importanceoffishers・knowledgeininnovatingadaptive co ... ·...
TRANSCRIPT
1.Introduction
Japanesesandeel(Ammodytespersonatus
Girard)stockisoneofthemostimportantre-
sourcesoftwo-boatpelagictrawlfisheriesin
IseBay,whichopenstothePacificOceanin
centralHonshu,Japan(Fig.1).Atpresent,
about200fleetsareengagedinthisfishery,
andtheannualamountofsandeellandedin
AichiandMieprefecturesexceedstwobillion
yen(~265millionUSD).From 1950to1982,
thesandeelstockwasmanagedusingacom-
mand-and-controlmethodbythelocalgovern-
ment.However,theabruptdepletionofsandeel
stockinIseBayinthe1980sdrovefishersto
regulatetheresource(TOMIYAMAetal.,2008).
TheFisheriesResearchInstituteofAichiPre-
fectureisalsocurrentlyaddressingissuesre-
latedtolocalsandeelfisheries.Thiscollabora-
tionmayfosterprogressintheco-management
offisheriesresourcesinIseBay(TOMIYAMAet
al.,2005).
Co-managementcanbedefinedasapartner-
Lamer49:133141,2011
Soci�t�franco-japonaised'oc�anographie,Tokyo
Importanceoffishers・knowledgeininnovatingadaptive
co-managementinsandeelfisheries
MinoruTOMIYAMA1)* andTeruhisaKOMATSU2)
Abstract:Adaptiveco-managementhasrecentlybeendiscussedasanefficientapproachfor
managingsmall-scalefisheries.Onetypeoflocalecologicalknowledge,fishers・knowledge,has
beenhighlightedasausefulwayforadaptingfisherstoamanagementsystemoffisheriesre-
sources.WepresentacasestudyfromJapantodemonstrateapracticalprocessofevolving
fisheriesmanagementsystemsintoadaptiveco-managementbyintroducingfishers・knowl-
edge.Fishersrecombinedelementsathandduringfishingproceduresforinnovationofthesys-
tem.Theirreflectionsareconsideredtorepresenttheconceptofbricolage,asproposedbyL�vi-
Strauss:i.e.,makingdowithwhatisathand.Fishers・bricolagesappeartobeindispensablefor
successfulimplementationofadaptiveco-management.
Keywords:fishers・knowledge,adaptiveco-management,sandeel,IseBay,bricolage
1)ChitaAgriculture,Forestry,andFisheriesOffice,
1�36,Deguchi-cho,Handa,Aichi475�0903,Japan
2)AtmosphereandOceanResearchInstitute,Uni-
versityofTokyo,5�1�5,Kashiwanoha,Kashiwa,
Chiba277�8564,Japan
* Correspondingauthor
Tel:+81569218111;Fax:+81569252304,
E-mail:[email protected]
Fig.1.Schematicview ofmigration routesofsandeelsfrom spawning groundstonurserygroundsinIseBayandMikawaBay,astheyde-velopfrom eggstoadults.Arrowsindicatethemigrationpathsoflarvaeandjuveniles.ClosedcirclesindicatethelocationsofsandeellandingportsaroundIseBayandMikawaBay.
shiparrangementinwhichthecommunityof
localresourceusers(fishers),thegovernment,
otherstakeholders(boatowners,fishtraders,
boatbuilders,businesspeople),andexternal
agents (non-governmental organizations
[NGOs],academicandresearchinstitutions)
sharetheresponsibilityandauthorityforman-
agementofthefishery(POMEROYandRIVERA-
GUIEB, 2006).Through consultations and
negotiations,thepartnersdevelopaformal
agreementontheirrespectiveroles,responsi-
bilities,andrightsinmanagement.Co-man-
agementcoversvariouspartnershiparrange-
ments,adjuststhedegreeofpowersharing,
andintegrateslocalinformalrelations,tradi-
tions,andcustomstocentralizegovernment
managementsystems(ARMITAGEetal.,2007;
TOWNSEND andSHOTTON,2008).Co-manage-
mentoffisheriescanbeclassifiedintofive
broadtypesaccordingtotherolesofgovern-
mentinrelationtofishers(SENandNIELSEN,
1996):instructive,consultative,cooperative,
advisory,andinformative.Ourcaseinvolves
informativeco-managementbecausethelocal
governmenthasdelegatedfisheriesscientists,
whoprovidevaluableinformationonfishre-
sources,toattendmeetingsoffishergroups
thatdecideuponsomefisheriesmeasures;the
scientistsarethenresponsibleforinforming
thelocalgovernmentofthesedecisions.
Oneofthedistinguishingfeaturesofthe
processofevolvingtoadaptiveco-management
is the introduction offishers・knowledge.
Fishers・knowledge,which hasrecently re-
ceivedattentioninfisheriesstudies,isconsid-
eredonetypeoflocalecologicalknowledges
(e.g.,JOHANNESetal.,2000;HAGGAN etal.,
2007;RUDDLE,2007;GARCIA-QUIJANO,2007;
MAMUN,2010).Suchknowledgecorrespondsto
bricolage,asproposedbyL�VI-STRAUSS(1962)
inhisbookLapens�esauvage(oftentrans-
lated into English asTheSavageMind).
Bricolage, as described by L�VI-STRAUSS
(1962),meansthat・therestillexistsamongus
anactivitythatonthetechnicalplaneprovides
agoodunderstandingofwhatasciencewepre-
fertocall'prior'ratherthan'primitive,'could
havebeenontheplaneofspeculation・(L�VI-
STRAUSS,1962).Recently,the concept of
bricolagewasintroduced into management
sciencetodescribetheprocessofmakingdoby
applyingcombinationsoftheresourcesathand
tonewproblemsandopportunities(BAKERand
NELSON,2005).
InJapan,somelarge-scalefisheriesareman-
aged by top-down orcommand-and-control
methodssuchastotalallowablecatch.But
mostfisheriesconductedincoastalareasofJa-
panaresmallscale(MATSUDAetal.,2010).In
mostcases,successfulresourcemanagementis
conductedbyco-managementorself-manage-
mentmethods.Inthispaper,wepresentseveral
importantpointsconcerningtheoperationof
fisheriesmanagement(UCHIDA andMAKINO,
2008).Inaddition,weprovideexamplesof
fishers・knowledgebeingintroducedintoan
adaptiveco-managementsystem.Wediscuss
thisknowledgeintroducedintotheprocessasa
typeofbricolageinmanagementscience,i.e.,
makingdowithwhatisathand(BAKERand
NELSON,2005).Itisalsoveryimportantto
analyzedevelopmentprocessofsandeelre-
sourcesco-managementsystem inIseBayto
clarifywhatfactorcontributestodevelopthe
systembyapplyinganewlydevelopedanalyti-
calmodelofknowledgecreatingprocess.
2.SandeelfisherymanagementinIseBay
ThesandeelstockinIseBayexperienced
declines in the 1970s and 1980s(Fig.2)
(FUNAKOSHI,1997;TOMIYAMA etal.,2005;
TOMIYAMAetal.,2008).Followingthecollapse
ofthestockinIseBay,aco-managementsys-
temwasimplementedinthe1980s.
Autonomous organizations offishers in
AichiandMiePrefectureshaveplayedacentral
roleinco-managingthesandeelfishery.The
historyoftheshiftfromcommand-and-control
managementto co-managementofsandeel
fisheriesinIseBaycanbedividedintothreepe-
riods:(1)Sandeelpelagictrawlfisherieswere
licensed in 1950 by the Aichiand Mie
prefecturalgovernments(TOMIYAMA etal.,
2005);(2)thesandeelstockinIseBayand
MikawaBaycollapsedfrom late1978to1982
becauseofoverexploitationandenvironmental
deterioration(TOMIYAMA,2009).Afterthiscol-
lapse,fishersinMieandAichiprefecturesand
fisheriesscientistsbelongingtotheprefectural
fisheriesresearchstationsofMieandAichi
Lamer49,2011134
begantodiscussregulatorymeasuresinIse
BayandMikawaBayin1980basedoncollabo-
rationbetweenAichiandMieprefectures.They
decidedtoapplythefirstco-managementsys-
temtosandeelfisheriesin1983.(3)Byintro-
ducingfishers・knowledge,co-managementwas
innovatedintoanadaptiveco-managementin
1990.Themaininnovationsoccurredthrough
thefollowingthreemeasures:(a)protectionof
spawningsandeels,(b)decisionsconcerning
openingday,and(c)decisionsconcerningthe
closingdayofthesandeelfishery.
3.Fishers・knowledgeforinnovation ofa
managementsystem
A collaborativesurveybetweenfishersand
fisheriesscientistsisessentialforachievement
ofsustainableco-managementbasedonscien-
tificresearchdesign,whichisakeyfactorina
co-managementsystem.Thepracticaltoolsfor
themanagementsystem havebeeninnovated
using fisher・s knowledge that is to say
bricolage.
(a)Protectionofspawningsandeels
Fisheries scientists belonging to the
prefecturalfisheriesexperimentalstationsof
AichiandMiegathereddataregardingthemi-
gratingareaofspawningsandeelsusingby-
catch and echo-sounder information in
December.Asforfishers・knowledge,fishers
havenoticedthatsandeelsspawnearlierwhen
by-catchofsandeelinwhitebaittrawlfisheries
hasoccurredearlierthaninausualseason.Us-
inginformationontimeoftheby-catch,weset
refugiaforspawningsandeelatthemouthof
IseBay.Moreover,inmid-January,sandeel
fishersvoluntarilyconductedasurveytocatch
spawners.Anopenmeetingwasorganizedto
examinetheovarysamplesandestimatethe
timingofsandeelspawning.Relatedfishers
andfisheriesscientistsbelongingtobothMie
andAichiprefecturesattendedthemeeting,
duringwhichthepartiesinvolvedengagedin
vigorousdiscussionanddecidedonthetiming
oftheopeningdayforsandeelfisheriesinearly
spring,asdiscussedbelow.
(b)Decisionconcerningopeningday
Bongo-netsareplanktonsamplinggearcon-
sistingoftwocircleringswithanetbutnobri-
dle.Thelackofabridlereducesnetavoidance
byplankton,whichareoftendeterredbythe
approachofabridle.Thus,thisnetisaveryef-
fectivetoolforforecastingthecatchofthe0�year-groupsandeelbeforethefishingseason
(TOMIYAMA,2007).Whenthebodylength(BL)
ofsandeelreaches8to10mm,weevaluatedthe
0�year-groupfishstocksizeusingdensitydata
from bongo-netcatches(framediameterof
60cm,netlengthof3m,andmeshsizeof
0.335mm).
Undera co-managementframework,the
openingdayforsandeelfishingwassetforthe
daywhensandeellarvaereach35mm inBL.
Therefore,accurategrowthpredictionswere
required.Theerrorcausedbyavoidanceof
bong-netmouthsisnotnegligiblebecauseof
theimprovedswimmingabilityattainedbylar-
vaeat10to12mm inBL.Toovercomethis
problem,theAichiFisheriesExperimentalSta-
tion,along with sandeelfishers,neededto
fishers・knowledgeinsandeelfisheriesco-management 135
Fig.2.AnnuallandingofsandeelinAichiPrefecturefrom1950to2004.Blackarrowsandboxedleg-endsoutlinetheregulatorypracticesofresourcemanagement.Blacklineswitharrowsonthehorizontalaxisshowperiodsofthelargemean-deroftheKuroshioCurrent,whichcausesab-normally low watertemperaturesin coastalwatersalongthePacificcoastnearIseBayandMikawaBay.①Regulationoffishingduringthespawningperiod.② Regulationofthefishingoflargejuveniles.③ Openingdaycontrolofthefishing season by thefisheriesmanagementsimulationmodel.④ Establishmentoftheclos-ingday.⑤ Adaptiveestablishmentoffisheriesrefugia
developanewsamplinggearthatcancapture
sandeellarvaelargerthan 10 mm in BL
(TOMIYAMA,2007).Atthebeginningofgear
development,afisheriesscientistofAichipre-
fecturerequestedfisherstotransfertheirexpe-
riencesontrawlnetstocapturesandeellarvae
largerthan10mm inBL.Mid-watertrawl
fishersvoluntarilymadeanetsetconsistingof
meshnettube(meshsize:1.54mm)recycled
fromtheirmid-watertrawlnetthathadactu-
allyusedforsandeelfisheries.Thus,thisnew
samplingnetwasbasedonfishers・know-how
ofmakingtrawlnetset.Thenetmouthhasa
diameterofabout3mandopenedbyacanvas
kite(Fig.3)developedbyNichimoCo.,Ltd.
(TOMIYAMA,2007).Theopeningmechanism
promptedthename・kite-net.・Checkingshape
ofthenetdeployedinthefieldatfirst,fishers
tooktheinitiativeofexperiment.Towingthe
netneartheseasurfacefromtheirboat,fishers
observedwhetherthenethadwrinkledornot.
Thenthefishersputdownandtowedthenetin
themiddlelayer,andsurveyedcross-section
view ofthenetusing their echo-sounder
equipped in their boat. Thus, this net
innovationrepresentsanexampleofbricolage
withinco-management.Finally,thekite-net
cancollectsandeellarvaeofawidesizedistri-
butionrangingfrom10to30mminBL.
(c)Decisionconcerningtheclosingdayofthe
sandeelfishery
Adaptive co-management of sandeelre-
sourcesrequirestoprotectspawningsandeel
throughoutsuccessive reproductive seasons
duringthefishingseason.Therefore,manyre-
searchespointedoutthatmarineprotectedar-
eas(MPAs)werenecessaryforsustainable
sandeelfisheriesinIseBay(TOMIYAMAetal.,
2008;TOMIYAMA,2009;MATSUDA etal.,2010)
(Fig.4).MPAsaredefinedbytheInterna-
tionalUnionforConservationofNature(IUCN,
1994)as・anyareaofintertidalorsubtidalter-
rain,togetherwithitsoverlyingwaterandas-
sociatedflora,fauna,historicalandcultural
features,whichhasbeenreservedbylaw or
othereffectivemeanstoprotectpartorallof
theenclosedenvironment.・Thepresentcaseis
appliedtheMPAsclassifiedasCategoryIV
meaningthattheyaredesignatedforresource
Lamer49,2011136
Fig.3.Photographshowingfishersparticipatinginsandeellarvaesamplingusingakite-net(upperpanel)andadiagramofthekite-net(lowerpanel).
management(IUCN,1994).Whilenofishcanbe
caughtwithintheMPAsthroughouttheyear,
itisnotpracticalforsandeelresourceswhose
spawninggroundschangeduringafishingsea-
son(Fig.4).Anothertypeofprotectedareais
fisheriesrefugia(PETERSON and PERNETTA,
2006),whicharedefinedas・spatiallyandgeo-
graphicallydefined,marineorcoastalareasin
whichspecificmanagementmeasuresareap-
pliedtosustainimportantspecies[fisheriesre-
sources]duringcriticalstagesoftheirlife
cycle,fortheirsustainableuse.・Thus,fisheries
refugiahasbeenestablishedsince2001(Fig.1).
Scientistsfromthefisheriesexperimentalsta-
tionsinAichiandMieprefecturesdetermined
fisheries refugia that protected spawning
sandeelduringthefishingseason(TOMIYAMA,
2009)(Fig.4).Therefugia locationsare
changedaccordingtomigrationofspawners.
Theseadaptiveco-managementproceduresuse
diverseinformationobtainedbymodernfish-
ingequipments,suchasecho-sounders,GPS
plotters,fisheryradiosonfishingboats,and
cellulartelephonesoffishers,allofwhichalso
representexamplesofbricolage.Forexample,
thedistributionofsandeelshoalswasinvesti-
gatedusingechosoundersoperatingatboth50
and200kHz.Fishers・knowledgecanidentifya
shoalofsandeellarvaewithitsshapeandap-
pearanceonechogramsattwodifferentfre-
quencies(TOMIYAMAandYANAGIBASHI,2004).
Aslarvaedevelopintojuvenilesandeventu-
allyadults,sandeelsgraduallymovefromthe
interiortothemouthofIseBay,wherethey
enterintoaestivationinMay-June(Fig.1)
whenbottom watertemperaturesexceed17℃
(TOMIYAMAandYANAGIBASHI,2004).Fisheries
scientistsestimatedistributionareaofadult
largersandeelfrom collectingcatchdataof
sandeelbyintervieworphonetofishers.Based
ontheestimation,fisheriesscientistsanda
dozenleadersofsandeelfishersdiscussandde-
cideareaofrefugia.Thefisheriesrefugiaare
regulatedbyonlyfishers.Thus,bothlocal
fishers・knowledgeinsandeelfisheriesco-management 137
Fig.4.FisheriesrefugiaforsandeelinIseBayandMikawaBay,Japanin2005.Thelo-cationsoffisheriesrefugiawerechangedweeklybasedoninformationregardingthemigrationroutesofspawnersdetectedbyfishers.
governmentsofAichiandMieprefecturesdon
・ttakeresponsibilityforcontroloffisheriesin
therefugia.Ontheotherhand,theyallocate
adequatefisheriesscientistsofbothprefectures
toestablishtherefugiaandmonitorsandeelre-
sources,andsupportfinanciallyresearchac-
tivities.ThesescientistsofAichiand Mie
prefecturesannouncefishersremainedstockof
sandeelestimatedfromdailylandingdata.
Todeterminetheonsetofaestivation,fisher-
iesscientistsusea・karatsuri・rakeatthe
sandeelaestivationgroundsinMay-June.This
rakewasdevelopedbasedonfishinggearused
tocatchburrowingflatfishinthesandandis
appliedtoquantifythenumberofremaining
spawnersburrowinginthesandinthesum-
mer.ThisgearisamodificationofTandaand
Okamoto・s(1992) rake. Developed using
fishers・inputandmodifiedfrom theactual
fishinggearusedtocatchburrowingflatfish
(TOMIYAMA and YANAGIBASHI, 2004), the
karatsurirakerepresentsanotherexampleof
bricolage.
4.Innovationofthemanagementsystem
Inmanycases,resourcedepletionmotivates
fisherstobeginfisherymanagement,inwhat
iscalled・thedepletioncrisismodel・(BERKES
andTURNER,2006).ForthesandeelstockinIse
Bay,co-managementbeganwhendepletionbe-
cameapparentaround1980.Alsointhecaseof
entrepreneurialfirm,innovationsoftenoccur
undershortageofhumanorfinancialresources
(BAKERandNELSON,2005).Theseveralinnova-
tionsbasedonbricolagementionedabovewere
introducedtothemanagementsystem,which
developedintoadaptiveco-managementfrom
thepreviousco-managementsystem(Fig.5).
Whenthepartiesinvolveddiscussedtheman-
agementofsandeelstock,knowledgeoffishers
playedanimportantroleinthe・adaptive・as-
pectoftheapproach(BERKES,2007,2009).Lo-
calecologicalknowledge(OLSSON andFOLKE,
2001;GADHAVetal.,2003;MAMUN,2010),tradi-
tionalecologicalknowledge(INGLIS,1993;
RUDDLE, 2007), and fishers・ knowledge
(JOHANNES etal.,2000;STEAD etal.,2006;
GARCIA-QUIJANO,2007;HAGGAN etal.,2007;
HILBORN,2008)havebeentreatedasimportant
factorsinresourcemanagement.Incontrastto
othertypesoflocalecologicalknowledge,the
sandeelfishers・knowledgeisnotatraditional
Lamer49,2011138
Fig.5.Conceptualmodelsdepictingsandeelmanagementsystemsrangingfrom com-mand-and-controltoadaptiveco-managementthroughco-management.
butratheranon-siteorpracticalknowledge.
Table1presentsthreecasesofbricolagein
whichfishers・knowledgewasusedtoovercome
ashortageinscientificknowledge.Thesethree
casesofbricolagecorrespondtoBAKERandNe
lson・s definition ofbricolage(BAKER and
NELSON,2005),i.e.,・makingdobyapplying
combinationsoftheresourcesathandtonew
problemsandopportunities.・
Tounderstandthesuccessofco-management
ofsandeelresourcesandapplyittoanother
fishery,itisveryinterestingtoclarifythe
process ofco-management development in
whichthestakeholdersplayroles.Considering
therolesoffishersandfisheriesscientists,we
canapplyananalyzingmodeltotheprocess
(Fig.6).WeusehereSECImodeldevelopedby
NONAKA andTAKEUCHI(1995)whoanalyzed
how theknowledgecreating processworks
withtacitandexplicitknowledgeinanorgani-
zation,especiallyenterprises.Theyclassified
four stages(Socialization,Externalization,
CombinationandInternalization)inknowl-
edgecreatingprocess.Atfirst,socialization
processfocusesontacittotacitknowledgelink-
ing.Tacitknowledgegoesbeyondthebound-
aryandnewknowledgeiscreatedbyusingthe
processofinteractions,observing,discussing,
analyzing,spendingtimetogetherorlivingin
sameenvironment.Thesocializationisalso
knownasconvertingnewknowledgethrough
sharedexperiences.Externalizationprocessfo-
cusesontacittoexplicitknowledgelinking.It
helpsin creating new knowledgeastacit
knowledgecomesoutofitsboundaryandbe-
camecollectivegroupknowledge.Combination
isaprocesswhereknowledgetransformsfrom
explicitknowledgetoexplicitknowledge.By
internalization,explicitknowledgeiscreated
usingtacitknowledgeandissharedacrossthe
organization.Whenthistacitknowledgeis
readorpracticedbyindividualsthenitbroad-
ensthelearningspiralofknowledgecreation.
Organizationtriestoinnovateorlearnwhen
thisnewknowledgeissharedinSocialization
process.AccordingtotheSECImodel,fishers
fishers・knowledgeinsandeelfisheriesco-management 139
Table1.Shortagesinscientificknowledge,applicationofbricolages,andcomponentsoffishers・knowledge
Shortageinscientificknowledge Bricolagesbyfishers・knowledge
Improvementoflarvalsampler
Usualsamplinggearcouldneithercatchlargerlarvaenorbeoperatedbysmallboat.
Fishersamelioratewingnetwithanetmouthlargerthanusualsam-plingnetfrom pelagictrawlnetforhalfbeak(sayori).
Developmentofkaraturi-rake
Nogearwereavailabletocapturesandeelburrowing in sandduringaestivation.
Fishers・knowlegdeonfishinggearforcapturingflatfishhintstode-velop a new sampling gear,karatsuti-rake,tocatchsandeebur-rowinginsand.
Settingfisheriesrefugiaforconservationofspawnersinthenextyear
Littlewasknownaboutthemigrat-ingpath.
Surveybyfishersrevealedthemi-gratingpathofsandeelschoolusingechosoundersequippedintheboatsandfisheriesradio.
Fig.6.Applyingthecreatingmodel,SECImodel,proposedbyNonakaandTakeuchi(1995)toadaptiveco-managementofsandeelresources.Darkareashowsaraugeofbricolage.
knowledgeandmanagementmeasuresarede-
finedastacitandexplicitknowledge,respec-
tively,underfourconversionphases:Socializa-
tion,Externalization,CombinationandInter-
nalization(Fig.6).
Weapplythismodeltothecaseofsandeel・s
stock management.In Socialization phase,
tacitknowledgecommonamongallfisherisin-
tegratedunderinitiativesoffishers・leaders.
So,thetacit(fishers・)knowledgeissharedby
thefishers・group.Fishers・bricolageiseffec-
tiveinExternalizationphase,incooperation
withfisheriesscientists.Inthisphase,tacit
(fishers・)knowledgeisconvertedintoexplicit
knowledge,such asmanagementmeasures.
Furthermore,themeasuresareeasilygained
consensus-buildingamongfishersbecauseit
containstacitknowledgeinitself.InCombina-
tionphase,explicitknowledgeofequipments
forco-managementsuchaskite-net,karatsuri
rakerarecombinedtodecisideopeningand
closingdaysofsandeelfisheryandfishery
refugiaforprotectionofspawningsandeel.In
Internalization phase,fishers participating
monitoring ofsandeel・sstock,theirunder-
standingwillspiralupward.Thisanalysissug-
geststhatbricolageisakeytostartcreationof
co-managementofsandeelresources.There-
fore,itisveryimportantforfisheriesscien-
tists,whoarechargedinexplicitknowledge,to
contact closely fishers for developing co-
managementoffishresources.
MostofcoastalfisheriesinJapanaresmall
scale(MATSUDA etal.,2010).Resourceman-
agement methods for small-scale fisheries
shouldbedistinctfromthoseusedinindustrial
fisheries,e.g.,individualquotaorindividual
transferablequotamethods.Asshownhere,
theintroductionoffishers・knowledgeinto
coastalfisheriescan bevery effective.By
adoptingbricolagesbasedonfishers・knowl-
edge,expensiveresearch equipmentisnot
neededtoestablishaneffectiveresourceman-
agementsystem becausefishingboatscanbe
usedasresearchvesselsandfishinggearcan
serveassamplinggear.Ourpracticeshighlight
thepotentialforco-managementofsmall-scale
fisheriesusingtheconceptofbricolageandpar-
ticipationbyrelatedfishersnotonlyinIseBay
butalsoinotherareas.Inaddition,intrduction
offisheriesrefugiaacceptableforfishersis
veryeffectiveforco-management.
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Received:February20,2011Accepted:November16,2011
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