposure to digital media had more difficulty recognizing emotions and nonverbal cues (Summers, 2014). Other research indicates the harmful effects television can have on the cognitive and

physical development of very young children. In fact, stark connections between screen time and obesity as well as an inverse relationship between screen time and skill development is prevalent in the research (Daugherty et al., 2014).

Based on early findings the American Academy of Pediatrics recommended no more than two hours of “screen time” for children over the age of 2 and no screen time for those younger than two in 1999. These recommendations were made when television was the primary technology or “screen

time” consumed by young children. The Academy worried about the “potentially negative effects of technology use on young children’s behavior, attention, focus, academic performance, weight, social development, and language development” (Daugherty et al. 2014, 3).

Today, there is a cacophony of digital applications available and young children are consuming more screen time than ever. Ninety percent of children watch television on a regular basis before their second

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“If used appropriately, [digital media is]…wonderful…We don’t want to demonize media, because it’s going

to be a part of everybody’s lives increasingly, and we have to teach children how to make good choices

around it, how to limit it and how to make sure it’s not going to take the place of all the other good stuff out

there.”

-Marjori Hogan, Pediatrician at Hennepin County Medical Center in Minneapolis and a spokeswoman for the

American Academy of Pediatrics (Summers, 2014)

birthday (Westervelt, 2015). In 2009, the average child between the ages of 2 and 5 years old watched more than three and a half hours of television a day. This figure does not include time spent on computers or using other technologies (Daugherty et al., 2014). Dr. Dimitri Christakis, pediatrician at Seattle Children’s Hospital, professor of pediatrics at the University of Washington School of Medicine, and director of the Center for Child Health, Behavior and Development at Seattle Children’s Research Institute claims the time spent by preschoolers watching television is closer to four and a half hours, when taking into account television consumed while they are at daycare. Most children this age are awake for 12 hours a day meaning between 20 and 30 percent of their day is spent in front of a screen (Westervelt, 2015).

The Appropriate Use of Technology

Technology is an inevitable part of the young child’s world and it is possible the rise in children targeted technology may not have the dramatic negative effects early research on screen time suggests, especially if the technology is created specifically to aid in the development of emergent literacy skills. Indeed many of the new technologies have research to support the techniques they use. For example, some evidence has shown speech-recognition software can provide “one-on-one guidance and real-time feedback from an unbiased listener” that children starting education with limited emergent literacy skills may need to catch up to their peers (Miller, 2015). Children using this type of differentiated learning aid, improved their reading skills up to 50 percent more than their peers who received classroom only instruction (Miller, 2015). Even though some technologies appear to have positive effects on children’s literacy it is important to consider opportunity costs, especially socially of isolating young children from their peers. While technology has proper uses, primary caregivers should be careful about what types of technology they use with very young children for the reasons outlined below.

1. Technology is developing faster than reliable tests. Tests conducted on the effects of new programs take time to develop and carry out. The long-term effects of all but the earliest tests are still years away from being fully understood. This means researchers remain unaware of the positive and negative effects various technologies may have on the development of children. Providing ratings about the educational content contained in software, websites, and other media can help families and teachers understand the appropriateness of their use. However, caregivers and educational providers need to be careful when picking applications to use. Some applications claim to teach reading but do not go beyond basic early literacy skill development (Guernsey et al., n.d.). It is important to be aware that such ratings are limited due to a lack of

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information and may become outdated as the production of applications and digital programs accelerates (Daugherty et al., 2014).

2. Many technologies are known to be developmentally inappropriate. While more recently developed technologies continue to be researched, there are some that are known to be inappropriate and inhibitory for the development of very young children. For example there is a difference in the type of programs designed to engage young children in learning and those that are designed to entertain older children and adults. Programs designed for older children may not be harmful for that age group, but can have a negative impact on younger children. For example, “fast-paced programs, such as SpongeBob Square Pants (which is not a program designed for children under 5 years old)” have been “shown to have a negative effect on 4-year-olds’ executive functioning” (Lerner & Barr, 2014, 5). Christakis explains the fast pace of media interferes with executive functioning of children immediately after consumption because the sped up world of media does not reflect the timing associated with the real world and is mentally exhausting (Westervelt, 2015). In addition, children exposed to higher volumes of “entertainment” TV before the age of three were more likely to have attention problems 5 years later. However, viewing educational, developmentally-appropriate programs “was not linked to attention problems” (Lerner & Barr, 2014, 5). Exposing children to developmentally appropriate technology does not appear to be harmful to very young children. However, caregivers should be careful when selecting technologies to expose their children to and make sure they are designed for their child’s age range.

3. Technologies may cause distractions and impair learning. Research indicates technology even those used as background noise can have negative effects on children’s development. This is especially true when “adult-directed programming” including the news, sports, comedies, and dramas are played in the background. Research suggests this background noise “may disrupt cognitive processing indirectly because it distracts young children from focusing on exploration and play” (Lerner & Barr, 2014, 4). In 2014, children under the age of three were exposed to an average of “5½ hours of background TV per day, which represents approximately 40% of a child’s waking life” (Lerner & Barr, 2014, 4). This high volume of exposure has been found to be negatively associated with the “language development, cognitive development, and executive functioning skills” of young children (Lerner & Barr, 2014, 4).

Very young children can learn some of the skills necessary for school readiness, including those associated with emergent literacy effectively with the aid of age and developmentally appropriate technology. Yet, research indicts “young children learn more quickly through interactions that take place during exploration of their actual, physical world” than they do through virtual means (Lerner & Barr, 2014, 2). While caution is suggested and an overreliance on technology should be avoided, it is important to recognize technology has become an integral part of the modern world, and sheltering children from it is both unlikely and inappropriate. Screen time and technology have appropriate uses, and as with other types of literacy, when caregivers engage in the learning process, young children gain the most.

It is essential for children to make connections between the digital and real worlds so they are not learning the same skills in isolation. Just as with books, “learning from TV and touchscreens can be enhanced when parents participate with their children to create a social, interactive experience” (Lerner & Barr, 2014, 3). Caregivers should help children make connections between the digital and real world. As children interact with technology, caregivers can:

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Talk with children. When caregivers ask questions and talk to young children while consuming technology, the child’s learning is amplified. Toddlers whose caregivers were actively engaged, i.e. talking and participating with the child as they used touchscreen devices were “22 times more likely to transfer learning from the device to a real object, as compared with children whose parents do not provide an interactive learning experience” (Lerner & Barr, 2014, 3).

Carefully select the shows children watch. Age-appropriate, educational shows with characters designed to “talk” to children such as Dora the Explorer and Sesame Street engage children in learning and appear to not be harmful for early development. Such shows help children draw connections to the real world by using examples that are relevant to the world the child knows.

Select technologies relevant to the child’s world. To aid in the transfer of knowledge, caregivers should carefully select the content of technologies to reflect the child’s world. In other words, objects should be relatable and familiar to the child to aid in the transfer of knowledge.

Explore the real world more than the digital one. Caregivers should reserve plenty of time for the child to explore the real world with family and friends. Interacting and talking with children about what they are seeing, and helping them connect it to what they saw in the digital world helps build the same connections that are used to transfer information read in a book to the real world (Lerner & Barr, 2014). In addition, play with non-digital toys should be encouraged. As stated previously, simple toys such as blocks aid in cognitive development. Dr. Christakis conducted an experiment with 200 children from low-income families. Half were given building blocks and their caregivers were given a list of simple activities to play with their child using the blocks such as stacking and sorting them by color. The group of children who did not receive blocks at the beginning of the study were slightly below average (the 42nd percentile) when a language assessment was conducted at the end of the six month experiment. Their scores Christakis notes are “unfortunately not uncommon for a low-income population” (Westervelt, 2015). The group that received blocks; however, scored slightly above average on the language assessment (the 52nd percentile). This significant difference in language acquisition Christakis attributes to playing with blocks, which while not marketed as educational encourage creativity, individual and group play, as well as exploration and experimentation (Westervelt, 2015).

The Digital Literacy Gap

Digital literacy refers to “the knowledge and skills needed to analyze, learn, and explore using technology” (Daugherty et al., 2014, 2). Digital literacy has become a significant aspect of literacy. However, as with other types of literacy, children in low-income families are often unable to access the

Example of a connection to foster: “Consider a 2-year-old who sees a giraffe on a TV show. A few days later, while visiting the zoo, she points to the tall, spotted animal with the long neck and says, “Graff.” This is called transfer of learning, or the application of information from a 2-D object (in this case, the TV) to a 3-D object (the actual animal).

Transfer of learning is critical because it means that the child is able to apply knowledge to her real-world experiences” (Lerner & Barr, 2014, 2).

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developmentally appropriate resources to promote early technological literacy as easily as their affluent peers. Yet as with other types of literacy, the acquisition of digital literacy skills contributes to a “child’s ability to succeed in school and beyond” (Daugherty et al., 2014, 2). Appropriate screen time can be purposefully integrated into early literacy programs and at home. In addition, when done carefully, collaboration and social skills rather than solitary play can be encouraged further aiding in the healthy social and cognitive development of young children (Daugherty et al., 2014).

The gap in technological literacy is not the result simply of a gap in available technology, but in the type of media consumed. The average African-American child consumes more media daily than the average White child. However, the type of media African-American children consume and how they are consuming the technology can lead to inadequate literacy acquisition, largely because they are less likely to consume age-appropriate media with a caregiver. While children are consuming media, low-income caregivers are less likely to be engaging with their child than economically advantaged caregivers. One study exploring the different behaviors of caregivers while children used a computer found the latter group is more likely to use “computer games as an opportunity to scaffold lessons on vocabulary or the alphabet” while caregivers from low-income neighborhoods more often “sat apart from and did not interact with their children who were using the computers, even though their kids were often visibly frustrated or resorting to “random clicks” around the screen” (Guernsey et al., n.d., 5). Caregivers play an important role in determining the extent to which various technologies and screen time will enhance or hinder their child’s emergent literacy.

Cultural Alignment

Houston is the most ethnically diverse major metropolitan area in the United States (Kever, 2012). This

Sesame Street:

Some technologies and screen time programs have been shown to have positive impacts.The most famous example is Sesame Street. This television program enriches “thephysical, social, and emotional aspects of children’s development” as very young childrenlearn about letters and numbers. Dr. Sharon Lynn Kagan, Professor of Early Childhood andFamily Policy at Columbia University, explains what is “'really important is that [SesameStreet] highly motivates children. It engages their minds. It encourages their creativity andcuriosity'” (Sesame Workshop, n.d.). Children who frequently watched Sesame Streetgrowing up have “grade point averages in high school that are almost 16% higher thanthose of children who didn’t grow up watching the show” (Sesame Workshop, n.d.). Thisadvantage was seen across various subjects including English, math, and science.Furthermore, students who watched Sesame Street regularly read more for pleasure asthe moved through school (Sesame Workshop, n.d.).

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heterogeneity is present in the city’s cultures, socioeconomic statuses, and neighborhoods. Children in Houston experience disparate early learning environments due to these differences in culture and parenting style such that no single program alone will adequately address the needs of the city. However, effective programs can be adjusted to appropriately fit the needs of various communities within the city. Thus the programs included in this report will need to be modified, taking into account the resources and needs of individual communities. In addition, an effective program necessitates fully engaging families and convincing them that teaching literacy to young children is valuable and will increase their child’s chances of success in the future. To do so, appropriate adjustments to programs will need to be both linguistic and cultural.

To have an effective literacy program requires active participants; however, programs targeting low-income, minority families tend to have low participation numbers. African-American and Latino caregivers in particular have very low engagement levels in educational, community, and mental health programs (Geenen et al., 2001; Hughes et al., 2005; Frazier et al. 2007; Kazdin et al., 1997). This is in part the result of programs being poorly designed to engage the families and children they target. Caregiver engagement, Moodie and Ramos (2014) write, is the cornerstone of successful programs. Only after caregivers buy into the mission of a program can a supportive partnership be formed to aid in the healthy development of children starting even before birth. However, there are several reasons caregivers do not engage in these types of programs. Kazdin et al. (1997) outline three major barriers preventing African-American and Latino caregivers from tapping into family based literacy programs. Their categories are structural, attitudinal, and cultural (Moodie & Ramos, 2014).

Structural

Structural barriers interfere with the caregiver’s ability to partake in a program due to its design. The time the program is run, proximity to the family’s home, and access to childcare are examples of structural barriers. Typically, African-American and Latino immigrants perceive more structural barriers than Whites (Moodie & Ramos, 2014). When preparing family literacy programs the needs of families should be considered and the structure adjusted so as to be sensitive to the time, transportation, and child care needs of the target population, thus increasing the chances of participation.

Time

Selecting an appropriate time for meetings is vital for caregiver engagement. Meetings should be scheduled in the evenings or on weekends to avoid interfering with caregivers’ work commitments. Many immigrants and caregivers with low educational attainment are employed in jobs with nontraditional hours or may have multiple jobs, meeting times should be adjusted accordingly (Karoly & Gonzalez, 2011). The best day and time to hold programs should be narrowed down after examining other salient community events and the time at which they meet. For example, selecting a time

“The American Dream is about

equal opportunity for everyone

who works hard. If we don’t give

everyone the ability to simply read

and write, then we aren’t giving

everyone an equal chance to

succeed.”

-Barbara Bush, Former First Lady

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conflicting with women’s clubs, civics clubs, or religious events such as bible studies is likely to decrease participation (Moodie & Ramos 2014).

A second aspect of timing to consider is how long each session lasts. Caregivers may not be willing to spend hours on a week night or even on a Saturday in a program. They may be tired from work or have other obligations. An additional concern is obtaining child care while caregivers attend programs. Family literacy programs can offer literacy related programing for children in a separate session in the same building, negating the need for child care. However, very young children cannot be expected to attend long sessions, which is another reason to keep sessions reasonably short.

When establishing a family literacy program the day and length of the program should be considered. Programs will have the best attendance when they are conducted on days that interfere minimally with other salient community and religious events. In addition, they will generate more participation when they are kept short to be respectful of families’ busy schedules and so participants, both caregivers and children remain engaged. By including parts for both caregivers and children, the need for child care will be eliminated, removing yet another barrier to participation.

Transportation

Transportation related issues are additional examples of structural barriers impacting involvement in family literacy programs. When deciding where the program will run, knowledge of the local community is a prerequisite. The answers to several questions should be considered and factored before making a decision about where to host the program.

1. Where do target families live? The location of family literacy programs should be close to where the families live, in a central location, or in an area that is easily accessible and well known. Understanding where families live and the surrounding area will help mitigate structural barriers for families.

2. Where do the families frequently visit? Understanding where families in the community frequently visit will help triangulate an appropriate location for a program. Hosting programs in a location that is comfortable for target families may encourage participation by removing anxiety associated with location and transportation. For example, if the community has a large faith base, renting space from a local church may reduce anxiety associated with going to an unfamiliar place. In addition, many families will already know how to get to the church (Moodie & Ramos, 2014).

3. What is the primary mode of transportation for the community? If the majority of families use public transportation, it is vital for the program is run at a time when public transportation is running regularly and is in an area close to where public transportation stops. When programs are not located within walking distance or near public transportation, reaching low-income families who may not own an automobile or immigrants who often do not drive is more difficult (Karoly & Gonzalez, 2011, 87).

Attitudinal

Kazdin et al. (1997) identify two major attitudinal barriers. First, many minority and low-income families do not perceive or fully understand the value of the services being offered by literacy programs. Second, these families often do not trust those running the program. Not feeling welcome in the wider

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community is one common barrier facing minority families and is particularly prevalent among immigrant families. Extra effort is needed to reach out to these families and to gain their trust because they may not perceive the services as being in line with their values and may not trust practitioners. For example, some family literacy programs are run out of schools; however, African-Americans and Latino immigrants often feel unwelcome in their child’s school (Moodie & Ramos 2015). This feeling can lead to distrust of schools and groups related to public education, especially when schools are perceived as extensions of the federal government.

Many immigrants both legal and illegal distrust federal or state governments and programs associated with them. Illegal immigrants may avoid such programs out of fear of deportation or “jeopardizing their future prospects for citizenship--even if their children are U.S. citizens” (Karoly & Gonzalez, 2011, 89). Even those immigrants in the country legally often avoid participation in programs because they worry they may become too much of a burden on their new communities and be classified as a “public charge” (Karoly & Gonzalez, 2011; Rumbaut, 1994). When the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services labels an immigrant as a “public charge” they have determined the individual is “primarily dependent on the government for subsistence” (Karoly & Gonzalez, 2011, 89).

After being classified as a “public charge,” it becomes difficult for an immigrant to adjust their status. For example, moving from being a permanent resident to a citizen is made much more complex (Karoly & Gonzalez, 2011). The majority of programs included in this report are not run by government agencies. However, explaining to immigrant families the difference between community-based and government-run programs may be difficult. Therefore, taking time to understand and gain the trust of immigrant and minority families is necessary. Once an understanding of the community is gained, convincing families they are not burdensome will be more easily accomplished, and they are more likely to trust that the programs have been designed specifically for their benefit, thus increasing the likelihood of their participation.

Family literacy programs should be adjusted to match the values of caregivers and families. When programs appear to match the motivation of caregivers, they are more likely to attend and complete the program (Gross et al., 2001). In contrast, caregivers who do not agree with a program’s philosophy are “more likely to drop out” (Moodie & Ramos, 2014, 6). The following modifications can be made to existing programs so target populations feel more comfortable.

1. Use the community’s primary language. Programs, especially those focusing on caregiver education, should be offered in the primary language of the target group (Griner & Smith, 2006; Matos et al., 2006; Tang et al., 2012; Moodie & Ramos, 2014). This helps participants feel a connection to the program and makes the material presented more accessible.

2. Recruit ethnically similar staff. The staff should match the ethnic identity of the families targeted. There is some evidence that such similarities increase the retention of caregiver enrollment in training programs (Dumas et al., 2008; Moodie & Ramos, 2014). It is also beneficial for the staff and teachers to have the same cultural and linguistic background of the people being targeted, further increasing families’ trust in the program (Moodie & Ramos, 2014).

3. Enlist the help of existing organizations. Working with existing organizations who have already established a trusted reputation in the community will help increase trust among families (Moodie & Ramos, 2014).

4. Gather information from people who know the community. Recruiting individuals in the area who know the community members fosters trust. These individuals can also help modify parts

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of the program to align it with the target demographics’ values and beliefs (Moodie & Ramos, 2014, 12).

Cultural

Cultural barriers arise from a “mismatch in cultural beliefs between practitioners and parents” (Moodie and Ramos 2014, 5). Minority parents may feel isolated by existing family education and literacy programs because the programs tend to focus on mainstream American values including independence, open communication, and exploration. This type of socialization is at odds with many other cultures. For example, Latino mothers interviewed by Calzada et al. (2010) felt the mainstream American culture was at odds with their Latino culture which focuses heavily on the concept of respeto. The term, meaning respect, refers to a set of cultural values prominent in Latino cultures which includes deference to elders and obedience as well as appropriate behaviors and boundaries to observe while in public (Moodie & Ramos, 2014). Properly adapting programs to be culturally sensitive encourages caregivers to enroll in family literacy programs (Moodie & Ramos, 2014).

When modifying literacy programs for specific cultures, it is important to take advantage of the resources already in the community. Minority cultures tend to have networks of people working together to help take care of the community’s children. These communities come together through networks of extended family members and “fictive kin (friends who become as close as kin)” to help primary caregivers perform tasks associated with parenting (García Coll et al. 1996, 1906). Programs can use the importance placed on relationships in the community to encourage networks of people to work together and help children and each other develop literacy skills.

Prevalent and effective religious networks are often seen in predominantly African-American communities. When working with African-American families, understanding the role of religion and spiritual beliefs is helpful. Researchers have found “black churches serve many functions in family life,

and church members…are often seen as extended family” (Moodie & Ramos, 2014, 7). Thus incorporating churches can help build trust and shows respect for cultural identities.

When establishing new family literacy programs for minority groups, the goal should be to adopt “a culturally-informed approach” by adapting existing programs to align with both the culture of the people and the goals of the program (Moodie & Ramos, 2014, 8).

Many programs fail to do this and simply “teach target parents and children skills which are characteristic of 'main-stream' families” and simply have caregivers “perform school-like activities in the home” (Puchner, 1995, 313). These programs assume the activities performed by minority caregivers at home are inferior to the techniques suggested by the program. Other negative assumptions include beliefs that minority homes neither value literacy nor participate in home literacy activities. The techniques featured in programs are more likely to be rejected by families if they feel their culture is not being respected (Puchner, 1995).

In addition, programs must be sensitive when providing advice to caregivers, especially surrounding parenting styles which vary across ethnicities. For example, physical discipline is more commonly used by African-American parents than White parents, with different results in behavior. Some research has found that child aggression decreased among African-American children when limited physical discipline

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was used, but increased among White children (Deater-Deckard et al., 1996; Moodie & Ramos, 2014). Program coordinators should understand “optimal” parenting strategies may vary by culture. Because of these differences in “optimal” strategies, no one model of training or education program and style will be relevant for all populations and communities. Using a prescriptive approach might be perceived by caregivers as naïve, judgmental, or disempowering, thus decreasing the likelihood of their participation (Ortiz & Del Vecchio, 2013; Dawson-McClure et al., 2014; Calzada, Basil, & Fernandez, 2012; Moodie & Ramos, 2014).

Adapting programs

With 44% of children in the United States identifying as members of minority groups, program designers must be aware of and respect the diversity of their target populations (Coffey et al., n.d.). Adjusting programs to new cultures requires more than translating materials to a new language. If modified properly, these programs can confront the types of barriers (structural, attitudinal, and cultural) discussed above simultaneously. Working with someone who knows the community’s culture will help make the appropriate adjustments and overcome structural barriers. In addition, being mindful of time and transportation needs as well as the community’s language and culture helps acquire the trust necessary to overcome attitudinal barriers.

Domenech-Rodríguez et al. (2011) created the three-phase approach for adapting existing programs to culturally diverse populations seen below:

Setting the Stage

• Consult with community members or a professional with knowledge of the community to be served. Together these actors can complete a review of the program and identify areas to be modified based on the community’s needs and make the program culturally relevant (Moodie & Ramos, 2014).

Initial Adaptation

•Materials and strategies are tailored to enhance cultural appropriateness and the program is implemented (Moodie & Ramos, 2014).

Adaptation Iteration

•After implementation, measures are developed and the programs effectiveness is tested. At this stage an evaluation should be completed to ensure measures and materials were not altered to such a degree as to make them conceptually different from the original program (Moodie & Ramos, 2014).

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Making families feel comfortable with and trust the literacy program is the best way to guarantee continued participation. If trust is gained, caregivers are more likely to make the changes to their daily routines suggested by the program that will help foster emergent literacy skills in their children. The following are suggestions of modifications that when made are likely to increase trust among families.

1. Use practical examples. Adjust examples so they are both practical and culturally relevant. Select stories reflecting the culture and core values of the participating families. In addition, whenever possible seek stories that “diminish stereotypes, honor pride in one’s self and one’s origins, and explore how it feels to be different” (Coffey et al., n.d., 16).

2. Survey caregivers. Ask caregivers about important norms and traditions; language spoken at home; religious obligations and holidays; and other core values so they can be respected (Coffey et al., n.d.).

3. Keep lines of communication open. Build a safe environment that encourages caregivers to reach out and talk about their culture and traditions. Caregivers should further be encouraged to offer suggestions about how the program could be improved and ask questions (Coffey et al., n.d.).

4. Use language to show respect. Make lingual adjustments, when possible, to the primary language spoken in the home of participants. This adjustment preserves the “young children’s connection to their culture” and community without harming their emergent literacy development. Research shows being bilingual or multilingual is advantageous for young children who transfer the skills they used to learn their first language to learn their second, quickly (Coffey et al., n.d., 16).

Designing a Program

Before implementing or adapting a program with the purpose of increasing school readiness among very young children by enhancing their emergent literacy, it is important to consider the diverse cultural landscape of Houston. The path of marketing an early literacy initiative according to Bonnie McCune, a Community Programs Consultant for the Colorado State Library, begins with determining the needs of the community and how to help fill the needs. Next, the focus shifts to training staff and motivating people to help run the program. Only then can the program be fully developed and implemented. Finally, the program must be evaluated to see if it is having the desired effect (Marks, 2006). Before establishing and promoting specific programs ProLiteracy Information Center (n.d.) suggests three variables be considered and clearly defined.

1. Identify the purpose of the effort. Purpose: Shrink the 30 million word gap apparent by age 3 between children from high- and

low-income families by providing primary caregivers with the skills to help them prepare their children for school.

2. Identify the audience to reach. Audience: Low-income families in Houston with children age 0-3.

3. Identify available resources. Resources: Monetary, human capital, and strong community networks.

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After identifying these major aspects, the focus shifts to recruitment of support from the community as well as participants and volunteers. ProLiteracy Information Center (n.d.) offers several ideas for promoting programs in communities and raising funds. Combining some of the techniques listed below is likely appropriate as they will reach different groups. Once again, understanding the community will be helpful in knowing how to best reach target families and volunteers. Understand the list below is not exhaustive, but provides a good starting place.

Host informational booths at libraries, malls, fairs, or other areas potential target families and volunteers frequent.

Create printed materials to pass out including flyers, bookmarks, and posters. Create a public service announcement to be aired on local television and radio. Prepare press releases to be published by local media. Publicize statistics on illiteracy in the community. Produce buttons, pins, bumper stickers to pass out at community events, at community centers

and other places with high volumes of foot traffic. Work with local restaurants to make profit shares. Put on an ice cream social or picnic in the community. Set up a “Support Literacy Day” at local sporting events.

While designing and implementing programs, especially those designed to help educate primary caregivers about the importance of fostering word rich home learning environments and fostering emergent literacy by promoting the healthy development of the whole child, the following tips should be kept in mind.

Offer concrete ideas and activities for caregivers to use with their children. Have programs meet at convenient times for the families (most libraries hold programs on

weekday evenings though Saturday mornings have become more popular). Have extra printouts/ resources for caregivers to take home. Have pens available and tables set up so caregivers can take notes comfortably. Keep programs short to be sensitive to other commitments of caregivers. Keep programs short so children remain engaged throughout. When possible offer programs in the caregivers’ first language. Have staff and volunteers be trusted community members or authorities such as pediatricians

and faith leaders. Allow time for caregivers to get to know each other, helping them to form a network of trust. Provide something tangible as simple as a certificate of attendance. Provide an opportunity for caregivers to give feedback about what they liked and what can be

improved. Find out how caregivers prefer to communicate (Twitter, blogs, phones, or other technologies)

and use that method of communication.

Guttentag et al. (2011, 3) identified key features of effective family-based programs. They are:

“Theory driven Of sufficient dosage and intensity Comprehensive Actively engaging Developmentally appropriate

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Appropriately timed Socioculturally relevant Well implemented (e.g., well trained staff, high fidelity) Well documented and evaluated.

Key Partnerships

Breaking the Cycle of Low Literacy and successfully closing both the school readiness and 30 million word gap requires programs to educate both primary caregivers and very young children simultaneously. Although addressing adult literacy is important and is one of the BBHLF’s goals, it is not the focus of this report. Instead, the adult education programs discussed here focus primarily on helping primary caregivers understand their indispensable role in fostering emergent literacy skills in their children. These programs focus on helping caregivers understand how early literacy activities such as reading, talking, and singing can help their child succeed in school. Additionally, the programs equip caregivers with a variety of actives and practical tips to help them successfully foster early emergent literacy skills and build a literacy and learning rich home environment.

As discussed above, evidence suggests the level of educational attainment the primary caregiver has obtained plays a secondary role compared to their beliefs and values about education. Caregivers who understand the importance of literacy are more likely to instill in their children the value of literacy than those caregivers who do not value literacy highly. Furthermore, caregivers who value literacy highly are more likely to have children who develop a love of reading and are more likely to provide a word and literacy rich environment at home. These caregivers may themselves be illiterate. However, they can still provide word rich experiences by talking to their very young children throughout the day, pointing out objects on a literacy walk, describing what they are doing, and asking open ended questions to their children.

Many primary caregivers, especially those with low educational attainment, are unaware of the importance of talking, singing, and reading with their children. They are also less likely to have the resources to promote emergent literacy skills. Because caregivers who understand the importance of fostering emergent literacy are more likely to actively encourage the development of such skills, regardless of their own educational attainment, the caregiver education programs found below are vital to ending the Cycle of Low Literacy in Houston.

This portion of the report describes some of the programs available to primary caregivers and their very young children through key partnerships with museums and libraries; pediatricians and other healthcare providers; faith-based organizations; and various community group efforts. These partnerships and the programs born from them are designed to help educate primary caregivers and give them the resources necessary to successfully foster emergent literacy skills at home. Additional programs are included in this section of the report that do not directly address literacy. These programs are included because they connect low-socioeconomic families with services to help ensure the healthy development of children. As already described, healthy physical development is necessary for children to be ready to learn.

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Programs at Museums and Libraries

The Importance of Museums and Libraries

When the Institute of Museum and Library Services partnered with the Campaign for Grade-Level Reading, early literacy became a primary focus of the Institute’s efforts. The goal of their energies is “to increase the number of low-income students reading proficiently by the end of third grade” (Howard, 2013, 2). Museums and libraries are natural platforms for literacy development programs. They serve as a link between various groups in the community and families because they interact frequently with local government officials, community groups, and families.

These facilities house and disseminate high-quality information to the public at low or no cost. In addition, both libraries and museums are non-threatening settings for caregivers and children to learn, expand their knowledge, engage their curiosity, and make connections. These institutions are important because they provide families who may otherwise not have access to books or educational activities with the resources to develop emergent literacy skills. While most librarians are not reading experts, they are able to provide caregivers with “foundational information” to help children learn (Marks, 2006, 11).

Many programs sponsored by museums and libraries feature high-quality learning experiences that families can interact with and engage in together. As discussed above, research suggests children gain the most when their caregivers engage in material with them and ask questions. Museums and libraries can design and deliver “content-rich, play-based

experiences that link early learning best practice to books, exhibits, and collections” while encouraging caregiver/child interactions (Howard, 2013, 9). Together families are able to explore, make connections with the material, ask each other questions and exchange information and ideas while at these facilities. By participating in these programs children gain valuable, positive connections with their caregivers, emergent literacy skills, as well as an early love of learning (Howard, 2013).

Due to their unique positions and resources, museums and libraries should work to establish relationships with community organizations as well as vulnerable populations. Despite the learning potential and the low costs associated with many of the programs sponsored by museums and libraries, children from low-socioeconomic backgrounds attend less frequently than children from the highest socioeconomic status families. Just 36 percent of children from low-income families visited a library and only 43 percent visited a museum while in kindergarten. Children from high-income families visited libraries and museums more frequently, 66 and 65 percent respectfully. To increase visits, museums in particular could offer reduced fees for those in need (Howard, 2013). In addition any program will be more effective when it is culturally aware of parenting behaviors, is sensitive to caregiver schedules and values, and is presented in the family’s native tongue.

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Museum and Library Programs

Story Times:

Program Overview: Story times are among the most common early-childhood literacy programs provided by libraries. Story times have a long tradition, but can be more than just a member of the library staff reading out loud. Britsch and Meier (1999) explain a highly educational story time program is comprised of three aspects that help foster emergent literacy skills among young children in an inclusive environment.

1. Careful book selection. Books should be selected with the understanding that children at various stages of development frequently attend story times together. Therefore, it is preferable to avoid books that are too long or complex to engage children at various ages. In addition, it is best to select culturally relevant books so children are better able to relate to the story (Britsch & Meier, 1999). Deborah Plonkey, a Youth Services Librarian Assistant, describes “a good story time book” as one with “short sentences, bright and bold pictures, and a really light, easy story” (Marks, 2006, 23). While Plonkey’s programs are designed for children at a variety of ages, many libraries schedule separate story times for different age ranges, allowing these programs to select even more developmentally appropriate books.

2. Engaging discussion throughout the program. Story times are more effective when children are engaged in discussions about the pictures and plot throughout the story. By encouraging conversation, comprehension skills are fostered. During discussions children should feel welcome to share their feelings and connections to the story. Again, connections are more easily formed when books are culturally relevant. (Britsch & Meier, 1999)

3. Individual synthesis of the story. After the story’s conclusion, children should be encouraged to respond to the story by drawing and writing their own interpretations without restrictions on what they produce. The products produced are unlikely to be exact retellings; however, this creativity can stimulate conversation between caregivers and children (Britsch & Meier, 1999). Children will happily tell an interested caregiver what they have made and its connection to the story they have just heard. When children are encouraged to interact with the story they take ownership of their learning, making literacy “more than simply encoding and decoding print on the page; it makes literacy into a "life world" where children matter” (Polakow, 1993, 162).

Locations Served: Most areas with public libraries.

Supporting Research: None available

Contact: For information about specific story time programs contact the nearest public library.

Author Comments: Story times address the school readiness and 30 million word gaps because children are being read age- and- culturally appropriate books. In addition to hearing words, many story times encourage children to contribute and interact with the story via discussions. Both receptive and expressive language development is fostered through these programs as well as comprehension skills. Furthermore, this type of program engages both primary caregivers and their children in literacy activities and discussions during the synthesis portion of the program.

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All About Baby

Program Overview: All About Baby is a weekly program supporting literacy in Stockton, California public libraries. The program is designed for children 0 to 18 months old and their caregiver. The program’s website states the participation of a parent or guardian is necessary. Each week’s program lasts between 20 and 30 minutes and includes “songs, nursery rhymes, fingerplays, picture book and board book sharing” (Engagedpatrons.org). The activities focus on quality interactions between caregivers and the child while providing “developmental guidance for babies” (Engagedpatrons.org).

Locations Served: Stockton, California

Supporting Research: None available

Website: http://engagedpatrons.org/

Contact: Email: support@engagedpatrons.org

Author’s Comments: This program is well designed; it is short enough to hold the attention of very young children and is not overly demanding of the caregivers’ time. In addition, the program models the types of literacy rich activities caregivers can engage in with their children. This type of program also helps develop healthy, responsive relationships and forms trust between the child and their primary caregiver. Finally, as discussed throughout this report, quality interactions between caregivers and children are essential for the development of emergent literacy skills. The interactive activities shared during this program include nursery rhymes, songs, and readings all of which foster language development not only by increasing the number of words heard by very young children, but also by helping them hear words in context as well as linguistic patterns.

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ImaginOn The Joe & Joan Martin Center

Program Overview: The result of a partnership between the Charlotte Mecklenburg Library and the Children’s Theatre of Charlotte, ImaginOn opened in 2005. The interactive center “features two state-of-the-art theatre spaces, a dedicated library space for youth 11 and under, four multi-use classrooms, a teen-only library, a multimedia production studio and an interactive exhibit space” (ImaginOn the Joe & Joan Martin Center, 2015). Additional programs are available for families; during which children and caregivers work together to bring stories to life. At ImaginOn, children learn using all five senses as they use technology to bring their literacy related creations to life (ImaginOn the Joe & Joan Martin Center, 2015). At the center “young readers [and their caregivers] gather at workstations and use software that guides them through the process of creating a theatrical scene, inventing a storyline, and designing the set and costumes” for their stories (Howard, 2013, 7). There is no charge to participate in the programs offered at ImaginOn.

Locations Served: Charlotte, North Carolina

Supporting Research: None available

Website: http://www.imaginon.org/default.asp

Contact: Address: 300 East Seventh St., Charlotte, NC 28202 Phone: (704) 416-4600

Author’s Comments: ImaginOn offers children and families fun and interactive activities for free, removing financial barriers. As previously discussed, children learn the most when they have a primary caregiver interacting with them to scaffold their learning, to ask questions of and to share ideas with. One of the unique qualities about the center is the seamless integration of digital based literacy and technology use with traditional print literacy. Regardless of the medium, the center engages families in fun, high-quality experiences that help children develop the cognitive skills necessary to be ready for school by exposing children to reading as well as by encouraging creativity and ownership of learning.

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VROOM: Valero Roaming Online Outreach Mobile

Program Overview: The San Antonio Public Library Foundation (SAPLF) and the Valero Foundation have made the implementation of “a mobile outreach service” possible in San Antonio’s Eastside (SAPLF, 2015, VROOM). The VROOM van “is equipped with high-tech features including Wi-Fi access as well as a multitude of books, materials and activities for the community to enjoy” (SAPLF, 2015, VROOM). The van frequents schools, churches, and community centers in San Antonio’s Eastside.

Locations Served: San Antonio’s Eastside, Texas

Supporting Research: None available

Website: http://www.saplf.org/programs/about-valero-mobile-library

Contact: San Antonio Public Library Foundation Address: 625 Shook Avenue, San Antonio, Texas 78212 Phone: (210) 225-4728 Email: information@saplf.org

Author’s Comments: The VROOM van brings literacy rich experiences to members of San Antonio’s Eastside community who may otherwise never access such materials. The van frequents areas low-income families congregate, including schools, churches, and community centers. By visiting areas their target populations frequent and are comfortable with, the VROOM coordinators ease family anxiety. They also mitigate the structural barriers associated with going to the library including time and transportation constraints. The VROOM program is an excellent example how well SAPLF understands the needs of the community it serves. SAPLF recognized it was not reaching the low-income families living in San Antonio’s Eastside through traditional library services and found a way to expose those families to what the city’s libraries have to offer at times and in locations that are convenient for the families.

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The Literacy Caravan

Program Overview: The Literacy Caravan made its début as a mobile classroom in 2008 with the goal of promoting family literacy and fostering a love of reading within the San Antonio community. Children and families are able to access the books and engage in the activities that fill the Literacy Caravan free of charge. While they learn through the books and

activities, families are given additional information about services and events sponsored by SAPLF. The Literacy Caravan is able to travel throughout San Antonio with the support of United Way of San Antonio and Bexar County (SAPLF, 2015, The Literacy Caravan).

Locations Served: San Antonio, Texas

Supporting Research: An estimated 100,000 children and families have been connected with the San Antonio Public Library as a result of the Literacy Caravan’s events which are free and open to the public.

Website: http://www.saplf.org/programs/about-literacy-caravan

Contact: Caravan Manager Email: reese.russel@saplf.org

San Antonio Public Library Foundation Address: 625 Shook Avenue, San Antonio, Texas 78212 Phone: (210) 225-4728 Email: information@saplf.org

Author’s Comments: The Literacy Caravan is another way SAPLF is able to provide literacy rich experiences to community members that may otherwise not be reached by library programs. As with VROOM, the Literacy Caravan goes to neighborhoods frequently underrepresented at library programs. Thus, for many families this is their first interaction with library services. Unlike VROOM, the Literacy Caravan travels throughout San Antonio. The program is another example of SAPLF understanding and responding to the needs of the community it serves and the importance it places on developing a culture in throughout San Antonio that embraces literacy.

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Family Literacy Involvement Program (FLIP)

Program Overview: FLIP is made possible by the Children’s Museum of Houston in partnership with the Houston Public Library and the University of Texas Children’s Learning Institute. The program is designed to develop early reading and comprehension skills for children 0 to 8 years old through take-home, “family-centered activities” (Children’s Museum of Houston, 2014, FLIP). Currently, more than 2,000 FLIP kits are available at 35 public libraries in Houston. Each kit is developed for a specific age range and includes at least one book, a reading guide for caregivers, and suggested activities. The focus of all activities is literacy development though they “incorporate elements in the areas of math, science and creative arts” (Children’s Museum of Houston, 2014, FLIP). The program is free for any Houston-area resident with a Houston Public Library card. Families meeting those criteria are able to check out kits for three weeks at a time. Kits are available in English, Spanish, Chinese, and Vietnamese. (Children’s Museum of Houston, 2014, FLIP).

Locations Served: Houston, Texas

Supporting Research: Each kit was developed by a “team of child developmental psychologists and early literacy experts” in conjunction “with support from the Children’s Learning Institute at the University of Texas” (Howard, 2013, 33). To see the program’s impact, 131 families were recruited by the Children’s Museum. The treatment group received the FLIP Kits as described above whereas the control group received only books in their kit. Each family received a new kit each week for 10 weeks. A pre- and post- test was conducted for the 93 families that completed the study. There was “no significant group differences in changes in children’s language or literacy-related skills” (Children’s Learning Institute, 2012, Our Research Projects: FLIP). However, “parents in the Kits group reported significantly more often than parents in the Books-Only group (94% vs. 74%) that they had discovered new interests or skills that their child had, as a result of participating in the study. They also reported significantly more often than parents in the Books-Only group (71% vs. 48%) that they anticipated changing something about their reading practices at home as a result of their experience in the study” including “reading more often, making the reading process more interactive with their children, taking the child to the library more often, doing more hands-on activities related to books, broadening the range/variety of…books to read with the child, and paying more attention to [their] child’s individual skills, interests, and abilities” (Children’s Learning Institute, 2012, Our Research Projects: FLIP) This research awaiting review and publication.

Website: http://www.cmhouston.org/flip

Contact: Vanessa Hernandez Address: 1500 Binz Houston, Texas 77004 Phone: (713) 535-7206 Email: vhernandez@cmhouston.org

Author’s Comments: The success of FLIP is in its ability to encourage caregivers to modify how they interact with their children in meaningful ways. The activities foster strong caregiver/child relationships as well as the child’s communication and emergent literacy skills. Programs encouraging reading and relevant activities help address the 30 million word gap while helping children learn how language works, develop comprehension skills, and other critical thinking skills necessary for school readiness. By offering materials in four of the major languages spoken in Houston, more families are reached.

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Para Los Niños

Program Overview: Para Los Niños is a free eleven part workshop series developed for Spanish-speaking families by the Children’s Museum of Houston and the Houston Public Library. The workshops offer suggestions to caregivers about how to engage young children in educational activities at home. Each year more than 7,000 caregivers and children attend the workshops provided at over 30 public libraries in Houston (Children’s Museum of Houston, 2014, Para

Los Niños; Howard, 2013). Each session “includes a story-reading modeling session and a series of learning activities for use at home, related to the workshop’s theme” of the week. The workshop series has additional activities for families available online to download free of change (Children’s Museum of Houston, 2014, Para Los Niños).

Locations Served: Houston, Texas

Supporting Research: None available

Website: http://www.cmhouston.org/para-los-ninos

Contact: Address: 1500 Binz Houston, Texas 77004 Phone: (713) 522-1138

Author’s Comments: Nearly, half of Houston’s population identifies as Hispanic or Latino and many of these families are living at or near the poverty line. This report has already described the ways poverty negatively impacts various aspects of young children’s lives, including their healthy development and school readiness. Many low-income, Latino families do not understand the importance of talking to and reading with very young children. This lack of understanding contributes to the 30 million word gap and an overall lack in school readiness that is so prevalent in among this demographic. The Children’s Museum of Houston has recognized the need to educate these families, if the cycles of poverty and illiteracy are to be broken. The Children’s Museum has begun to offer Spanish-speaking families workshops in their native language in order to get the information to them. As discussed earlier, offering programs in the native language of the caregivers decreases their anxiety, increases trust, and increases the chance of their participation. Teaching English is not the concern of the program. Rather, the focus is on the development of linguistic ability in Spanish first. Research suggests learning to speak in the primary caregiver’s first language is not detrimental to a child’s development of a second language. As long as the child is exposed to regular, high-quality language through talk, song, and reading they will be learning the fundamentals of language making the acquisition of English quicker and easier.

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Born to Read

Program Overview: Born to Read was established in 2003 as part of SAPLF’s 100 year anniversary celebration. However, the success and excitement surrounding the program’s first year has resulted in the program’s continuation since. Children born in Bexar County receive “a literacy bag containing a bilingual book, information about San Antonio’s libraries, and an easy-to-read pamphlet with reading strategies” though this program (SAPLF, 2015, Born to Read). The pamphlet explains to primary caregivers the importance of their role as their child’s first teachers and makes them aware of the free resources available to them through SAPLF (SAPLF, 2015, Born to Read).

Location Served: Bexar County, Texas

Supporting Research: None available

Website: http://www.saplf.org/programs/about-born-to-read

Contact: Email: borntoreadsa@saplf.org

San Antonio Public Library Foundation Address: 625 Shook Avenue, San Antonio, Texas 78212 Phone: (210) 225-4728 Email: information@saplf.org

Author Comments: Once again SAPLF has shown its understanding of the San Antonio community. The inclusion of a bilingual book in the pack is a reflection of the city’s linguistic composition. In addition, by including the easy-to-read pamphlet, SAPLF is being inclusive to the many caregivers in the city with limited English literacy skills. Simplifying the language of the pamphlet makes the information more accessible and thus more likely to reach the families who need it most.

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Family Backpacks

Program Overview: The program allows children to check out a backpack while they visit the Utah Museum of Fine Arts. Each backpack contains puzzles, games, and other activities to engage children and guide their exploration of the museum’s permanent exhibits including Egypt, India, Europe, and America (Howard, 2013; Utah Museum of Fine Arts).

Locations Served: Salt Lake City, Utah

Supporting Research: None available

Website: http://umfa.utah.edu/backpacks

Contact: Address: 410 Campus Center Drive, Phone: (801) 581-3580 Email: education@umfa.utah.edu

Author Comments: The material contained in museums such as the Utah Museum of Fine Arts is frequently beyond the comprehension level of very young children, as they are not the primary audience of most of the exhibits. However, family packs help bridge the gap and engage young children. Yet, the backpacks are for use in the museum only meaning the child and their family may not have the time to explore the contents of the backpack fully. This program may have a larger impact if the museum also designed activities for the families to complete at home. Take-home or printable materials might help children revisit and synthesize what they learned during their trip to the museum, as well as to stimulate further conversations at home.

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Routes to Reading: Idaho Pave the Way with Access to Print

Program Overview: Routes to Reading is a statewide approach to building Early Literacy and Reading in Idaho. The program was launched in 2012 to address the state’s 43% of children entering school unprepared to learn. The Idaho Commission for Libraries (Idaho Commission for Libraries, 2015) has focused its efforts on increasing the reading readiness of children by helping “families and caregivers to nurture literacy skills and support

children’s development as independent readers and lifelong learners” (Howard, 2013, 32). The Routes to Reading: Idaho Paves the Way with Access to Print program addresses the “critical need to increase access to books; provide information to families and caregivers on how to support early literacy development; and address the challenge of encouraging low-income families to check out books by building the institutional capacity to effectively serve families” (Howard, 2013, 32). As a result of the program, young children from low-income families have access to shared books through “Books to Go” kits. These kits are located in “Head Start centers, preschools, childcare centers, and home-based childcare sites” (Idaho Commission for Libraries, 2015). A second component of the initiative is the “Virtual Storytime” which enables families to attend story times sponsored by their local library remotely using their computer. In addition, electronic children’s books and literacy related activities can also be found through local library websites (Idaho Commission for Libraries, 2015).

Locations Served: Idaho

Supporting Research: Commission Reading Programs Coordinator, Stephanie Bailey-White, stated the program is meant to address the lack of reading materials in the homes of low-income families. Based on the success of the Read to Me First Book program, the Commission hopes the increase in availability of books and literacy related activities will help address the gap between good and poor readers in her state. More research is pending (Idaho Commission for Libraries, 2015).

Contact: For information about specific programs contact local libraries directly.

Website: http://libraries.idaho.gov/blogs/teresalipus/icfl-wins-grant-to-pave-routes-to-reading

Author’s Comments: This program will likely achieve Bailey-White’s goal of getting more reading materials into the homes of low-income families. However, as discussed throughout this report, the presence of reading materials is not enough. High-quality programs that engage caregivers and teach them how to read and talk with their children are instrumental to bridging the gap between “good and poor readers”. While the presence of reading materials seems to increase the emergent literacy skills and shrink the gap, evidence suggests how such materials are presented and read matters more than just simply having the books. Therefore, the inclusion of information for caregivers about how to read and engage children in the reading is an essential aspect of this program.

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1,000 Books Before Kindergarten

Program Overview: These programs challenge families to read 1,000 books with their children before they begin formal education at age 5. If families begin early, this means they need to read just one book a day to meet their goal. When families register they receive a binder with “suggested reading lists, reading logs and information on early literacy” (Eagle Valley Library District, 2015, 1,000 Books Before Kindergarten). As they progress through the program families earn small incentive prizes. In addition to placing a clear emphasis on reading, these types of programs consider talking, singing, playing, and writing with

children necessary to prepare them for kindergarten (Eagle Valley Library District, 2015, 1,000 Books Before Kindergarten).

Locations Served: Versions of this program are run by various individual libraries including Eagle, Colorado; Oakfield, Wisconsin; Raveena, Ohio; and Columbia, South Carolina.

Supporting Research: None available

Website: http://www.evld.org/kids/1000-books-kindergarten;http://www.oakfieldlibrary.org/;http://www.reed.lib.oh.us/content/1000-books-kindergarten;http://www.transformsc.com/events/index/?cat_id=12917

Author’s Comments: These programs encourage families to make reading part of their daily routine. The financial burden of providing literacy resources is removed as the suggested high-quality books are available through the participating libraries at no cost to the family. Tips and books are provided by the library as well as incentive prizes to encourage continued participation. Book lists and prizes can easily be adjusted to reflect the cultures and languages prevalent in the community, thus encouraging participation from wary families who may otherwise feel isolated from such programs, especially if they were to be promoted by book stories.

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Read It Again Storytime Kits

Program Overview: Read it Again Storytime Kits are of themed literacy kits. Each bag has a theme such as animals, babies, birthday, dinosaurs, fairytales, or families. Some of the kits are in English while others contain materials in Spanish. Each bag has an overview of why early literacy is important, 10 books related to the bag’s theme, songs, fingerplays, rhymes, crafts, games, activities, puppets, and early literacy articles (Eagle Valley Library District, 2015, Read it Again; Marks, 2006).

Location Served: Eagle, Colorado

Supporting Research: None available

Website: http://www.evld.org/kids/read-it-again-storytime-kits

Contact: Address: P.O. Box 240 600 Broadway Eagle CO 81631 Phone: (970) 328-8800

Author’s Comments: Read It Again Storytime Kits are excellent ways for families to engage in high-quality literacy centered activities. Talking and singing is encouraged through these activities, helping to address the 30 million word gap. In addition, the rhymes, songs, and books help the young child explore how language works. These types of resources can easily be made culturally relevant to different groups through the creation of new kits. New kits can be created to reflect the values, religions, traditions, and cultures found in the community. Additionally, easy to read materials included for caregivers, especially the tips for engaging in reading and activities are easily translated.

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Utah Kids Ready to Read!

Program Overview: Utah Kids Ready to Read! is an effort involving librarians, community members, and caregivers. The project is funded through a grant from the U.S. Institute of Museum and Library Services and encourages caregivers and young children to share in literacy practices. Utah Kids Ready to Read! aims to “provide information, training, technical assistance, and resources on emergent literacy for Utah librarians and their community partners” so these agents can work together to educate caregivers about the importance of talking, singing, reading, writing, and playing with very young children (Deeds, n.d.).

Talking: By talking to young children, they learn new words and information. Children learn both by listening and expressing themselves. In addition, talking to children stimulates curiosity and brain development. More information about the importance of talk and how to talk to young children is available at: http://utahkidsreadytoread.org/talk.shtml

Singing: Rhythms help children decipher sounds and syllables by slowing language down and making it more manageable for young children. More information about the importance of singing and how to engage young children in singing is available at: http://utahkidsreadytoread.org/sing.shtml

Reading: Reading aloud helps “children connect words with language and understand that each book tells a story” while creating a love for reading and language. Discussing the story helps the child develop comprehension skills and increases their vocabulary. More information about the importance of reading daily and how to read with young children is available at: http://utahkidsreadytoread.org/read.shtml

Writing: Children learn to write through scribbling and drawing as they become aware that letters have meaning. Scribbles are signs of emergent literacy. More information about the importance of and how to encourage early writing skills for young children is available at: http://utahkidsreadytoread.org/write.shtml

Playing: Play encourages the child’s imagination, expression, and discovery of the world. In addition, play fosters problem solving skills. More information about the importance of play is available at: http://utahkidsreadytoread.org/play.shtml

Locations Served: Utah

Website: http://utahkidsreadytoread.org/

Contact: Address: Utah State Library 250 North 1950 West, Suite A, Salt Lack City, Utah 84116 Phone: (801) 715-6742

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Programs Offered by Health Care Providers

The Importance of Prenatal Care Centers

Health is a major determinant of success in school because healthy children are more ready to learn when they enter kindergarten and are more likely to attend school regularly. Yet, preparing children for school begins before they are born, with appropriate prenatal care. Such care supports healthy brain and physical development in utero (Guide 1: Supporting Healthy Births and Infancy, 2015). Therefore, children whose mothers did not have access to quality prenatal care start at a disadvantage. Low-income mothers are less likely to have quality prenatal care because they may not understand its role in their child’s healthy development or they may not know how or where to access such care. Programs designed to aid low-income mothers in gaining access to quality prenatal care can prevent children from starting behind developmentally at birth.

Prenatal centers are vital for helping expectant mothers give birth to healthy children. They are also logical partners for literacy programs. Prenatal centers offer mothers educational advice not just about having a healthy pregnancy, but how to aid in the child’s healthy development after birth. During their pregnancy, mothers “are both reachable and open to learning” (Guide 1: Supporting Healthy Births and Infancy, 2015, 5). By strengthening the prenatal care and family supports that are available and by making them easily accessible to low-income mothers in a baby’s first months of life, prenatal centers “can contribute to physical and mental health for mothers and babies as well as babies’ optimal brain development and increased capacity for learning” (Guide 1: Supporting Healthy Births and Infancy, 2015, 5).

The programs contained in this section are examples of prenatal care programs that have successfully reached low-income mothers. These programs not only help mothers have healthy pregnancies, but help them understand how to support their newborn’s development physically, mentally, socially, and emotionally. The mothers who participate in these programs trust the advice they receive, especially after they have given birth to a healthy child, making them receptive to further advice regarding their child’s early development.

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Prenatal Care Programs March of Dimes Texas CenteringPregnancy® Project

Program Overview: CenteringPregnancy® programs are group based centers expectant mothers can join as early as

their second trimester. CenteringPregnancy® groups vary on whether mother participation ends when the child is born or continues for up to a year after birth. Expecting mothers receive prenatal care both one-on-one as well as in a group setting. Individual meetings with healthcare providers and the subsequent meeting with other members of the group typically lasts for a total of 90-120 minutes (Guide 1: Supporting Healthy Births and Infancy, 2015). At a typical visit, mothers “weigh themselves, take their own blood pressure, chart their results, listen to their baby’s heartbeat, talk with their provider for a few minutes, enjoy some refreshments, visit with the other mothers-to-be, then circle up with the provider and eight to twelve women due near the same time for over an hour of discussion on the topic of the day” (March of Dimes, 2015).

Location Served: In 2011, 10 project sites were funded by March of Dimes in Texas. Two of the sites were in Houston (March of Dimes, 2015).

Supporting Research: “In 2007, 13.7% of babies born in Texas were preterm. Data from the March of Dimes shows that only 6.5% of babies born to moms enrolled in the CenteringPregnancy® project were preterm from 2006-2009” (March of Dimes, 2015).

Website: Centering Healthcare Institute- https://centeringhealthcare.org/index.php March of Dimes-http://www.marchofdimes.org/texas/programs_centeringpregnancy.html

Contact: March of Dimes- Texas Chapter: Address: 3000 Weslayan #100, Houston, TX, 77027 Phone: (713) 623-2020 March of Dimes- Houston Division: Address: 5420 Dashwood, Suite 302, Houston, TX, 77081 Phone: (713)623-2020 Centering Healthcare Institute: Address: Main Office- 89 South Street #404 Boston, MA 02111 Phone: (857) 284-7570

Author Comments: These projects focus on providing free, high-quality, prenatal care for mothers, thereby increasing the chances their child will be born full-term and healthy. However, these programs could do more to educate the already engaged and receptive mothers in the program. Such programs could focus more on explaining to new mothers the importance of talking to and reading with newborns. These centers are natural partners as they have already earned the trust of the mothers they work with. The “Centering Notebook” with tips on talking, reading and singing to newborns and very young children is written at a fifth grade reading level and is a good first step to helping mothers understand the importance of early literacy development. However, it is currently simply included with other materials designed for home consumption (Centering Healthcare Institute, 2014). The goal is to have providers discuss with mothers and model for them how to encourage emergent literacy at home during their sessions in addition to sending home written material. If not specifically discussed, new mothers may miss the information because they may be too busy to read all the material.

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Baby Basics

Program Overview: Baby Basics is run by the What to Expect Foundation and helps patients from vulnerable populations access prenatal care and education (The What to Expect Foundation, n.d., Baby Basics). Baby Basics includes resources written for expecting, low-income women with little formal education. Each mother-to-be receives a comprehensive guide for a healthy pregnancy written at a third- to fifth- grade reading level and includes information about Medicaid as well as a list of dos and don’ts of prenatal care. The guide is a “tool for educating mothers, stimulating

conversations between women and their physicians, increasing mothers’ active participation during prenatal care visits and reducing unnecessary trips to the emergency room during pregnancy” (Guide 1: Supporting Healthy Births and Infancy, 2015, 6). Another resource provided to mothers is an interactive Pregnancy Planner to “help moms keep track of the baby’s development, appointments and due dates, and to help moms advocate for themselves in their prenatal visits.” (Guide 1: Supporting Healthy Births and Infancy, 2015, 6). Both resources are printed in 14 languages.

Look inside the Baby Basics book and planner at: https://www.whattoexpect.org/what-we-do/baby-basics/materials#inside-baby-basics-book

Locations Served: There are 11 sites nationally and two in Texas (Houston and Amarillo). Locations can be found at: https://www.whattoexpect.org/what-we-do/baby-basics/community

Supporting Research: The guide was written by a team of “peer educators, doctors, The March of Dimes, and thousands of mothers” (The What to Expect Foundation, n.d., Baby Basics Materials)

Website: https://www.whattoexpect.org/what-we-do/baby-basics/overview-baby-basics

Contact: Address: PO Box 1222 New York, NY 10113 Email: info@whattoexpect.org

Author’s Comments: The What to Expect Foundation is able to reach expecting mothers in a way many other prenatal care resources are unable. The focus of the foundation is on low-income, expecting mothers who are unlikely to have many years of formal education. By making all information available to mothers at no more than a fifth grade reading level, mothers are more likely to understand the information and adjust their actions accordingly, even before their child is born. In addition, the What to Expect Foundation has made their materials more accessible to a diverse group of mothers by providing them in 14 major world languages.

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Nurse-Family Partnership®

Program Overview: The Nurse-Family Partnership is a community health program that pairs a registered nurse with an expectant, first-time, low-income mother. The nurse conducts home visits and supports the new mother until the child’s second birthday,

helping her to have a healthy pregnancy and providing guidance on how to care for the child after they are born. The effectiveness of the program is the result of a trusting relationship between the mother and nurse that develops as they work together. The long-lasting benefits of the program are the result of its focus on helping empower first-time mothers (Nurse-Family Partnership, 2011).

Locations Served: Forty-four United States’ Territories and States. Twenty-eight counties have been served by the one-on-one program in Texas since the state legislature established a statewide grant supporting the program in 2007 (Nurse-Family Partnership, 2011).

Supporting Research: Nine out of ten women enrolled in the partnership in Texas deliver their first child full-term and at a healthy weight. The program as a whole and the methods it employs has been evaluated through randomized controlled trials for almost 40 years. These studies have consistently shown the methods have had positive impacts including improved prenatal health, fewer childhood injuries, and improved school readiness (Nurse-Family Partnership, 2011).

More information and research is available at: http://www.nursefamilypartnership.org/proven-results and at: http://www.nursefamilypartnership.org/about/fact-sheets

Website: http://www.nursefamilypartnership.org/ Contact: Nurse-Family Partnership National Service Office Address: 1900 Grant Street, Suite 400, Denver CO 80203 Phone: (303) 327-4240 Toll-free phone: (866) 864-5226 Email: info@nursefamilypartnership.org

Author’s Comments: This type of program is successful because mothers grow to trust their assigned nurse. They work together, as a pair, to make sure the child is receiving appropriate care before they are born. As the child grows, the nurse is able to explain the developmental changes taking place to the first-time mother and help her to foster the healthy growth of her child, mentally and physically.

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Healthy Families America

Program Overview: Healthy Families America is an evidence-based home visiting program to help children who are at-risk of being exposed to adverse experiences and maltreatment. The program works with families who have “histories of trauma, intimate

partner violence, mental health and/or substance abuse issues” (Healthy Families America, 2015, About Us). The program, established in 1992, typically begins working with families prenatally and continues until the child is 3 to 5 years old. The program has an established model, though it is flexible, allowing for the unique needs of families to be met (Healthy Families America, 2015, About Us).

Locations Served: Forty states, Washington D.C., all five United States territories, and Canada.

Supporting Research: More than 15 evaluations of the program have been conducted with consistently positive results. The evaluations showed program participants had fewer incidences of child maltreatment, increased utilization of prenatal care, fewer pre-term births, improved parent-child interaction, less reliance on welfare programs, and increased use of healthcare services. In addition, the children were more likely to be ready for school (Healthy Families America, 2015, Research).

More research and data is available at: http://www.healthyfamiliesamerica.org/research/index.shtml

Website: http://www.healthyfamiliesamerica.org/about_us/index.shtml

Contact: Cydney Wessel, National Director

Address: 228 S. Wabash, 10th Floor, Chicago, IL 60604

Phone: (312) 218 7414

Email: cwessel@preventchildabuse.org

Texas: Tina Robertson (Clinical Director)

Address: 420 Junius Street, Dallas, Texas 75246

Phone: (214) 370-9810

Email: trobertson@family-compass.org

Maria Cisneros (Houston Director)

Phone: (281) 435-6816

Email: maria.cisneros@houstontx.gov

Contact information for other states is available at: http://www.healthyfamiliesamerica.org/home/contact_us.shtml

Author’s Comments: One of the most important aspects of this program is its flexibility in working with families. The home visitors work to understand the unique needs and values of the family they are working with, and adjustments can be made as necessary. Being able to make individualized changes increases the families’ trust in the program. This program focuses on not judging caregivers, another important way to gain the families’ trust. Instead of passing judgement, time is spent helping families provide the best early learning and living environment as possible for the newborn child.

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The Importance of Pediatricians Programs are more effective at reaching caregivers when they are associated with a trusted figure. Healthcare professionals are highly trusted and highly visible making them appropriate partners for literacy programs. Ninety-six percent of children under five visit their pediatricians at least once a year. Frequent visits allow caregivers to build a trusting relationship with their child’s pediatrician. The establishment of such relationships builds on a foundation of trust many individuals have towards those in the medical profession. Therefore, the opinion of pediatricians “often carries more weight with parents than that of a teacher or counselor” (Paul, 2014).

According to James M. Perrin, MD, FAAP, President of the AAP, “fewer than half of children younger than five years old are read to daily in our country” (American Academy of Pediatrics, June 2014). Pediatricians understand the importance of reading with children early and have become increasingly involved in addressing the importance of early literacy with caregivers during well child visits. Most recently, the American Academy of Pediatrics partnered with the Clinton Foundation and Next Generation on the Too Small To Fail initiative to help improve the health and well-being of children under the age of five. More information about this initiative is available on their website http://toosmall.org/.

The programs listed below are just two examples of efforts being made by pediatricians to increase early literacy development by providing children with books and caregivers with tips about reading with their children.

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Postnatal and Pediatricians

Read to Grow: Books for Babies

Program Overview: Read to Grow: Books for Babies is a nonprofit program originated in New Haven, Connecticut, though it has spread throughout the state. The program prepares primary caregivers “to take an active role in their child’s literacy development from day one” (Read to Grow, 2015). Volunteers meet with families of newborns several times while they are still in the hospital and provide guidance to all families about creating language rich homes as well as a “literacy bag.” Each “literacy bag” includes a children’s book and a guide for caregivers (Read to Grow, 2015). Primary caregivers are given information about their vital role as their child’s first teachers as well as the importance of verbal stimulation, language development,

and literacy (Frusciante, 2009). These services are delivered to all families regardless of their income. One of the goals of the program is to link literacy with health by introducing families to the importance of literacy while they are in a health care setting. In addition, the program trains workers in hospitals and pediatricians’ offices to help teach caregivers how to encourage emergent literacy skills at home (Frusciante, 2009).

Locations Served: Twelve hospitals in Connecticut.

Supporting Research: The Read to Grow program is run in 12 hospitals in Connecticut and provides 130,000 books to children each year. Currently, more than 50% of newborns in the state are reached though the program. The program emphasizes beginning interventions early because of how quickly the brain develops in the first years of life. The brain’s development is dependent not only on genetics but is also significantly shaped by the experiences the child has. By age three the brain has formed most of its basic circuitry, and this will be the child’s foundation for further development (Read to Grow, 2015, Research).

Website: https://www.readtogrow.org/Content/Books_for_Babies.asp

Contact: Address: 53 School Ground Road, Unit 3 Branford, CT 06405 Phone: (203) 488-6800

Email: readtogrow@readtogrow.org

Author’s Comments: Reaching families early, before they even leave the hospital helps reinforce the gravity of early literacy development. In addition, by receiving the information early, caregivers are able to establish early routines involving literacy for the family.

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Reach Out and Read (ROR)

Program Overview: ROR provides children from 6 months to 5 years old with a book at each well-child visit. The program fosters the “unique relationship between parents and medical providers” (Frusciante, 2009, 24). ROR helps families establish early literacy skills and routines so children enter school with emergent literacy skills and are ready to learn (Frusciante, 2009; American Academy of Pediatrics, June 2014). The American Academy of Pediatricians and its network of 62,000 pediatricians share messages regarding “the importance of talking, reading out loud and singing to children from birth in order to build vocabulary and promote healthy brain development” with caregivers (American Academy of Pediatrics, June 2014; Frusciante, 2009). This program reaches more than 4 million children nationally at 5,000 practices, health centers, and hospitals (Guide 1: Supporting Healthy Births and Infancy, 2015).

Reach Out and Read-Texas (ROR-TX): The First Lady Laura Bush’s Early Childhood Initiative for Texas established ROR-TX in 1999. ROR-TX in conjunction with the Department of Developmental Pediatrics and the Center for Improving the Readiness of Children for Learning and Education trains pediatricians to discuss with caregivers the importance of reading aloud. As with other ROR programs, pediatricians send home a developmentally and culturally appropriate book with children 6 months to 5 years old. In addition, waiting rooms are designed as examples of “literacy-rich” environments and are stocked with gently-used books. Several of the 275 ROR-TX clinics and hospitals have volunteers read with children in the waiting room, modeling how shared reading can help develop emergent literacy and increase expressive and receptive vocabulary. More than 310,000 children in Texas are served by the program that distributes 376,000 books annually (Reach Out and Read, 2012; Children's Learning Institute UT Health, 2011). In Houston alone there are 42 sites.

Locations Served: Nationally, locations can be found at: http://www.reachoutandread.org/resource-center/find-a-program/

Supporting Research: Caregivers participating in the program are four times more likely to read aloud to their children and to consider reading with their child among their favorite activities. In addition, the program appears to have helped minority children increase their emergent literacy skills and reduce the 30 million word gap. Black and Latino participations in ROR have higher receptive and expressive language scores than their nonparticipating peers. Studies have also found the longer minority children participated in the program the higher their language scores were (Guide 1: Supporting Healthy Births and Infancy, 2015). For example, Latino children whose participation started at age 6 months frequently show “average or above average literacy skills in kindergarten” (Guide 1: Supporting Healthy Births and Infancy, 2015, 7). Overall, children participating in the program are read to more often and begin school with larger vocabularies, stronger language skills, and a “6 month developmental edge” (Children's Learning Institute UT Health, 2011).

Website: National ROR: http://www.reachoutandread.org/ ROR-Texas: http://rortx.uth.tmc.edu/About-Us/Research.html

Contact: National Center: Reach Out and Read National Center- Address: 89 South St, Suite 201, Boston MA 02111 Email: Info@reachoutandread.org Phone: (617) 455-0600

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Programs to Improve Child Health

The Importance of Early Healthcare Interventions and Nutrition

Earlier in this report the importance of the healthy development of young children was discussed. Healthy children are better equipped to learn and can concentrate more fully on what they are learning than their unhealthy peers. This section describes programs related to the healthy development of children. These programs are largely designed to assist children from low-income households who otherwise may not have access to such services. The programs below provide access to various screenings and nutritional food so young children are able to develop physically and mentally, such that they are able to learn and are developmentally prepared for formal education.

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Early Screenings

Assuring Better Child Health and Development (ABCD)

Program Overview: Started in Colorado in 2006, ABCD was supported by both the public and private sectors. It has since grown and now encompasses a range of community sizes throughout Colorado. ABCD’s goal is to have a “coordinated system of care for standardized developmental screening, referral and follow-up at the

local level” (Guide 2: Ensuring Early and Appropriate Screenings and Intervention, 2015, 7).

Locations Served: Colorado

Supporting Research: The program has been successful in standardizing the developmental screening process in the state of Colorado. The same standardized tool is currently used by 93 percent of pediatric practices. When the program started in 2006, less than 5% of providers were using the tool. More than 90% now administer the screenings three times by the time children are 3 years old as is recommended by the American Academy of Pediatricians. Referrals to specialists are also being made more regularly. The number of referrals made by “primary care practices to Colorado’s Early Intervention program increased over 400 percent from 2006 to 2012” (Guide 2: Ensuring Early and Appropriate Screenings and Intervention, 2015, 7)

Website: http://www.coloradoabcd.org/

Contact: ABCD Office- 8801 E. Hampden Ave., Suite 106, Denver, CO 80231 Email: info@coloradoabce.org Phone: 720-748-7702 Eileen Auer Bennett, Executive Director: Eileen@coloradoabcd.org

Author’s Comments: Regular screenings are the best way for health care providers to identify developmental delays that may necessitate interventions. The earlier interventions are made, the less intensive and obtrusive they typically are. In addition, regular screenings are necessary while children are very young because children are developing rapidly during their first five years.

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Help Me Grow

Program Overview: Since 1998, the Help Me Grow program, designed to connect at-risk children with developmental and behavioral screenings and services, has grown and spread from its original base in Connecticut. Help Me Grow supports “child health care providers as well as early care and education providers, human service providers, and families in effective developmental surveillance and screening” (Help Me Grow National Center, 2013). Children between 2 and 5 are screened to identify developmental and behavioral challenges and families are linked to the appropriate services. An online screening is available for free and helps identify general and social-emotional issues (Guide 3: Social-Emotional Development, 2015).

Locations Served: Twenty-three states including Washington D.C. and Puerto Rico. Figure 15 indicates the areas Help Me Grow is currently operating in.

Figure 15: Help Me Grow Map (Source: Help Me Grow National Center. 2013. Help me grown system: History. Retrieved from http://www.helpmegrownational.org/pages/what-is-hmg/program-history.php).

Supporting Research: Research is available at: http://www.helpmegrownational.org/pages/research.php

Website: http://www.helpmegrownational.org/index.php

Contact: Help Me Grow National, Director Joanna Bogin 860-837-6267 Program Manager: Sara Sibley 860-837-6232 A contact form is also available at: http://www.helpmegrownational.org/pages/contact.php

States without Help Me Grow

States and territories with Help Me Grow

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Columbus Kids: Ready. Set. Learn.

Program Overview: The Columbus Kids program is run by United Way of Central Ohio and offers free developmental screenings, referrals, and intervention services for children between the ages of 2 ½ and 4 within the Columbus City

School District (Columbus Kids, 2012, About Us; Guide 2: Ensuring Early and Appropriate Screenings and Intervention, 2015). The goal is to detect any developmental delays early so they can begin to be addressed through interventions if necessary. Children are scheduled for check-ups every six months at a location that low-income families are likely to visit such as child care centers, libraries, and welfare offices. At each appointment, the caregiver receives a $20 gift card and the child receives a free book (Columbus Kids, 2012, Parents; Guide 2: Ensuring Early and Appropriate Screenings and Intervention, 2015).

Locations Served: Columbus City School District, Columbus Ohio

Supporting Research: None available

Website: http://www.columbuskids.org/index.htm

Contact: Address: 360 South Third Street, Columbus, Ohio 43215 Phone: 614-241-3089 Email: Ruth.Lomax@uwcentralohio.org

Author’s Comments: Children from low-income families are less likely to be screened for developmental delays, though due to their early environments they are more likely to experience such delays. Early interventions are often less intensive and more effective because the young child’s brain is still forming its neural connections. By establishing screening centers at welfare centers and offering small incentives for participating, low-income families are more likely to be reached. By holding screenings at child care centers and libraries, some families who would not attend screenings at welfare offices are reached. Many immigrant families cannot qualify, do not know how to qualify, or may be afraid to use welfare. Therefore, this program is more likely to reach immigrant families that would otherwise have been missed if screenings were only held at welfare offices.

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Access to Baby and Child Dentistry (ABCD)

Program Overview: ABCD is a public-private partnership working with community groups to identify Medicaid enrolled children 0 to 6 years old and help them access dental services. Dental

professionals are recruited and trained to help these children access preventive care and treatments (Guide 4: Ensuring Oral Health, 2015). Having proper oral health leads to better overall physical and mental health. Overall, children with proper oral care are able to focus on learning and miss school less frequently than children with poor oral health.

Locations Served: Washington

Supporting Research: Since 1995, the program’s presence has grown from one county to 36 counties across the state of Washington and has had impressive results. The number of Medicaid-enrolled “children under the age of 6 receiving dental care has more than doubled, from 22 percent to over 50 percent” (Access to Baby & Child Dentistry, 2014). The increased number of children able to access dental services has led to a much lower rate of untreated tooth decay among low-income children and the preventative efforts are estimated to save families $525 per child over five years. (Access to Baby & Child Dentistry, 2014)

Website: http://abcd-dental.org/

Contact: Each of the participating counties has their own ABCD Organization and contact information listed at: http://abcd-dental.org/for-parent/find-an-abcd-dentist/

Author’s Comments: As discussed previously in this report, low-income families particularly those receiving Medicaid are less likely to have access to oral care. This program directly addresses the issue by recruiting dentists to work with this vulnerable population.

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Long Beach Alliance for Children with Asthma

Program Overview: The Long Beach Alliance for Children with Asthma has helped improve “health care delivery and quality, outreach, education, support systems, [and] living arrangements” for families with young children impacted by asthma (Guide 5: Controlling Environments and Managing Asthma, 2015, 6). The program focuses on family education about how to reduce the presence of irritants at home and methods to manage asthmatic symptoms. The Long Beach

Alliance for Children with Asthma also provides participating families with nontoxic cleaning products (Guide 5: Controlling Environments and Managing Asthma, 2015).

Locations Served: Long Beach, California

Supporting Research: Seventy-four percent of children who missed school prior to the program due to their asthma did not miss school for asthma complications when follow-up assessments were distributed 6 months after beginning the program (Guide 5: Controlling Environments and Managing Asthma, 2015). In addition “83 percent of clients who reported using emergency departments for asthma care before enrolling in the program did not report a visit at the six-month follow-up assessment” (Guide 5: Controlling Environments and Managing Asthma, 2015, 7).

Website: http://www.lbaca.org

Contact: Elisa Nicholas, M.D., Project Director Address: 2651 Elm, Suite 100, Long Beach, CA 90806 Phone: (562) 427-4249 Email: Info@lbaca.org

Author’s Comments: Programs educating caregivers do not have to be lengthy or intensive to have long lasting impacts. Distributing the information and providing practical tips as the Long Beach Alliance has done is sometimes sufficient to making the difference.

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Access to Nutrition

Women, Infants and Children (WIC)

Program Overview: WIC programs at the state level are funded through federal grants and support the needs of low-income pregnant and post-partum women, infants and children up to age 5. The program helps women pay for nutritional foods, provides health care referrals as well as educational information. The program is administered at the federal level by the Food and Nutrition Service in conjunction with 90 WIC state agencies. WIC operations are made possible through the efforts of 1,900 local agencies at 10,000 clinic sites in all 50 states (United States Department of Agriculture, 2015, Women, Infants and Children (WIC)). To increase community involvement, a push to encourage community gardens and farmers markets to accept WIC and SNAP has been explored. This action would provide more access to nutritious food and connect low-income

families to their community (United States Department of Agriculture, 2015, Women, Infants and Children (WIC)).

Locations Served: All states and United States territories

Website: http://www.fns.usda.gov/wic/about-wic-wic-glance

Eligibility information can be found at: http://www.fns.usda.gov/wic/wic-eligibility-requirements

Contact: Each state and territory has its own contact information located at: http://www.fns.usda.gov/wic/wic-contacts Texas: Lindsay Rodgers, WIC Director Phone: (512) 341-4400 Toll Free Number: 1-800-942-3678 Email: Lindsay.Rodgers@dshs.state.tx.us Website: http://www.dshs.state.tx.us/wichd/

Author’s Comments: As discussed earlier in this report, children from low-income households often do not have access to the types of nutritional foods necessary to adequately support their healthy development. When children do not have access to appropriate nutrition their mental and physical growth is impaired, especially during the formative years. WIC helps very young children access this food. As with all programs delivering serves from the federal government, many low-income families may not know how to access program benefits and immigrant families may avoid enrolling for fear being categorized as a “public burden.”

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The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)

Program Overview: SNAP is the largest domestic hunger safety net in the United States providing millions of low-income individuals and families with monthly assistance to buy healthy food. The program is coordinated by the Food and Nutrition Service in conjunction with state agencies and local retailers (United States Department of Agriculture, 2015, Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)).

Locations Served: All states and United States territories.

Website: http://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/

Eligibility information can be found at: http://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/eligibility

Contact: Each state and territory has its own phone number located at: http://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/state-informationhotline-numbers

Texas: Phone: 1-877-541-7905

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The Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP)

Program Overview: CACFP provides nutritious meals and snacks to child care programs serving children from low-income families in an effort to improve the overall quality of child care and to make child care more affordable by removing costs associated with food (Guide 6: Promoting Healthy Food Choices, 2015). More than 3.3 million children receive nutritious food through this program while at day care (United States Department of Agriculture, 2015, Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP)).

Locations Served: All states and United States territories

Website: http://www.fns.usda.gov/cacfp/child-and-adult-care-food-program

Eligibility information about school meals can be found at: http://www.fns.usda.gov/school-meals/income-eligibility-guidelines

The Texas website outlines the state’s specific Nutrition Assistance Programs, laws and eligibility requirements. More information about the program in Texas can be found at: http://www.squaremeals.org/

Contact: Each state and territory has its own contact information located at: http://www.fns.usda.gov/school-meals/school-meals-contacts

Texas: Phone: (877) 839-6325 Email: squaremeals@texasagriculture.gov

Author’s Comments: This program is beneficial for the ever increasing number of clientele enrolled in formal childcare settings. Children in these settings are provided with nutritious food while at daycare; however, many children in Houston receive informal rather than center based child care, excluding them from this program.

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Lunch @ the Library. At Cesar Chavez Central Library

Program Overview: Children up to 18 years old are invited to attend free weekly lunches and join in activities at the Cesar Chavez Central Library during the summer months. The program is made possible by a partnership with Stockton Unified School District (Engagedpatrons.org).

Location Served: Stockton, California

Supporting Research: None Available

Website: http://engagedpatrons.org/

Contract: Cesar Chavez Central Library Address: 605 N El Dorado Street, Stockton, CA 95202 Phone: (209) 937-8221

Author’s Comments: Programs like these help children access nutritional meals during the summer months. Children who receive free or reduced price lunches during the school year may not have access to equivalent programs during the summer. While this program is only once a week, the free, nutritional meals are not wasted.

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Early Head Start and Head Start

Program Overview: Early Head Start and Head Start programs are federally funded programs designed to help children from low-income families access the early supports and services they need to be ready for school. The program seeks to aid in the “comprehensive development of children” (United States of Health & Human Services, 2015). As part of the program children receive nutritious meals and snacks. Another important aspect of both programs is caregiver education.

Caregivers of receive information about nutrition as well as suggestions on parenting and how to support home learning (United States of Health & Human Services, 2015).

Locations Served: All states; Early Head Start or Head Start locations can be found at: http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/HeadStartOffices or by calling 1-866-763-6481

Supporting Research: Data and reports about the programs can be found at: http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/data

Website: http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/ohs

Information about how to apply for Early Head Start and Head Start as well as eligibility requirements can be found at: http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/hs/directories/apply/howdoiapplyfo.htm

Contact: Phone: 1-866-763-6481 Email: HeadStart@eclkc.info

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Community Based Programs

The Importance of Community Group Efforts

The importance of community efforts cannot be over looked. Community groups frequently run educational programs. However, even when they are not running the programs directly, they are valuable partners for any program educating primary caregivers about the development of their children. This is because community groups are connected to the neighborhoods they serve and the people who live there. Therefore, they are valuable resources in gaining community understanding and trust. They can help guide modifications of existing programs, provide volunteers, and possibly funding.

Community groups are extremely diverse in both mission and membership. However, almost all attempt to improve the community they serve in some capacity. Many choose to do so by improving the wellbeing of their community’s youngest members. Below are just a handful of community based programs that focus on educating primary caregivers about the importance of reading to their children and fostering the emergent literacy skills of very young children so that they are ready to learn when they enter school.

According to Ollerenshaw (2012, 151) successful community literacy projects have consistent characteristics including:

“strong leadership and ownership from within the community clear, definable and agreed goals strong leadership and support, from local and state government effective engagement from community, private and public organizational stakeholders high level of trust and communication appropriate resources and skilled staff.”

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Figure 16: Let’s Talk About Clothes (Source: Too Small to

Fail.6/11/2015. “Every Word, Every Conversation Counts: The

Word Gap and Early Brain Development”

http://toosmall.org/blog/every-word-every-conversation-

counts-the-word-gap-and-early-brain-

)development#skip_intro).

Talking is Teaching: Talk Read Sing

Program Overview: Sesame Workshop, the producer of Sesame Street, helped develop the "Talking is Teaching: Talk, Read, Sing" caregiver toolkit that provides research-based tips encouraging caregivers to talk, read, and sing to as part of their everyday routines (American Academy of Pediatrics, June 2014). Kaiser Permanente, works with Oakland Medical Center pediatricians to distribute toolkits “to parents of newborns and parents of 18-month olds during well-child visits” (American Academy of Pediatrics, June 2014). The program is comprised of a series of toolkits designed for children up to three years old in the pilot cities of Tulsa, Oklahoma and Oakland, California (American Academy of Pediatrics, June 2014). The philosophy behind the

program is that language development is essential to literacy development; therefore, every word a child hears adds to their foundational knowledge of language. To strengthen their child’s early brain development and language skills, primary caregivers are encouraged to talk, read, and sing about their everyday activities with young children. For example, doing the laundry can become a language rich experience. Figure 16: “Let’s Talk About Clothes” provides caregivers with examples of how to incorporate their child’s language development while doing the laundry (Too Small to Fail, June 2015). The information this program provides families about the importance effectively talking, reading, and singing with young children will help low-income families communicate more, thus closing the word gap.

Locations Served: Tulsa, Oklahoma and Oakland, California

Supporting Research: When caregivers regularly read, talk, sing, and play with young children, the child’s vocabulary is naturally expanded as more words are heard. Such interactions are the result of conscious efforts on the part of caregivers to actively use words and sentences that convey information about the world to young children. Narrating actions while preforming them stimulates connections in the mind of young children and helps them build the language and vocabulary (both expressive and receptive) skills essential for school readiness (Landry et al., n.d.). Based on the early “results of this pilot program, Kaiser Permanente will consider expanding the toolkit distribution to their hospitals nationwide” (American Academy of Pediatrics, June 2014).

Website: http://talkingisteaching.org/

Contact: info@talkingisteaching.org

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Bright by Three (previously Bright Beginnings)

Program Overview: The Bright by Three program is split into three parts. The first begins during pregnancy with prenatal care and continues until the child’s first birthday. The focus at this

stage is on “age-appropriate physical activity and talking to and reading with children” (Bright by Three, 2015, Our Program). The second begins when the child is 12 months old and continues through their second birthday. The second stage emphasizes “speaking to children and exposing them to language to stimulate early literacy” (Bright by Three, 2015, Our Program). The final stage is for children 24 to 36 months old and examines “developmental milestones, language and effective and positive discipline methods” (Bright by Three, 2015, Our Program). Free home visits occur at each of the three stages of the program. The home visitor brings the appropriate kit for the child’s age range with them to the visit. Each kit includes age appropriate books for the child, a handbook for the caregiver explaining the developmental changes their child will go through during that year of development, and other appropriate materials and activities for the child and caregivers. The home visitor typically spends 30 to 45 minutes in the family’s home. During this time the home visitor explains each of the materials, why it has been included, and how it contributes to the child’s development. Before leaving, the home visitor models for caregivers how to use the materials in the kit (Bright by Three, 2015, Our Program).

Locations Served: Colorado

Supporting Research: The sample sizes in early studies evaluating the program were not sufficient to conclusively show the effectiveness of the program; however, there are several studies indicating its impacts have been positive. In 2012, Dr. Steven Berman, Professor of Pediatrics at the University of Colorado School of Medicine and endowed chair of Academic General Pediatrics at the Children’s Hospital in Denver, reported on the randomized control trial begun in October 2002. The follow-ups conducted with study participants occurred when the children were between 8 and 10 years old. Berman’s findings indicate children considered “high-risk” for academic failure benefited the most from the Bright Beginnings’ program and that the program’s effects were seen “well into elementary school” (Bright by Three, 2015, Research & Evaluation). Additional evidence of the program’s effectiveness was revealed by a survey conducted in 2011 by the Center for Education Policy Analysis. The survey revealed “87.1% of parents reported that they do something with their child because of what they learned from the information and materials [from Bright by Three], with two-thirds of this group (65.4%) reporting they now read more to their child” than they had before beginning the program (Bright by Three, 2015, Research & Evaluation). The survey also found 94.5% of parents reported having “a better understanding of what their child is able to do at each age based on the information they received in their visit” (Bright by Three, 2015, Research & Evaluation).

Website: http://brightbythree.org/

Contact: Address: 3605 Martin Luther King Blvd Denver, CO 80205 Email: (303) 433-6200

Author’s Comments: Caregivers appear to change their behavior after learning about how to aid in the development of their children. When caregivers adapt their behaviors and provide a more literacy and learning rich environment, even those children most at risk for academic failure appear to have lasting positive effects, based on their academic performance throughout elementary school.

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Take One, Leave One

Program Overview: Tana Monteiro organized the Take One, Leave One program in Richmond, California. As a working mother she was frustrated with the limited hours the library was open. The library was open just 5 days a week and closed by 5pm. One day she realized how bored her son was while they were at the laundromat. With help from The Richmond Community Foundation and West County Reads she was able to acquire the books necessary to launch the Take One,

Leave One program. Soon an additional 1,000 books were donated by members of the community. Children can borrow a book, even take it home, but have to either bring the book back or replace it with a different one from home in a “take one, leave one system”. The program’s first site established by Monteiro was Clean Xpress Laundromat, though the program’s success led to its first wave of expansion to 7 other laundromats, churches, and theaters throughout the city (Mcdede, 2014). The expansion of the program has been largely facilitated by the local literacy group, West County Reads, which has helped other businesses establish similar systems using the more than 10,000 book donated each year to the program. New locations for bookshelves are selected based on caregiver suggestions. Caregivers are relied on for suggestions because they “understand and know… [the] issues and challenges” facing their community and their family best (Mongeau, 2013). Richmond, the sixth most violent city in America, is a low-income community with an unemployment rate five percent higher than the state’s average. Many of the community’s children do not own books of their own, making this program at its convenient locations the only access many will have to books (Mcdede, 2014).

Location Served: Richmond, California

Supporting Research: None available

Website: http://edfundwest.org/program/west-county-reads/

Contact: Kevin Hufferd, Chair, West County Reads Phone: 510-643-5314 Email: hufferd@berkeley.edu

Author’s Comments: For many children, this program is the only way for them to obtain books. For this reason it is important to listen to the caregivers in the community who are trying to help their children access books. Listening to caregivers not only shows respect, but also helps programs like these flourish because they better understand the families in their communities needs as well as the most logical locations to place the bookshelves.

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Read by Third

Program Overview: Read by Third is “a local, volunteer-based program designed to give low-income parents the skills and resources to help their children learn to read at grade level by the third grade so they can read to learn from the fourth grade on” (Hernandez, 2013). Caregivers and children attend 8 half-day workshops over the course of the academic year. The workshops are held on Saturdays and aim to offer a safe place for caregivers to learn to be “responsible and accountable for themselves and the children in their care” (Hernandez, 2013). The program

volunteers and the program facilitator, Daniel Hernandez, are from the Bryan/ College Station community and are ingrained in the city’s culture. Because volunteers are part of the community they are trusted by caregivers enrolled in the program. Most of the families served by the program are low-income, immigrant families without connections to the wider community. For this reason the program helps the families build networks with each other and the Bryan/College Station community (Hernandez, 2013).

Locations Served: Bryan, Texas

Supporting Research: The program is preparing to enter its third year and has begun looking at ways to measure its impact on participants beyond the positive anecdotal feedback it has received so far. Some former participants have continued their involvement as volunteers hoping to help other caregivers learn to help their children succeed.

Website: None available

Contact: Daniel Hernandez, Facilitator Phone: 979-822-6100 or 979-571-3452 Email: danielr@hdzfirm.com

Author’s Comments: The volunteers serve as a bridge for participating families, connecting them with the community and the services to help their children succeed. Volunteers understand both the struggles their target audience face and are well connected to the Bryan/College Station community.

“The uniqueness of the program is … based on RELATIONSHIPS of Trust created through

the EXPERIENCES the parents, children and teachers together enjoy as participants. The premise is

we learn through our EXPERIENCES not merely our knowledge (we are exposed to lists of How To's,

Do's and Don't's.....this is not enough). The RB3rd parents, are TRANSFORMED(new

vision/attitude),EQUIPED(skills),AND PROVIDED ACCESS (opportunities, resources and trust

relationships).”

–Daniel Hernandez

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Raising a Reader

Program Overview: Raising a Reader Project is a book sharing program that aims to improve the school readiness of low-income children 0 to 8 years old by increasing both the frequency and quality of literacy activities at home (“Raising a Reader Project: Overview”). Each week a child receives a new bag containing books to read with family members. At the end of the week the bags are rotated among the program’s participants. On average more than 100 books are rotated through a child’s home during the 8 to 45 week rotation. The program’s flexibility allows it to be implemented in a variety of settings including home visiting programs, preschools, community programs, libraries, faith-based programs, and adult education programs (Raising a Reader, 2015, Programs: Frequently Asked Questions). The flexibility further allows the program to be adapted to the specific community. Both the books and caregiver trainings are adapted to meet the needs and culture of the area. The National Office of Raising a Reader works with affiliates in the community to identify appropriate books and prepare the bags. The cost to launch the program is about $100 per child though the materials last about 5 years bringing the costs to about $35 per child. Other fees are associated with travel expenses. The program’s supplies are typically paid for by the group sponsoring the program in the community (Raising a Reader, 2015, Programs: Frequently Asked Questions). At the conclusion of the program families are connected to their local public library where they can continue to borrow books. (Raising a Reader, 2015, Family Engagement Affects Academic Achievement).

Locations Served: Nationally

Supporting Research: Anthony et al. (n.d.) evaluated the Raising a Reader program and found that providing the reading materials alone did not have a “significant impact on children’s learning of critical language and emergent literacy skills.” In their study 524 English-only speaking children and families from 90 preschool classrooms in Houston were divided into three groups. The majority of the families were economically disadvantaged minorities. The control group received no treatment. The Raising a Reader group participated in the program as described above. The third group, participated in the program described above, plus additional Family Nights which allowed caregivers to learn and practice “shared-reading techniques, including verbal extensions, open-ended questioning, repetition of new vocabulary, choral reading, a cloze [sic] procedures” (Anthony et al., n.d.). Children whose families were enrolled in Family Nights experienced significantly more growth in vocabulary, grammar, memory span for sentences, print awareness, letter knowledge, phonological awareness and speech perception. In addition, they found that those children who had started behind made the most substantial gains (Anthony et al., n.d.). These results demonstrate that the presence of books in the home is not enough to develop emergent literacy skills. However, appropriate caregiver training in the techniques necessary to optimize shared-reading time makes a difference. In other words, high-quality reading was shown to have a significant impact whereas simply making more books available to children had no statistically significant impact (Anthony et al).

Website: http://www.raisingareader.org/site/PageServer?pagename=rar_homepage

Contact: Raising A Reader National Office Address: 330 Twin Dolphin Drive, Suite 147 Redwood City, CA 94065 Phone: (650) 489-0550 Inquiries can be made at: http://www.raisingareader.org/site/PageNavigator/AboutUs/Contact.html

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The Incredible Years

Program Overview: This program is supported by the federal Community-Based Child Abuse Prevention grant program as well as through state and private funds. The Incredible Years primarily focuses its efforts in communities with a mix of black, Hispanic and white families. Families participate in 14 to 16 two-hour sessions in which caregivers are taught skills to help their children develop through positive play and effective discipline (Guide 3: Social-Emotional Development). The goal of the program is to strengthen families by “preventing delinquency, substance abuse, and violence” while promoting the “social, emotional, and academic competence” of children. In addition, the program works to build caregiver competence, stronger connections between school and home and by preventing conduct problems in children (Prevent Child Abuse North Carolina, 2015).

Locations Served: Twenty communities in North Carolina

Supporting Research: The Incredible Years has been show to effectively:

“Reduce aggressive and disruptive behavior in children Reduce conduct problems in children's interactions with parents Increase parents' positive affective response Decrease parents' use of harsh discipline, criticism, and negative commands Increase parents' use of effective limit-setting and non-violent discipline Reduce parental depression and increase parental self-confidence Increase positive family communication and problem-solving Increase parental involvement with teachers and classrooms” (Harman & Blair, 2013, 2)

The full evaluation of The Incredible Years program for FY 2012-2013 can be found at: http://www.preventchildabusenc.org/assets/preventchildabusenc/files/$cms$/100/1659.pdf

Website: http://www.preventchildabusenc.org/?fuseaction=cms.page&id=1007

Contact: A contact form is available to fill out at: https://www.preventchildabusenc.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=donorDrive.contactUs

Author’s Comments: These types of programs spend a great deal of time understanding the communities, neighborhoods, and families they are working with. This preparation allows them to adjust to a variety of environments and to be as effective and non-judgmental as possible. Relationship and trust building are essential for the success of this program.

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My Baby & Me

Program Overview: This program is a “home-based preventive intervention targeting young mothers at high risk for child neglect.” The project defined high-risk mothers as falling into one or more of the following categories: teenage mother, minority mother, single mother, or mother receiving a

positive CAPI on a screening for child abuse potential. The program begins during the mother’s third trimester and lasts for approximately 2 ½ years with as many as 51 home sessions (Guttentag et al., 2011). Each session is designed to enhance caregiver competence, reduce neglect and improve the overall well-being of both mother and child. The program emphasizes “establishing predictable, nurturing daily routines; education about child development, child health, and safety; teaching specific parent-child interaction strategies; adult problem solving/decision making; connecting with community resources” (Children’s Learning Institute, 2012, My Baby & Me).

Locations Served: Houston, Texas; Kansas City, MO Washington D.C., and South Bend, Indiana

Supporting Research: Two hundred seventy-two high-risk mothers were recruited and randomly assigned to receive high-or low- intensity interventions. Both groups received the same information with the same frequency; however, the high-intensity group received additional, hands-on training and support from their “Family Coach” whereas low-intensity mothers received limited in person contact (Guttentag et al., 2011). When evaluated “at 30 months, mothers in the high-intensity condition showed more positive and skillful behaviors across both affective and cognitive/language-promoting aspects of interaction than those in the low-intensity condition” (Children’s Learning Institute, 2012, My Baby & Me). They also “showed significantly more warmth and flexibility with their children” as well as being “less negativity toward their children, and were less physically intrusive” (Children’s Learning Institute, 2012, My Baby & Me). In addition, children in the high-intensity group “showed steeper gains in social engagement, expressive language, and engagement with the environment than children in the low-intensity condition” (Children’s Learning Institute, 2012, My Baby & Me).

Website: http://www.childrenslearninginstitute.org/our-research/project-overview/My-Baby-and-Me/default.html

Contact: My Baby & Me Children’s Learning Institute University of Texas – Houston Health Science Center 7000 Fannin UCT 2300 Houston, TX 77030

For More Information Cathy Guttentag, Ph.D. Phone: 713-500-3719 Email: Cathy.Guttentag@uth.tmc.edu

Author’s Comments: Allowing caregivers to have time to practice the techniques they are taught enhances their learning of the material and makes them more likely to use what they have learned with their child.

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Play and Learning Strategies (PALS)

Program Overview: The program facilitates the development of specific skills for positive interactions between primary caregivers and very young children. Participants receive manuals, toy bags and other supplemental materials. PALS I is designed for children 5 to 12 months old and lasts 10 weeks. PALS II is designed for children 18 months to 3 years old and lasts 12 months. Both programs contain a series of 90 minute sessions conducted by a parent educator during a home visit. Session topics are designed to help caregivers understand how to respond to a variety of child behaviors. Topics include: “attending to babies’ and toddlers’ communicative signals, responding appropriately to children's positive and negative signals,

supporting infants' and toddlers' learning by maintaining their interest and attention rather than redirecting or over stimulating, introducing toys and activities, stimulating language development through labeling and scaffolding, encouraging cooperation and responding to misbehavior, and incorporating these strategies and supportive behaviors throughout the day and during routine activities such as mealtimes, dressing, and bathing, as well as at play times” (Children’s Learning Institute, 2012, PALS).

Locations Served: Nationally

Supporting Research: Many of the studies evaluating the PALS I program have found that it has no effect on the child’s development and school readiness, though 1 study found the program to have a favorable effect. However, studies on PALS II have more consistently shown the program to have a more favorable effect on school readiness. A more complete summary of the research can be found at: http://homvee.acf.hhs.gov/Model/1/Play-and-Learning-Strategies-PALS--In-Brief/49

Websites: http://www.childrenslearninginstitute.org/our-programs/program-overview/PALS/default.html http://www.socio.com/eipardd07.php http://homvee.acf.hhs.gov/Model/1/Play-and-Learning-Strategies-PALS--In-Brief/49

Contact: For information about trainings contact Ursula Johnson, Ph.D. Phone: (713) 500-3767 Email: Ursula.Y.Johnson@uth.tmc.edu

Author’s Comments: The program requires parent educators to complete a training course from the Children’s Learning Institute. Once an individual can provide evidence they are registered for the training course, they can purchase the materials for PALS I and PALS II for $320.00. Properly trained parent educators are better able to model for caregivers the best ways to respond to their children. When caregivers are given practical examples and time to practice with their parent educator, they are able to implement the skills they are taught more effectively and are more likely to use those skills.

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First Book

Program Overview: Since 1992, First Book has distributed more than 130 million high-quality books to more than 32 million children in the United States who would likely not otherwise have age-appropriate books in their homes. Books are made available to underprivileged schools and families for free or at dramatically reduced prices (First Book, 2015).

Locations Served: The United States and Canada.

Supporting Research: According to a 14-month study that collected longitudinal data on 2,564

participants of the First Book program, the program increased child interest in reading and the level of literacy participation at home. The study found the number of students “demonstrating a ‘high interest’ in reading nearly tripled after receiving books from First Book” (First Book, 2015). In addition, more than 70% of children increased the literacy activities they participated in at home. More information about the impact the program has had on both children and schools is available at: http://www.firstbook.org/first-book-story/our-impact

Website: http://www.firstbook.org/

Information about eligibility requirements is available at: http://www.firstbook.org/receive-books

Contact: First Book’s National Office Address: 1319 F St. NW, Suite 1000, Washington, DC 20004 Phone: (202) 393-1222

Author’s Comments: This program helps caregivers bring books into their home. The program’s efforts are important because many low-income children do not have age-appropriate books at home. In Houston there is just one book for every 300 children in low-income homes. The presence of books in the home is necessary for the development of emergent literacy skills. However, as discussed throughout this report the presence of books alone is not enough. Caregivers reading with their children amplifies the development of emergent literacy skills of the children. First Book; however, focuses on providing books to low-income families. This program can be used in conjunction with other programs that educate caregivers about how to read with their children.

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United Way Bright Beginnings

Program Overview: United Way Bright Beginnings is designed to help children from low-income families “achieve social, emotional, physical and cognitive milestones and enter school ready to succeed” through a hands-on curriculum (United Way of Greater Houston, 2015, Academic Success). By helping these children develop the skills listed above, the program aims to help bring about systematic change and transform the life trajectory of the young children into one of financial stability (United Way of Greater Houston, 2015, Our Mission).

Locations Served: Houston, Texas

Supporting Research: Over the course of ten years, more than 6,600 children in Houston have completed the program. Children who completed the program “scored higher than their peers on 45 of 51 standardized tests” and scored “advanced” on third grade state reading exams “at nearly twice the rate” of children who had not participated (United Way of Greater Houston, 2015, Academic Success).

Website: https://www.unitedwayhouston.org/about/

Contact: United Way of Greater Houston Address: 50 Waugh Drive, Houston, Texas 77007 Phone: (713) 685-2300

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Dolly Parton’s Imagination Library

Program Overview: In 1995, the Dolly Parton’s Imagination Library started mailing high-quality, age-appropriate books monthly to the homes of children in Parton’s home county in Tennessee. The goal of the initiative was to help children who may not otherwise have books at home become excited about reading. In 2000, the program was expanded as it began partnering with local groups in other communities. Over 1,600 communities have partnered with the Dolly

Parton’s Imagination Library resulting in more 60,000,000 books being distributed to more the 859,705 registered children

in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and Australia (Dolly Parton’s Imagination Library, 2015).

Locations Served: Various communities in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and Australia. Current participating communities can be found at: http://usa.imaginationlibrary.com/find_my_affiliate.php#.VZV44flVh8M

Supporting Research: The results of independent studies of the program can be found at: http://usa.imaginationlibrary.com/resources.php#.VZV4dvlVh8M

Website: http://www.imaginationlibrary.com/

Author’s Comments: This program helps low-income children access books; however, as with First Book, this program would be made more effective if it were partnered with a program that focused on educating primary caregivers about how to read the books with young children. By adding this second component, families would not only have access to books, but would also learn how to use them effectively to enhance emergent literacy skills.

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Literacy Trails

Program Overview: This project is a collaborative effort between caregivers, families, communities, and businesses to meet the health and developmental needs of children 0 to 8 years of age (Ollerenshaw, 2012). Literacy Trails began in 2006 and has since been “held annually during National Literacy and Numeracy Week (late August/early September)” (Ollerenshaw, 2012, 148). By 2009, “more than 50 local businesses and community groups…volunteered their support” of the program through the preparation of activities and creating shopfront displays reflecting various types of literacy (Ollerenshaw, 2012, 151). Participation in the program comes from “council workers, local business owners, community agency workers, members of the local senior citizens clubs, etc.” who share “their interest in reading, writing or numeracy by dressing up as storybook characters and interacting with and/or helping to facilitate activities for the Trail” (Ollerenshaw, 2012, 148). School-age children gather in the town’s main shopping area to participate in a variety of literacy related activities including games, street performances and storytelling. As a community, the town decided to utilize their human and physical resources to promote the importance of literacy. Programs like this one can be successful if they take place in a community that believes in the mission of promoting early childhood literacy and developing a “strong and active commitment” (Ollerenshaw, 2012, 151).

Locations Served: Moorabool Shire, Victoria, Australia.

Supporting Research: Data on the program was collected from various groups using questionnaires, interviews with focus groups, previous program evaluation data, as well as anecdotal information. The data while positive is sparse. Most of the data came from just 45 community members and information collected by the facilitator of the program in the past only included feedback from teachers, children, and other school staff (Ollerenshaw, 2012). Caregivers responding to Likert Scale questions about the program reported the event was important “for promoting a greater awareness and understanding of literacy and numeracy in their children” while building positive connections in the community (Ollerenshaw, 2012, 150). Anecdotal data from caregivers described changes in their children’s literacy behaviors after attending the program. However, both types of caregiver feedback are limited (Ollerenshaw, 2012).

Author’s Comments: Disadvantaged caregivers reported not being aware of the event and that it was not well advertised. It was advertised primarily in the local newspapers to which some low-income families indicated they did subscribe (Ollerenshaw, 2012). When establishing a new program or community effort, it is important to understand the technology used in the community. Knowing how to best reach out to all demographics is important for successful participation. Unfortunately, no website or contact person was listed.

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Technology Applications Supporting Literacy Development

The Importance of Technology Based Programs

Technology has become an easy and inexpensive method for reaching and educating caregivers of young children and their children. The use of websites, text messages, and emails to effectively communicate important, literacy related messages has increased over the last decade. Regardless of their level of income, most caregivers have personal cell phones that receive text messages and many have access to the internet. Because of the dominant role of cell phones in the United States, it has become an easy and inexpensive platform through which caregivers can be reached in a highly visible way.

The following section describes several programs available to families online and using text or email messages. The programs are designed to help primary caregivers build literacy rich environment for their children by offering literacy based activities for the families to engage in together.

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Website Based Programs

Get Ready to Read!

Program Overview: Get Ready to Read! supports early childhood educators, caregivers, and children as children develop the emergent literacy skills they need to be prepared to enter kindergarten. Resources and information on the website promote these skills and foster adult/child communication. Get Ready to Read! has many activities that promote the literacy development of children 3 to 5 years old. The website contains articles and videos for caregivers and educators that aid them in fostering the skills of children. In addition, easy to use screenings are available online so caregivers can better understand their child’s development (National Center for Learning Disabilities, 2015).

Locations Served: Nationally, all resources are internet based

Supporting Research: None available

Website: http://www.getreadytoread.org/

Contact: National Center for Learning Disabilities 32 Laight Street, Second Floor, New York, NY 10013

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Early Learning Environment from Fred Rogers Center (Ele)

Program Overview: This interactive, online space supports early language and media literacy “for underserved and under-resourced teachers, home-based providers, and families of children birth to age 5” (Fred Rogers Center, n.d.).

Caregivers and other early educators can customize “playlists” of songs, e-books, videos, games, and activities designed by early childhood experts (Guernsey et al., n.d.). In addition to accessing the materials on the website, caregivers are able to communicate with one another, forming a network through which they share high-quality digital resources with each other.

Location Served: National/International

Supporting Research: Several publications related to the Ele program and other programs using technology to educate children and families can be found at: http://www.fredrogerscenter.org/resources/publications/

Website: http://www.fredrogerscenter.org/resources/early-learning-environment/

Contact: Facebook: www.facebook.com/yourele/ Twitter: www.twitter.com/yourele/

Address: Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children’s Media, 300 Fraser Purchase Road, Latrobe, PA 15650 Phone: (724) 805-2750 Email: info@fredrogerscenter.org

Author’s Comments: While using technology can enhance emergent literacy among young children it is important for caregivers to balance time spent in the digital world with time spent in the real world. Many of the activities found here are descriptions of what caregivers can do with their children in the real world to enhance their literacy.

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Wonderopolis®

Program Overview: Starting in October 2010, the National Center for Families Learning began a program identifying Wonders of the Day®. These wonders highlight everyday learning opportunities. Each day a question is posed along with a variety of ways to explore that day’s wonder. The question encourages discussion, new questions, and conversations between children, caregivers, friends, other family members, and teachers (http://wonderopolis.org/about). Daily tweets, Facebook posts and links to videos about the “wonder of the day” are designed to inspire conversation, vocabulary building and further exploration (Guernsey et al., n.d.).

In addition, the National Center for Families Learning puts on a free summer “camp” called Camp Wonderopolis®. The program is composed of 42 lessons caregivers and children explore together using their imagination. More information can be found at: http://camp.wonderopolis.org/ and http://camp.wonderopolis.org/faq

Location Served: National/International

Supporting Research: None available

Website: http://wonderopolis.org/about

Contact: National Center for Families Learning 325 West Main Street, Suite 300, Louisville, KY40202

Author’s Comments: This website does an excellent job of focusing on learning opportunities in the real world. Many of the “wonders of the day” encourage children to explore the world around them.

Example: Wonder of the Day #496 What Is QWERTY? Category: Technology-Inventions

Have You Ever Wondered…. What is QWERTY? Who invented the keyboard layout? When was the first typewriter manufactured?

http://wonderopolis.org/wonder/what-is-qwerty

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Text-and Email-Based Programs ReadyRosie

Program Overview: The ReadyRosie program sends subscribers a daily email containing 3 to 5 videos. The videos offer caregivers ideas and tips about how to engage their child in learning in a variety of settings including in the car, at home, and in stores. Each video models conversations in both English and Spanish that encourage literacy and numeracy skills. The program encourages caregivers to communicate with and talk to their children as often as possible because of the important role early vocabulary development has on school readiness and literacy. Each video includes adults and children interacting in engaging activities together. The activities are fun, educational, and help build healthy caregivers/children relationships. In school districts that have purchased the program, it is free to register for emails. If families do not live in a registered district, the program is not available. The program is not sold individually or to home school groups. It is sold to city leaders, superintendents, or school board members. (ReadyRosie, n.d., Readybaby; ReadyRosie, n.d., FAQS)

Locations Served: To find out if your district is active, enter your zip code at: http://readyrosie.com/signup/

Supporting Research: ReadyRosie was designed based on research stating that oral vocabulary is the number one predictor of school readiness and that primary caregivers play a dominant role in the development of language skills. This information, combined with the fact that most young families are online at least once a day led to the establishment of the email based program. The data collected by ReadyRosie suggests the program is successfully educating caregivers on how to promote literacy and numeracy skills in their children. Eighty-two percent of participating families say “their child is more excited about learning at home” while 73% caregivers report having “learned to take advantage of learning opportunities in many environments” (ReadyRosie, n.d., Readybaby). Caregivers are not the only ones learning from this program, more than half of participating families “have seen improvement in their child’s counting skills and knowledge of the alphabet and letter sounds” (ReadyRosie, n.d., Readybaby). Research conducted by recording family interactions prior to exposure to ReadyRosie and after exposure to the program has been done. They found an 85% increase in caregivers’ use of “literacy focused language” (ReadyRosie, n.d., Readybaby).

Website: http://readyrosie.com/

Contact: Address: 322 Texas Street, Denton Texas 76201 Phone: 1-888-340-7776 Email: info@readyrosie.com

Author’s Comments: While the program does an excellent job of modeling for caregivers the types of positive interactions that promote literacy, the program is not available everywhere. Families cannot access it individually so its reach is limited.

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Text4baby

Program Overview: Text4baby is a free program initiated in 2010 (Guide 1: Supporting Healthy Births and Infancy, 2015). The mobile health service provides more than 700,000 pregnant and new mothers with “tips related to their baby's health, safety, and development” (American Academy of Pediatrics, June 2014). “Text4baby is the nation's only free mobile information service designed to promote maternal and child health through text messaging” (American Academy of Pediatrics, June 2014). Text4baby is made possible by a partnership that “includes over 1,200 national, state and local organizations including the American

Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention” (American Academy of Pediatrics, June 2014). The program remains free through the efforts of the following mobile carriers “AT&T, Bluegrass Cellular, Boost Mobile, Cricket Wireless, MetroPCS, Sprint Nextel, T-Mobile, TracFone, U.S. Cellular, Verizon Wireless and Virgin Mobile U.S.A.” (American Academy of Pediatrics, June 2014).

Since partnering with Too Small to Fail, the text based service has included more messages describing early brain and language development.

Locations Served: National

Supporting Research: Participants have received the program well and are from the target population (women in low-income areas). According to the Campaign for Grade-Level Reading, early evidence suggests participants experience knowledge and behavioral changes (Guide 1: Supporting Healthy Births and Infancy).

Website: https://text4baby.org/

Contact: To sign up for Text4baby in English text BABY to 511411 or in Spanish by texting BEBE to 511411.

A feedback form is available at: https://text4baby.org/index.php/contact-us

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Parent University

Program Overview: Parent University is similar to programs used to remind diabetes patients to take their medication. The six-week program sends text messages to caregivers “reminding them to interact with their kids to boost literacy- and close that ever-widening word gap” (Ray, 2014). Parent University sends caregivers of children 0 to 8 years old tips to help caregivers “create the rich language environment—singing, talking, sharing—that is central to literacy. The texts are designed to help reinforce the parent-child relationship as a foundation for learning and help parents better understand child development” (Ray, 2014). Program designer Dr. Chris Drew explains “Parent University and the texts are built on the philosophy that small acts performed well, repeatedly, and over time are the foundation for excellence....Place these small acts together and it makes a big difference. It’s totally doable. Parents just sometimes need a reminder” (Ray, 2014). Figure 17 is an example of the kind of text sent to caregivers via this program.

Locations Served: National

Supporting Research: A study conducted at Northwestern University explored the effectiveness of the program. The study suggests the system “holds promise” and may be able to contribute to the closing of the word gap. The study was conducted with the participation of 260 families enrolled in Head Start in the Chicago metro area. One hundred twenty parents received texts while the remaining 135 families served as a control group. After completing the six-week program, caregivers who received the text messages “reported being significantly more likely to take part in planned activities such as reading to children, doing arts and crafts, playing make-believe, and telling stories” (Ray, 2014). One interesting finding was that families with boys were affected by the texts the most and that these families “planned activities, dress-up play, and storytelling than did parents of boys in the comparison group” (Ray, 2014).

Website: http://parentuniversity.co/

Contact: To sign up: Text @pu2015 to 81010 Phone: (312) 593-6862 Email: chris@parentuniversity.co

Author’s Comment: The free program is currently not running. When they have 2,000 caregivers sign-up new texts will be sent out. In the meantime suggestions and activities are offered on the Parent University website.

“Make ur [sic]

own letter

puzzle. Write the

alphabet on

paper. Cut out

each letters &

scramble on a

table. Have ur [sic] child put

letters back in

ABC order”

Figure 17: Example text sent to the caregivers of three-year-olds enrolled in Parent University (Source: Ray, 2014).

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Faith Based Programs

The Importance of Faith Based Programs

Programs run by faith-based organizations can be effective in communicating the importance of early literacy and healthy development. For many families, particularly African-American, religious congregations serve as an important social network. They form a network of support, charity, and trust with others in their congregation. Caregiver and child education programs promoted by religious groups are more likely to be attuned to the needs of participants because they are more likely to share a network and common experiences. Such programs are more likely to be received warmly by target families because they may feel less judged and more comfortable participating in a program at their own place of worship and run by members of their social network. In addition, the program is more likely to be aligned with the values and beliefs of families, making them more receptive to participation.

Overall, the success of faith-based programs centers on the trust of families. They feel safe, understood, and respected. The types of programs that will help break the Cycle of Low Literacy in Houston will require families to make real changes to their lives. Caregivers must not just learn how to establish a literacy rich environment for their children; they have to be motivated to change their behavior and routines at home. Faith-based organizations and their leaders are strong motivators for individuals who are willing to change their behavior (Miller et al., 2015).

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Faith Based Programs

Saint Petersburg Faith Based Education Program

Program Overview: The Faith Based Program currently serves children throughout their school careers beginning in elementary school. The program promotes literacy and academic success by offering “tutoring assistance, computer labs, homework assistance, interactive literacy activities, peer-to-peer mentoring and youth leadership training” in a safe environment. The program is offered year round and is operated “through the James B. Sanderlin Neighborhood Family Center (SNFC), and funded by the JWB Children’s Services Council of Pinellas County” (TWC in Education, 2014).

Locations Served: The Childs Park community and its surrounding south St. Petersburg, Florida

Supporting Research: None available

Website: None available

Contact: Donna Welch, Program Coordinator Phone: (727) 459-4547

Author’s Comments: This program is designed as a tutoring program for children in St. Petersburg, Florida. Its current design does not involve either very young children or caregivers. However, with modifications to the program, such elements could be added. This program was included as an example of trusted faith-based groups working to improve literacy in their community. Faith-based programs provide the safe and trusting environment in which children learn best.

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The Talking is Teaching: Talk, Read, Sing

Program Overview: The Talking is Teaching: Talk, Read, Sing campaign as discussed above aims to reach as many families as possible through trusted mediums. Caleb Gayle, from the George Kaiser Family Foundation, claims one of the most important components to successful literacy enrichment programs is to have trusted messengers and “strong motivators” deliver the information. Faith leaders are among the most trusted members in their communities, making the community more willing to listen to messages delivered by them than strangers. These individuals are also more likely to motivate for behavioral changes, including those Talking is Teaching hopes caregivers will make at home. Dr. Ray A. Owens, the pastor of a local Metropolitan Baptist Church worked with Gayle to establish a program in his congregation hoping it would bring attention to the importance of language rich lives and to motivate parents and caregivers to actively participate in creating a language saturated environment for young children through talking and singing. (Miller et al., 2015).

The program focuses on both the quantity and quality of language emersion. It is not enough for caregivers to read to their child. The child gets more out of the experience when the adult reading to them is able to direct their attention, peak their curiosity, and engage them in discussion about characters and plot. Each of the 8 original churches participating in the program received long trainings by health education staff who taught church leaders about brain development and how to read with children. Talking is Teaching is a culturally sensitive program, that adjusts to the individual congregations’ time constraints and dominant languages (English, Spanish, and Burmese). The directors encouraged input from church leaders and remained as flexible as possible by recognizing the church leaders had a better understanding of the people and the community they serve. For example, Owens’ church hosts its monthly literacy event after Sunday service to increase participation. He knows the families in his congregation are unlikely to make the trip to church twice in a week. Incentives are also provided for those who attend the event including refreshments and the tote bag with free books, other supplies, and blankets distributed at the end of the event (Miller et al., 2015).

Locations Served: Eight churches in Tulsa, Oklahoma

Supporting Research: Quantitative evidence to support this program is not available at this time.

Website: http://talkingisteaching.org

Contact: infor@talkingisteaching.org

Author’s Comments: The focus up to this point has been to establish a working program that meets the needs of the various communities it is operating in. Now that the program, the curriculum, and the message have been established it is time to formulate tools and measures for evaluation of the program. What impact are they or are they not having? Have behavioral changes been seen among the participating caregivers? What are the challenges and are they significant? In other words, the program needs more than anecdotal evidence to see if it is truly effective.

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Iglesias de Esperanza

Program Overview: In 2009, the Literacy Center of West Michigan and Gatherings of Hope teamed up with local churches to establish the two part program, a Family Literacy/ English Language Learning Program and a Clergy English Language Learning Class. The Family Literacy Program meets for 2 hours each week and focuses on improving adult literacy skills. The lessons cover a variety of topics from faith-based discussions to how to obtain a job, communicate in

common situations, and how to foster child learning at home (Literacy Center of West Michigan, 2013).

Locations Served: Grand Rapids, Michigan

Supporting Research: None available

Website: http://literacycenterwm.org/programs/family-literacy-program/iglesias-de-esperanza/

Contact: Stacey Carson Campos, Iglesias de Esperanza Coordinator

Address: 1120 Monroe Avenue NW, Suite 240, Grand Rapids, MI 49503

Phone: (616) 459-5151

Email: scarson@literacycenterwm.org

Author’s Comments: The program has a variety of focuses when it comes to adult education. This program works to improve adult literacy as well as teaching caregivers how to promote literacy at home with their young children.

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Limitations of this Report

The program list is not exhaustive.

•Many family literacy and caregiver education programs exist that are not included in the report. Theprograms included here are examples of existing efforts to improve the mental and physicaldevelopment of very young children so they enter school with the emergent literacy skills necessary tolearn.

•There are other prominent and trusted institutions in communities that play a significant role ineducating families such as schools . However, these institutions and their roles are not discussed indepth in this report.

•The programs in this report consider caregivers as necessary partners in their efforts to increaseemergent literacy skills among very young children. Beyond this commonality, the programs includedhere are diverse to show there are many effective methods available. This report does not include all ofthe effective methods or program types currently in existance.

The programs may lack generalizability.

•Programs need to be adjusted to fulfill the needs of the communities they serve. Research on eachindividual community will allow program coordinators to identify the needs of the community, the typeof program that will be most effective in meeting those needs, and the adjustments (linguistic andcultural) that will be necessary for the programs' success.

•The programs as they appear here do not take into account the resources of communities. Communitiesfor example might have high immigrant optimism, strong kin networks, established traditions, or otherresources. When deciding what programs to implement keeping in mind the resources of thecommunity is as important as evaluating the needs and will make the community feel more valued.

•Multiple programs may be necessary to fully address the issues of low literacy in communities. Lowliteracy is a complex issue that may require multiple approaches working at the same time to fullyaddress the issue. For example a program providing books and educational material to families at birthmay not have the lasting effects as month long caregiver education programs.

•Some programs may appeal to and be more effective with certain groups in a community. Generalizingthe needs of communities can limit the effectiveness of literacy programs.

Other parts of the Cycle of Low Literacy remain unaddressed.

•Only one aspect of the Cycle of Low Literacy is addressed fully in this report (Ages 0-4). Further work can be done to explore the types of programs that could effectively address the three remaining age ranges of the cycle (i.e. Grades K-3, Grades 4-12, and Adults). To fully address the Cycle of Low Literacy, actions at each point are necessary.

•Even though caregiver education is important to the success of the programs included in this report, the programs included do not focus on increasing the literacy skills of caregivers or adults in general.

This report suggests no measure of emergent literacy skills for kindergarteners.

•Blackwell et al. (2015) call for Harris County to use a standard measure of emergent literacy skills for entering kindergarteners. This report offers suggestions of how to improve emergent literacy skills, among children so they enter school ready to learn. However it does not suggest a method by which Harris County schools can measure such progress.

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Recommendations for Implementing Programs

Conclusion

In Houston’s Literacy Crisis: A Blueprint for Community Action, the BBHLF outlined its six goals related to addressing the literacy crisis facing the City of Houston. This report has helped to address the first three goals.

Goal 1: Raise awareness of Houston’s literacy crisis. While the Blueprint for Community Action described the literacy crisis in depth, this report has raised further awareness by focusing on the harm continued low literacy among Houston’s youngest residents will have on the city’s future. Houston’s economy is increasingly driven by jobs that require a degree beyond a high school diploma. Therefore,

•Identify trusted and respected members of the community.

•Identify the primary languages spoken in the community.

•Learn about the community's cultures and values.

•Identify modes of transportation and select program locations accordingly.

•Identify when salient religious events and meetings occur to avoid scheduling conflicts.

Evaluate the community.

•Make adjustments to meeting times and lengths to fit the schedules of families.

•Keep lines of communication open and encourage regular feedback from caregivers.

•Make small adjustments to the curriculum as necessary to meet caregivers where they are, as long as such adjustments do not interfere with the overall program goals.

•Show respect for participants and their opinions by implementing their suggestions when possible.

Be flexible and responsive to the needs

of the families.

•Programs should have clearly defined goals and objectives so coordinators and families are on the same page.

•Emergent literacy is complex, and one program is unlikely to fully address all of the physical and mental factors that contribute to skill development. Therefore it is important to define what the goals of the program are.

Have clearly defined goals.

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those children who remain trapped in the Cycle of Low Literacy are unlikely to make a living wage in Houston as adults.

Goal 2: Ensure every child enters kindergarten ready to read. Blackwell et al. (2015) discuss the various measures of school readiness currently in use. They also describe how emergent literacy skills can be measured within Harris County. This report does not contribute to Blackwell et al. (2015)’s work by providing further information about measuring school readiness. However, this report has detailed many programs designed help families prepare their very young children for kindergarten. When a common measure is determined to evaluate school readiness in Harris County, as Blackwell et al. (2015) suggest, the effectiveness of the types of programs included will be able to be measured more fully.

Goal 3: Ensure every child reads proficiently by the end of 3rd grade. The programs included in this report help children enter school physically and mentally ready to learn. Some of the programs address health and nutritional issues, which if not properly addressed can lead to difficulty in school emotionally, socially, and academically. Other programs focus on preparing very young children for school mentally by fostering emergent literacy skills. Children who begin school with the appropriate emergent literacy skills are better able to access the kindergarten curriculum which focuses largely on beginning to read and write. Those children who start behind due to limited early exposure to language have difficulty catching up to their better equipped peers and are at risk to fall further behind as they move through school. These programs attempt to help all children enter school ready to learn, making them more likely to read proficiently at the end of 3rd grade.

This report has explored how to address just one part of the literacy crisis facing Houston, very young children. If the Cycle of Low Literacy is to be broken, starting young is important. As Heckman (2006) demonstrated, interventions are most efficient while children are still young because their brains are still building connections. After neural connections have been solidified, interventions to rewrite them are time and monetarily costly. In addition, such interventions can be frustrating and discouraging for young children. However, it is vital that such interventions be made and that children read proficiently by the end of third grade. From fourth grade on obtaining new material becomes increasingly reliant on being able to read. Therefore, if children do not have adequate literacy skills by the end of third grade, they are likely to continue to fall further behind their peers and are four times less likely to graduate from high school. However, for today’s children in Houston even a high school diploma will not be enough for many of them to earn a living wage in the city. This trend will become more prevalent as Houston’s job market continues to demand a more skilled workforce, for which a high school diploma is often not sufficient. Without interventions, just 1 in 5 children growing up in the Texas Gulf Coast Region will have the qualifications demanded of Houston’s rapidly developing economy (Landry et al., n.d.).

Helping very young children develop physically and mentally, even before their birth increases their chances of becoming literate and academically successful. However, young children are dependent on their primary caregivers to provide healthy and literacy rich environments, making primary caregivers indispensable partners in any programs hoping to increase emergent literacy skills among Houston’s youngest residents. As discussed throughout this report, caregivers’ understanding the importance of emergent literacy skills contributes more to the acquisition of emergent literacy skills and school readiness of their children than the caregivers’ level of education. For this reason, it is necessary for programs to gain the trust of primary caregivers in the community and to explain how literacy rich home environments contribute to the school readiness and future success of their children.

Any program hoping to address emergent literacy and school readiness will need primary caregiver participation. However, many primary caregivers who are unaware of the importance of talking, singing,

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and reading with their young children have limited financial resources, are minorities, or immigrants. Therefore, program coordinators must work to understand the groups of people they are working with and adjust their programs accordingly. Partnering with trusted members of the community will help coordinators understand the cultural and structural adjustments the programs should undergo so that the values of the program align with those of the community, allowing them to gain the trust of community members. Without primary caregivers understanding their almost singular role in their child’s early development, as well as the ways in which they can foster emergent literacy skills and school readiness, Houston’s youngest residents will continue to be trapped in the Cycle of Low Literacy.

“Believe in something larger

than yourself… get involved in

the big ideas of your time.”

-Barbara Bush, Former First

Lady

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