impact of smut disease of sorghum production in gabilay...

Impact of Smut Disease of Sorghum Production in Gabilay Area 2015

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE & NRM, GOLLIS UNIVERSITY

HARGIESA, SOMALILAND

Impact of Smut Disease of Sorghum Production in Gabilay Area

Abdishkuur Muxumed Hassan

&

NimcoHussien Bare

SUPERVISOR: Dr Hared A/llahi Nur.

July 2015


i

APPROVAL CERTIFICATE

This is to v vcertify that the project entitled “Impact of Sorghum Smut Disease in Gabilay

Region” is truly work done by.

Abdishakuur Muxumed Hassan

&

Nimco Hussien Barre

I Compilation of the requirement for the bachelor degree of Agriculture Natural Resource

Management

(Dr Hareed Cabdilaahi Nuur)

Advisor

This thesis has been submitted with my approval as supervise

Signature _______________________

Date _______________________

In my capacity as supervisor of the candidate’s thesis, I certify that the above statements are

true to the best of my knowledge

July 2015


ii

DECLARTION

We hereby declare that thesis is own work it not been presented for any Degree in Gollis

University.

This research (Thesis) has been submitted to our supervisor with great attention he finally

approved as an acceptable thesis.

Dean Acting Faculty of Agriculture Natural Resource Management

Mr.Axmed Ibraahim Aadan

Signature________________

Date ___________________


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DEDICATION

We would love to dedicate this thesis to the soul of my beloved mother who had raised me to

be the person I am today. To my father, who taught me that the best kind of knowledge to

have is that which is learned to be put into practice, who have supported us morally and

materially from the beginning to the end of our research.

This thesis is also dedicated to our classmates who always used to give us important

documents (materials) required for the study.

Finally, this thesis is dedicated to all students of Gollis University who are interested to do

their research papers, specially, the Faculty of Agriculture Natural Resource Management.


iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First, We are thanking passionately the Almighty, Allah (SWT) for the strength that keeps us

standing and for the hope that keep us believing that the development of this paper has at last

being achieved and hopefully will become of important use to its readers.

We are fully grateful to Dr: Hared Abdilaahi Nuur the adviser of our agriculture final year

thesis, under his personal guidance and hard work; we have learnt a lot of knowledge from

his generous help and care.

We want to express our gratitude to all the people who have given their heartfelt support in

making this compilation a magnificent experience.

I also want to thank my family who inspired, encouraged and fully supported me for every

trial that comes my way. To my much loved mother, and my uncle and brothers who gave me

not just financial, but moral and spiritual aid.

Other hand we would like to thanks species student who help to get some information of

during the process writing book thesis Mohamed Ahmed Ibrahim Cigaal, Aadan Iid

Qolonbi and Daaha Mohamed Cabdi

My last but not least thanks go to the management, staff and lecturers of the Gollis

University college especially my honourable teacher Dr: Hared Abdilaahi Nuur who

tough us the most important courses in bachelor degree of agriculture, to management of the

faculty of agriculture , which has been caring and building me for my better future for three

consecutive years. I would specially thank my Dean Acting of faculty of agriculture and

natural resource management Mr.: Ahmed Ibrahim Adam who morally, technically

supported and encouraged us in writing thesis. , Associate who has gave usmore advices and

experiences during the book writing and administrators of the faculty office.


v

Contents

APPROVAL CERTIFICATE .................................................................................................................. i

DECLARTION ....................................................................................................................................... ii

DEDICATION ....................................................................................................................................... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..................................................................................................................... iv

Contents .................................................................................................................................................. v

List of Tables ....................................................................................................................................... viii

List of Photos ....................................................................................................................................... viii

List of Figures ........................................................................................................................................ ix

Executive Summery ................................................................................................................................ x

CHAPTER ONE ..................................................................................................................................... 1

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Background. .................................................................................................................................. 1

1.2: PROBLEM STATEMENT. ......................................................................................................... 1

1.3: SCOPE OF THE STUDY. ........................................................................................................... 2

1.3.1Location .................................................................................................................................. 2

1.3.2 Environmental profiles Natural elements: ....................................................................... 2

1.3.3 Climate: ................................................................................................................................ 2

1.3.4 Soil and vegetation: .............................................................................................................. 3

1.3.5 Rainfall and water resources: ................................................................................................. 3

1.3.6 Environmental hazards of Gabilay ...................................................................................... 3

1.4. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES. ........................................................................................................ 3

1.4.1: These are specific objectives. ............................................................................................... 4

1.5: LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY............................................................................................... 4

CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................................................... 5

LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................................... 5

2.0: overview....................................................................................................................................... 5

2.1. Sorghum History .......................................................................................................................... 5

2.2: Sorghum Uses .............................................................................................................................. 5

2.3 SORGHUM SMUTS .................................................................................................................. 6

2.4 Smut .............................................................................................................................................. 6

2.5Types of smut Disease of sorghum ................................................................................................ 6

2.5.1Head smut ............................................................................................................................... 6


vi

2.5.2. Loose Kernel Smut................................................................................................................ 8

2.5.3.Covered Kernel Smut ........................................................................................................... 11

2.5.4. Long smut ........................................................................................................................... 14

2.6 Importance smut disease ............................................................................................................. 17

2.7 The general management of smut sorghum Disease ................................................................. 19

Treatment .................................................................................................................................... 19

2.7.1 Management Options of Head Smut .................................................................................... 20

2.7.3 Management Options of Grain Smut ....................................................................................... 20

2.7.4 Management Options loose smut ........................................................................................ 20

CHAPTER THREE .............................................................................................................................. 22

METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................... 22

3.1. Research design ......................................................................................................................... 22

3.2. Research approach ..................................................................................................................... 22

3.3. Study location ............................................................................................................................ 22

3.4. Research techniques ................................................................................................................... 22

3.5. Sample design ............................................................................................................................ 22

3.6. Population of the study .............................................................................................................. 23

3.7. Sampling techniques .................................................................................................................. 23

CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................................. 24

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ....................................................................................................... 24

4.0: Over view. .................................................................................................................................. 24

4.1 Gender ..................................................................................................................................... 24

4.2 Age .............................................................................................................................................. 25

4.3 Marital Status .............................................................................................................................. 26

4.4 Season the Damage of Smut is Very High .................................................................................. 27

4.6 Kind of Control which suitable ................................................................................................... 29

4.7 Types s of Smut disease They Know .......................................................................................... 30

.......................................................................................................................................................... 30

4.8 Field Sanitation the Farm for the Residue of the Smut for the Next Year .................................. 31

4.9 Major problems of sorghum production in gabilay area ............................................................. 32

4.10 Recent Year Damage of Smut Disease is High ......................................................................... 33

4.11 Varieties sorghum that is growing in Gabilay Area .................................................................. 34

4.12 Any Help for Sorghum smut control During time of Production ............................................. 35

4.13Local names they know for smut diseases ................................................................................. 36


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4.14 Is there any effect of smut on Grains ........................................................................................ 37

4.15main problems of smut in sorghum gabilay region .................................................................... 37

CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................................................................. 39

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................... 39

5.0: Overview. ................................................................................................................................. 39

5.1: Conclusion. ................................................................................................................................ 39

5.2: Recommendation. ...................................................................................................................... 39

Questionnaire: ....................................................................................................................................... 41

REFERENCE ........................................................................................................................................ 45


viii

List of Tables

Table 1: Characteristics of Four Smut

Fung.........................................................................................27

Table 2: Comparison of Sorghum Smut...............................................................................28

Table 3: Estimated Sorghum Crop Loss Due To Smut in Nigeria ...................................30

Table 4: Season The Damage Of Smut is Very High............................................................38

List of Photos

Photo1:Headsmut(Sphacelothecareilianum)......................................................................19

Photo 2: .Teliospores of Sporisorium as they would appear under a highpower

Microscope. Each spiny..........................................................................................................21

Photo 3: Loose kernel smut of sorghum: A, healthy head; B, head infected..........................22

Photo 4: Covered kernel smut on sorghum………………………………………………………...24


ix

List of Figures

Figure 1:

Gender...................................................................................................................................35

Figure 2:

Age.........................................................................................................................................36

Figure 3: Martial Status ....................................................................................................37

Figure4: Percent of yield loss of sorghum production.........................................................39

Figure5:.Kind of Control Smut.............................................................................................40

Figure6:Types of Smut Disease They Know ....................................................................41

Figure7: Field Sanitation Farm of The Residue. ..............................................................42

Figure 8: Major Problems of Sorghum Producation...........................................................43

Figure 9: Recent years Damage of Smut Disease is high.....................................................44

Figure 10: Varieties Sorghum that is grown Gabilay ...........................................................45

Figure 11:Any Help for Sorghum Sut During time production............................................46

Figure 12: Local Names Smut.........................................................................................47

Figure 13:.Any Effect of Smut Grains ..................................................................................48


x

Executive Summery

This study is concerned about impact sorghum smut disease to Somaliland farmers after

research collected from relevant places.

The area we were carry out this study is the Gabilay Region of Somaliland where we were

met ministry of Agriculture all other relevant institutions such as FAO, Mado ,Ifad and

other NGO’S that work farmers to control smut disease and protection.

It should be vital to know the reason we worked this research to display the impact of smut

disease on farmers which changed the value our production and made it poor quality and high

yield also effect livestock and human which were feeding those things on the sorghum.

The ministry of Agriculture, other International NGO and management of the farmers in

Somaliland country. Including sorghum smut disease, water shortage, soil fertile and land

which is become is rich for production.

This event isstating after when increase this currently years have got more problems of smut

disease those were impact the production of high yield of the farmers .It should try to

management impact of smut disease


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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background.

Smut disease that has started in Somaliland arrived when the British colonial possession of

the date (1860) in the same period of time fixed for Farmers disease called smut which

damages the productions. Without checking the official history of the disease from the

country.

When talking about the fact smut is a serious disease, especially in corn and sorghum

Farmers. Up period, there is still a problem in many countries; particularly in Farmers

Somaliland kept most of the government cannot do anything since the beginning of smut

disease.

Disease often known Somali language (awaarayti) disease is often observed during

harvesting

The disease affects strength grains leading to either non useful to apart from forage.

1.2: PROBLEM STATEMENT.

The main problem we wrote this study is to exhibit the impact of sorghum smut disease

Which changed the value our production and when we saw the effects on the crop, especially

farmers of Somaliland that affects their production.

This encouraged us to find a solution this smut disease. That causes a lot of Farmers who is

deeply concerned about the damage of the crop each year.

The disease is the most effect on productivity which Farmers cannot control, especially in

cereal crop.


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1.3: SCOPE OF THE STUDY.

1.3.1Location

Gabiley is one of the oldest towns in northern Somalia after Zeila, Berbera and Amud. Some

stones left behind in the area were believed to have been earmarked for the construction of

pyramids

Gabiley is located 54 km west of Hargeisa, the capital of Somaliland. The center of the

Gabiley sub-region, it is bounded on the north by the Gulf of Aden, on the west by

the Awdal region, on the east by Hargeisa, and on the south by the Somali Region o

The area we will carried out this study is the gabilay region area where we went ministry of

agriculture and all other relevant institutions such as FAO. Concern and other NGO’S

work sorghum smut control.

. The reason we choose this gabilay region are is because where most of the region's crops

are produced Somaliland especial cereal corps. Which we can use this study.

1.3.2 Environmental profiles Natural elements:

Topography: Gabiley town is located around 1,428 meters above sea level. Landform is

generally plain and undulates in some areas. Topography is typically extended from the

coastal range called Ogo, which is highland and receives comparatively the highest rainfall in

Somaliland.

1.3.3 Climate:

Gabiley and the surrounding area have a mild climate throughout the year. In the summer

(April through September) the average temperature is above 35 degrees Celsius, while in the

winter it drops to 5 degrees Celsius. Humidity varies from 63 percent in the dry season to 82

percent in the rainy season.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeila

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berbera

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amud

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hargeisa

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Aden

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awdal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali_Region


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1.3.4 Soil and vegetation:

Soil is usually sandy and clay in the plains, but fertile soil is located around the water

catchment areas and river basins where there is agriculture production. Scrub-covered and

generally drab plains known as the guban (scrubland) are crossed by broad, shallow

watercourses that are beds of dry sand except in the rainy seasonsi. Vegetation is very much

encouraged in the whole district, with more than 70 percent of Gabiley inhabitants involved

in agriculture and food production. Gabiley has around 27,000 rain-fed farms and 3,500

irrigated farms.

1.3.5 Rainfall and water resources:

Gabiley’s average rainfall is between 500 and 650 millimetres annually. There are not

appropriate rainwater catchments such as dams, but there are small individual water

catchments such as water tanks/reservoirs or birkads, which do not have any significant

impact on rainwater harvesting. In addition, several privately maintained boreholes and

shallow wells are available in the district.

1.3.6 Environmental hazards of Gabilay

There are some environmental hazards in Gabiley:

Erosion and environmental degradation, i.e. lots of gullies, dry rivers, and cracked

land

Cutting vegetation for charcoal production, which causes erosion and environmental

degradation

Poor waste collection and lack of sanitary landfills Slaughterhouse waste, which is

disposed of outside without treatment

Plastic bags

Floods from heavy rains, which wash out fertile sands

1.4. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES.

The main objective of the study about the problem of sorghum smut disease in gabilay region

1: What are accurance of smut disease in general?

2: What are types of smut disease accruing in the area?

3: How many percentage of yield loss due to smut disease?

4: Which types of methods of control used by the farmer in smut disease?


4

1.4.1: These are specific objectives.

To describe what are accuracy of smut disease in general.

To explore what are types of smut disease accruing in the area

To assess percentage yield loss due to smut diseases

To demonstrate which types of methods of control used by the farmer in smut

disease.

1.5: LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

i. Time: We are students who prepare other main courses in this course by the way that

we learn and go other educational institutions to learn something this can make

challenge the time we are going to spent this study.

ii. Financial problem: we are unemployed students who do not afford to make many

copies

iii. Shortage of data: the data which have been prepared is so short and most of it cannot

be improved


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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0: overview.

This chapter is about what the researchers wrote about the topic under consideration. The

study namely impact of smut disease of sorghum will be explained.

This chapter focuses on the following topics: history of sorghum, uses of sorghum, causes of

smut disease, types of smut diseases, how smut reduces sorghum production and control of

smut diseases.

2.1. Sorghum History

The origin and early domestication of sorghum took place in North-eastern Africa and the

earliest known record of sorghum comes from an archaeological dig at Nabta Playa, near the

Egyptian-Sudanese border and had been dated at 8,000 B.C. It spread throughout Africa and

along the way adapted to a wide range of environments, from the highlands of Ethiopia to the

semi-arid Sahel.

The development and spread of five different races of sorghum can, in many cases, be

attributed to the movement of various tribal groups in Africa. Sorghum then spread to India

and China and eventually worked its way into Australia. The first known record of sorghum

in the United States comes from who wrote about its application in producing brooms.

2.2: Sorghum Uses

In the United States, South America, and Australia sorghum grain is used primarily for

livestock feed and in a growing number of ethanol plants. Sorghum produces the same

amount of ethanol per bushel as comparable feedstock’s and uses one third less water. In the

livestock market, sorghum is used in the poultry, beef and pork industries. Stems and foliage

are used for green chop, hay, silage, and pasture. A significant amount of U.S. sorghum is

also exported to international markets where it is used for animal feed and ethanol.

Sorghum has recently appeared in food products in the U.S. because of use in gluten-free

food products. Sorghum is an excellent substitute for wheat for those who cannot tolerate

gluten. Sorghum is used to make both leavened and unleavened breads. In Sahelian Africa, it


6

is primarily used in couscous. Various fermented and unfermented beverages are made from

sorghum. It can be steamed or popped and is consumed as a fresh vegetable in some areas of

the world. Syrup is made from sweet sorghum.

Sorghum is also used for building material, fencing, floral arrangements, pet food and broom

2.3 SORGHUM SMUTS

Smuts are one of the most important diseases of sorghum inmuch of the Midwest, especially

where untreated seed is planted. Damage is confined almost entirely to the head or panicle,

reducing both the grain yield and forage value. Three sorghum smuts are common in the

Midwest: covered kernel smut, loose kernel smut, and head smut. Each one is caused by a

different species of the fungus Sporisorium

2.4 Smut

The smuts are multicellular fungi, that are characterized by their large numbers

of teliospores. The smuts get their name from a Germanic word for dirt because of their dark,

thick-walled and dust-like teliospores. They are mostly Ustilaginomycetes (of the class

Teliomycetae, subphylum Basidiomycota) and can cause plant disease. The smuts are

grouped with the other basidiomycetes because of their commonalities concerning sexual

reproduction.

Smuts are cereal and crop pathogens that most notably affect members of the grass family

(Graminaceae). Economically important hosts include maize, barley, wheat, oats, sugarcane,

and sorghum. .

2.5Types of smut Disease of sorghum

There are four different kind of smut affecting of sorghum. These are Head smut, Long smut,

cover kernel smut, loose kernel smut. Of this head smut is more or widespread and damage

while the other three smuts occur relatively of low frequency but are potentially important in

several sorghum growing in region of the world. Because of their potential economic

importance, these are being describe here and also comparison of smut sorghum (table 2)

2.5.1Head smut

Head smut is common many part of sorghum growing regions of the world. Africa has been

suggested as the origin of the pathogen, although different races infect sorghum, corn and

sudangrass over a wide geographical area, including Europe, Aorth and South America,

Mexico, Africa, Asia, Australia, New Zealand, and the West Indies. In recent years head smut

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teliospores

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ustilaginomycetes

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidiomycota

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_disease

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidiomycetes

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grass

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graminaceae

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barley

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheat


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several has increase d due to cultivation some susceptible sorghum cultivars or the

appearance of more virulent races. It on of the few smut not control by seed treatment

management of host resistance. Consequently, head smut considered as potentially important

disease because pathogen is variability.

2.5.1.1. Head Smut causes:

Head smut caused by Sporisoriumholci-sorghi(synonyms S. reilianumand

Sphacelothecareiliana). Say is not so widespread and damaging in the Midwest as the kernel

smuts. Head smut attacks both corn and sorghum, being more common on the latter. Separate

physiologic races occur on corn and on sorghums.

Head smut has increased in severity proportionately to intensive cultivation of susceptible

hybrids.

Smutted plants also have weakened root systems and commonly exhibit more severe stalk

and root rots than smut –free plant.

Infection first appears when the young head, enclosed in the boot, is usually completely

replaced by a large smut gall covered by a thick whitish membrane.

The membrane soon ruptures, often before the head emerges, exposing a mass of dark brown

to black, powdery teliospores intermingled with a network of long, thin, dark, broomlike

filaments of vascular tissue (Photo 1). The head may be totally smutted with characteristic

“witches’ brooms,” i.e., many small, rolled leaves protruding from the heads of suckers at the

nodes or joints of some sweet sorghums and sudangrass cultivars. Some cultivars are

dwarfed, others are stunted due to a lack of elongation of the peduncle. Wind and rain quickly

scatter the smut spores to the soil and plant debris, where they live through the winter.

When sorghum seed is planted the following spring, the smut spores (9 to 14 microns in

diameter) already in the soil germinate along with the seed to form a 4-celled or branched

promycelium that bears sporidia terminally and near the septa.

The sporidia may sprout to form yeast like secondary sporidia (Photo 2) or may germinate to

form a germ tube that penetrates meristem tic tissue in the sorghum seedling. Germination is

highest in moist soil where the temperature is 81° to 88°F (27° to 31) like the kernel smuts ,

head smut is not evident until heading time.

The fungus develops only in actively growing meristem tic tissue. The smut spores also may

cling to the surface of sorghum seed, introducing the smut fungus into the soil of fields not

previously infested. Apparently, seed borne spores are not important in causing infection.


8

Photo 1. Head smut (Sphacelothecareilianum)

2.5.2. Loose Kernel Smut

Loose kernel smut, caused by the fungus Sporisoriumcruentum(synonym Sphacelotheca

Cruenta) is less widespread than covered kernel smut. Loose kernel smut attacks all groups

of sorghums, including johnsongrass, although certainvarieties in some groups are immune or

highly resistant. Sudangrass is usually not infected.

Normally, all kernels in an infected panicle are smutted. Partial destruction is rare. Some

kernels may be transformed into leafy structures or escape infection completely.

Individual kernels are replaced by small smut galls (or sori) that are 2.5 cm or longer, pointed

and surrounded by a thin gray membrane.


9

This membrane usually ruptures when or soon after the panicle emerges from the boot (Photo

3B).

Smutted panicles appear earlier than the remainder of the crop and more open than healthy

panicles.

The powdery ,dark brown to black spores (teliospores ) are soon blown away, leaving a long,

black, pointed, conical, often curved structure (columella) in the center of what was the gall.

Some smut spores (6 to 10 microns in diameter) adhere to the surface of the healthy kernels

on neighboring plants in the same field or ones nearby before and during harvests.

When such infested kernels are planted, the teliospores germinate along whith the seed by

first forming a thick usually 4- called promycelium bearing lateral sporidia (Photo 2)

Smutted panicles appear earlier than the remainder of the crop and are more open than

healthy panicles. The powdery, dark brown to black spores (teliospores) are soon blown

away, leaving a long, black, pointed, conical, often curved structure (columella) in the

centerof what was the gall. Some smut spores (6 to 10 microns in diameter) adhere to the

surface of healthy kernels onneighboring plants in the same field or ones nearby before and

during harvest.

When such infested kernels are planted, the teliospores germinate along with the seed by first

forming a thick, usually 4-celled promycelium bearing lateral sporidia (Photo 3).

The sporidia germinate and infect the developing sorghum seedling. Most infections,

however, result from the teliospores producing hyphae which penetrate young seedlings

before emergence.

Seedling infection occurs over a wide range of soil moisture and pH at a temperature of 68°

to 77°F (20° to 25°C).

The fungus continues to grow systemically within the plant unobserved until heading, when

the long, black, pointed smut galls develop in place of normal kernels.

Unlike covered kernel smut, plants affected with loose kernel smut are stunted, have thin

stalks, and heads emerge earlier than healthy plants.

Abundant side branches (tillers) also may develop. Occasionally, the tillers are smutted,

while the primary head is not. Secondary infection may occur in loose kernel smut when

spores from a smutted head infect late-developing heads of healthy sorghum plants, causing

them to become smutted. Localized infection of floral parts from airborne spores may occur.


10

Teliospores in the soil are not important in terms of infecting seedlings. Several physiologic

races of the loose kernel smut fungus exist.

The fungus is heterothallic and is able to hybridize with both the covered kernel and head

smut fungi, complicating the problem of developing resistant hybrids.

Photo 2.Teliospores of Sporisorium as they would appear under a highpower

Microscope. Each spiny, dark teliospore has germinated to

Produce a 4-celled promycelium that bears sporidia terminally and near

The septa. The sporidia may sprout to form secondary sporidia or may

Germinate to form a germ tube that penetrates a sorghum seedling.


11

Photo 3. Loose kernel smut of sorghum: A, healthy head; B, head infected with loosekernel

smut–kernels have been replaced by smut masses that have been largely blown away, leaving

the prominent columellas.

2.5.3.Covered Kernel Smut

Covered kernel smut, caused by the fungus Sporisoriumsorghi(synonym

Sphacelothecasorghi) attacks all groups of sorghums,including johnsongrass. Covered kernel

smut is the most

Common disease of sorghum in Illinois and other states where farmer’s plant untreated seed.

Usually, all of the kernels in a smutted head are destroyed and replaced by dark brown,

powdery

Masses of smut spores (teliospores or chlamydospores) covered with a tough, grayish white

or brown membrane (Photo 4).


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The membrane usually ruptures at harvest time. The infected kernels (smut sori) break, and

the microscopic spores adhere to the surface of healthy seeds where they overwinter.

Only seedborne spores cause infection. Smut sori are generally smooth; oval, conical or

cylindrical; and vary in size from those small enough to be concealed by the glumes to those

over one cm long. They may be white, gray, or brown.

When a smut-infested kernel is planted, the teliospores (mostly 4 to 7 microns in diameter)

germinate along with the seed forming a 4-celled promycelium (epibasidium) bearing lateral

sporidia (Photo 2).

The sporidia germinate and infect the developing sorghum seedling. (Sometimes the

teliospores

Germinate directly by producing germ tubes).

Once inside the seedling, the fungus grows systemically, apparently without damaging the

plant until heading. At that time, the teliospores replace kernels and are surrounded by a

membrane. At maturity, the membrane ruptures releasing the teliospores to contaminate seed

or soil. Soil borne teliospores are not considered important in infecting seedlings.

The incidence of smut decreases when seed is planted in progressively warmer, wet soils that

are 60° to 90°F (15.5° to32°C). Several distinct physiologic races of the covered smut fungus

are known.


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Photo 4. Covered kernel smut on sorghum


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2.5.4. Long smut

Long smut of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.)Moench) incited by

SporisoriumehrenbergiiVa´nky (syn. Tolyposporiumehrenbergii (Ku¨ hn) Patouillard) is an

important disease in several African and Asian countries (de Milliano et al., 1991 ;).

The pathogen infects the host when airborne teliospores land on the leaves, are washed into

the boot, and germinate to produce sporidia that infect individual spikelet’s.

Infection occurs only during the booting stage until an thesis and not later. Symptoms, which

are evident at heading, appear 11–14 d after infection as elongated, cylindrical, and slightly

curved sori .

The random development of sori on the sorghum panicle is the evidence that long smut is not

a systemic disease. Florets are individually infected, with sori replacing the developing grain

Physiological races of S. ehrenbergii have been identified in Egypt where the disease was

first reported.

The long smut disease can be spread within fields and to distant areas by airborne spores,

insects, contaminated soil and seeds (Kumar and Nath, 1991a; Manzo, 1976; Parlak and

Karaca, ).Teliospores of S. ehrenbergii often stick together to form balls which can survive in

the soil for Many years.

These teliospore balls can adhere to the sorghum seeds and with other infective propagules

serve as the primary source of inoculums. In the spring or under conducive environmental

conditions, the chlamydospores will germinate to produce sporidia which can be carried by

wind currents to the flag leaves and washed down into the boot to initiate infection (Kollo,

2000; Parlak andKaraca, 1976). Strong winds can also lift soil contaminated with teliospores

and deposit the spores on the flag leaves, with subsequent infection of the plant (Manzo,

1976). Kumar and Nath (1991a) observed and collected several insects from fields containing

long smut-infected sorghum plants and noted that the paddy bug [Leptocorisaacuta

(Thunberg)] has the capacity to transmit the disease.

Areas with low rainfall, high temperature, and low soil moisture favor long smut infection

(Kollo and Frederiksen, 1998; Rao and Sarwar, 1982). Noted that the disease was most

severe during drought years in Nigeria. Yield losses of up to 20% in India, 20–22% in

Turkey, and 40–60% in Multan and Muzaffargarh districts in Pakistan have been reported


15

Although the pathogen survives in the soil as teliospores, infection of the host via seed or soil

does not occur; as a result, chemical seed treatment will not control the disease (Kollo, 2000;

Manzo, 1976). Host plant resistance is considered to be the best control strategy for this

disease So far, no sorghum genotype that is immune to the disease has been identified (Kollo,

2000; Omer et al., 1985).

However, several sorghum lines have exhibited high level of resistance to the disease; these

include: Regular Hegari, Redlan, and Spur Feterita (Tamimi, 1970/1971), Impi fodder (Rao

and Sarwar, 1982), four Pakistani cultivars C-45, AUS-6, NK- 125, and NK-263 (Mirza and

Hamid, 1984) and Cr 51:16, SC630- 11E, QL-3 (India), and SC326-6 (Omer et al., 1985).

Long smut is not present in the United States of America (USA), and as a result, there is little

or no information on the reactions of USA sorghum lines (Mabry and Lightfield, 1974).

Thus, this research was conducted to assess then vulnerability of selected USA commercial

hybrids and sorghum cultivars to long smut.


16

Table 1.Characteristics of four Smut fungi.

Host Sorus Spores

Source: Ainsworth (1965)

Smut

Stunted

Heading

Site

Membrane

Surface

Diam.

S. sorghi

(covered

smut)

Yes

Premature

Ovary

Rather

permanent

Apparently

Smooth

6-7μ

cruenta

(loose smut)

No

Normal

Ovary

Ruptures

easily

Minutely

Echinulate

7-8 μ

S. reiliana

(head smut)

No

Premature

Inflorescence

Ruptures

easily

Conspicuously

echinulate

9-12 μ

ehrenbergii

(long smut)

Normal

Ovaries

Ruptures

Free surface

papillate

12μ


17

Table 2. Comparison of sorghum smuts.

Disease

Pathogen

Method of infection

Control method

Head smut

Sporisoriumreilianum

Seedling, from

soilborneteliospores

Host resistance

Covered kernel

smut

Sporisoriumsorghi

Seedling, from

seedborneteliospore

Fungicide, seed

treatment

Loose kernel smut

Sphacelothecacruenta

Seedling, from

seedborneteliospore

or shoot infection

from airborne

Teliospores

Fungicide, seed

treatment

Long smut

Tolyposporiumehrenbergii

Local, floral infecting

Host resistance

Books 1992(Sorghum and millets disease second books world review)

2.6 Importance smut disease

Of the four smuts, covered smut is the most serious in most of those African countries

Where prophylactic control measures are not used.

Infected heads are more or less completely smutted. Though there is no systematic

Assessment of grain loss in the sorghum growing countries in Africa, from a survey

Conducted by the author in Nigeria and neighbouring countries in 1977 estimated grain

Loss in farmers’ fields at about 5%. Up to 30% infection was observed in "hot-spot" areas.


18

According to Wallace in 1934, the infection in Tanzania varied f rom 8 to 43%, w i t h an

average of 25% (Tarr 1962). One native variety had 100% infected heads. Similar situations

may be expected in most of t he countries in Africa where control measures are not practiced.

The losses due to sorghum loose smut are relatively low, rarely exceeding 10%, even in

“h o t - s p o t “areas. However, unlike those afflicted by covered smut, the infected plants

are nearly always barren. Therefore, the loss in yield is directly proportional to the number of

Plants infected.

Head smut incidence is comparatively high in all sorghum-growing areas in Africa and

particularly in low-lying fields. In Nigeria, the disease is especially severe along the northern

Sudan savanna belt. The situation in Niger in areas adjoining Nigeria is similar. In some

fields

up to 10% of the plants may be infected. But overall, infection does not exceed 1 to 2%, and

it

is considered to be of minor importance at t h is time.

Long smut is widespread in areas where t he plants flower during humid warm periods. A

Large number of varieties, including landrace and improved cultivars, are susceptible to long

Smut in Nigeria, Cameroon, Niger, and in other countries with similar climatic conditions.

Though the number of infected spikelets in any infected head normally may not exceed 20 to

30%, under favourable conditions, infected spikelets may exceed 70% in very highly

susceptible

Cultivars. This is less important in wet and cooler areas. Besides West Africa, the

Disease is widespread in Egypt (5 to 50% of the grains w i t h an average of 15% in each

affected head), but crop losses do not exceed 2% on the average


19

Table 3. Estimated sorghum crop loss d u e to

Smuts in Nigeria, 1975 to 1978 surveys.

Smut yield losses (%)

Grain smut

1.0-1.5

Loose smut

0-0.5

Head smut

2.0-2.5

Long smut

2.0-2.5

Total

5.0-7.0

2.7 The general management of smut sorghum Disease

Treatment

Choose resistant varieties when available.

In backyard gardens, collecting and destroying galls before the dark fungal spores are

released is suggested. This will limit the number of available fungal spores and help

break the disease-cycle.

Reduce infection points by avoiding injury of roots, stalks and leaves during cultivation.

Apply sulfur or copper fungicides weekly when the disease is first noticed and continue

applications as long as disease conditions are favorable.

http://www.planetnatural.com/product/safer-garden-fungicide/

http://www.planetnatural.com/product/liquid-copper-fungicide/


20

Remove and destroy all garden debris after harvest and practice crop rotation the

following year.

Do not compost infected plant parts

2.7.1 Management Options of Head Smut

Use resistant hybrids; most U.S. hybrids are tolerant. Check with your county farm advisors

for the best ones to grow in your area. Fungicides are not available for head smut.

Destroy infected ears

Treat the seeds with suitable fungicide

Crop rotation

Use of resistant variety

2.7.2 Management Options of Long Smut

Field sanitation

Crop rotation

Seed treatment with suitable fungicide

Growing resistant variety

Adjustment of Sowing dates

2.7.3 Management Options of Grain Smut

Use certified smut-free seed. Hot water treatment can eliminate smut fungi from

contaminated seed, but it must be used carefully to avoid reducing seed vitality. Treatment of

seed with contact-type fungicides will control covered smut because the fungus is on the

outside of the seed

Use of smut free seeds

Seed dressing with sulphur, thiram or copper carbonate or any other suitable fungicide

Use of resistant variety

2.7.4 Management Options loose smut

CONTROL: The best control for loose smut is to plant certified smut-free seed. Do not

plant seed from fields with even a small amount of loose smut without treating it. Carboxin or

http://www.planetnatural.com/garden-cleanup/

http://www.planetnatural.com/crop-rotation/


21

Carboxin plus Thiram provide good control of the loose smuts. Triadimenal (Baytan) will

give fair control.

Field Sanitation

Crop rotation

Seed treatment with suitable fungicides like sulphur or copper carbonate

Use disease free seeds (Sources of Dr hareed Lecture of Gollis university Book of

Tropical Disease 2014 )


22

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1. Research design

The problem that are addressing in this research is the impact of smut disease in sorghum

production in Somaliland specially Gabiley area part of west of Hargeisa.

This research was composed of a case study that allowed collection of information and data

about Impact of smut diseases yield production. Data were gathered with in the same time

frame from all respondents, and then analyzed according to the research objectives to help

establish the nature of the relationship between the variables and the gathered data.

3.2. Research approach

This research derived its data by means of both questionnaire and interview so data was used

to answer questions that were asked in this research a qualitative and quantitative research

strategy was applied. Based on the circumstances the study is conducted, it will only be

reasonably representative of its population.

3.3. Study location

This study took place in Gabilay Region, Somaliland. The target was to know the how smut

disease effect yield production and its marketing, and the reason that we chose for this area

was that is it the, best place that sorghum production can be cultivated well in Somaliland and

it is the area that we can get a number of farmers to share for more information, because time

and resource were limited.

3.4. Research techniques

The primary data of the study are collected through questionnaires, interviews. Therefore, in

order to make the chosen research competent to reflect research purpose and objectives the

above mentioned instruments are used during the data collection. The people that were

interviewed were uneducated people.

3.5. Sample design

The sample design that we employed or used is explorative design that is characterized by

flexibility and allows us to consider the different aspects of the research and also the major


23

areas of emphasis are explored and insights relating to the problems facing the sorghum

production in Gabilay area are discussed.

3.6. Population of the study

The population of the study was farmers in Gabilay area, because it is the area that sorghum

production is highest in Somaliland with rain fed farmers.

3.7. Sampling techniques

The sampling method used was the convenience sampling method (non- probability

sampling) ,because of lower cost of sampling lesser time and effort involved in the process

and allows the selection of samples more related to the study and also it is the most

efficiency sampling method.


24

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

Gender Male Female

60%

40%

Series1

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.0: Over view.

In this chapter, the findings and results of the study will be presented. We will present here

the answers for the research questions in the study.

The responses of the respondents will be analysed and presented in a manner that can be

easily understood.

4.1 Gender

Figure 1: This Figure shows that 60% of respondents were male while 40% of respondents

were female.


25

4.2 Age

Figure 2: This Figure shows 6 of respondents ages were between31-40 where 5 of

respondents are between 21-30, and were 3 41-50 and while 1 10-20

.


26

4.3 Marital Status

The figure 3: This Figure shows of respondents where 7 Married, 5 Single and while 3 other.

5

7

3

Single

Married

Other


27

4.4 Season the Damage of Smut is Very High

Figure 4: This Table shows that the highest damage is observed in summer season (47%)

and the lowest damage takes place in winter season (6.7%).

Season id the damage of smut is very high

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Valid Spring Season 4 26.7 26.7 26.7

Winter Season 1 6.7 6.7 33.3

Summer Season 7 46.7 46.7 80.0

AutumSeaon 3 20.0 20.0 100.0

Total 15 100.0 100.0


28

4.5 Percent of Yield Loss of Sorghum Production

Figure 5: This graph shows 5% that of respondents said yield loss is low caused by smut

disease, where 20% of respondents said medium, where10% of respondents said high and

15% of respondents said smut causes very high yield loss.

.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

5% 10% 15% 20%

Percent of yield loss of sorghum production

Percent of yield loss ofsorghum production


29

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

Crop Mixed Traditional control Crop Rotation

6.70%

40%

53.30%

Series1

4.6 Kind of Control which suitable

Figure 6: This Revealed shows that the most important control option used by the farmers in

this area is crop rotation (53%) while other traditional method accounts 40% of control.


30

4.7 Types s of Smut disease They Know

Figure 7: This Chart shows the common types of smut disease recognized by the farmers in

the area. About 47% of the farmers know three types of smut while only 20% they

recognized only two type of .About 33%of the farmers in the area recognized all the four

types of smut.


31

4.8 Field Sanitation the Farm for the Residue of the Smut for the Next Year

Figure 8: this chart shows most of the farmers of 6 respondents do field sanitation just before

the next season (spring) and very few 1respondent remove the crop residues all the seasons.

Field sanitation for the residue of the smut for the next year


32

Series1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

water prolemdisease prolem

soil problemall

4

6

1

4

Series1

4.9 Major problems of sorghum production in gabilay area

Figure 9: this Chart show the most importance which effects sorghum production is disease

problem and water problem

.


33

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Recent year damage of smut disease is high

Recent year damage of smutdisease is high

4.10 Recent Year Damage of Smut Disease is High

4.10 recent Year

Damage of Smut Disease is high

Figure 10: This Chart shows recent years damage of smut disease where 2014 was the year

where the highest damage is observed while 2011 lowest damage is observed.

The highly increased rate of sorghum smut disease in gabilay region can cause

shortage of food production plays more important role for the livelihood of pastoral

and agro-pastoral communities.


34

4.11 Varieties sorghum that is growing in Gabilay Area

Figure 11:This Chart shows the most common Variety of sorghum that is grown in Gabilay

region is Faruurgeelow.


35

4.12 Any Help for Sorghum smut control During time of Production

Figure 12: This chart shows the most of the farmer’s respondent (7) that no institution is

supporting them in control smut disease except less support from NGO and MOA.


36

0

10

5

Local Name

Awaarayti

Madoobeeye

4.13Local names they know for smut diseases

Figure 13: This Chart Shows the local name of sorghum smut disease is called

AWAARAYTI


37

4.14 Is there any effect of smut on Grains

Figure 14: this chart shows the smut disease affect mostly in grains so that it can Cause

marketing problem.

4.15main problems of smut in sorghum gabilay region

The most farmers they told us the main problem gabilay region is destroy the grain of

sorghum and market problem

4.16 process which smut transmitted virus into the other plants

Some of farmers they told us the way it can be transmitted smut disease from one plant to

other plant is different ways.


38

By human contact and animal organisms like birds

The way which can be transmitted is smut disease is wind spread

4.17other disease is very damage than smut disease in sorghum

Farmers They told us there is some disease but the Most problem disease of sorghum is

smut disease Which damage their production.


39

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0: Overview.

In this chapter the findings of the study will be concluded and relevant recommendation will

be given.

5.1: Conclusion.

Smut disease that has started in Somaliland arrived when the British colonial possession of

the date (1860) in the same period of time fixed for farmer’s disease called smut which

damages the production .white out checking the official history of the disease from the

country.

The sorghum smuts disease is very danger disease which affects for the sorghum grains so

this disease has no common control.

So That if it effects the grains there is no market and production will be less or no totally

production

We are concluding that this disease needs use suitable control like crop rotation and culture

control.

That will be help for the farmers to get higher production or health grain toward use.

5.2: Recommendation.

To Increase public awareness about the Importance of Smut disease is one of the

threat facing the country through gabilay regional.

The ministry of agriculture should place more emphasize of managing and impact of

sorghum smut disease.

Huge awareness on the sorghum smut disease management and allowing communities

farmers to take the responsibility of protecting their farm is important key factor that

will increase their production.

To make training and seminars which related protection and control of sorghum smut

disease in the famers of gabilay region ,


40

To use field sanitation and clean the crop residue

Training the farmers on controlling smut in all the crop stage specially the grain setting

stage

To use seed free from disease

to use hot water treatments which can reduced the more damage of disease

To use crop rotation which very important for smut control.

Adjustment of sowing date (if it is available of source of water )

seed treatment fungicides may be used in areas with a high incidence of the disease

To use plant resistance varieties and hybrid.

Wind break is important because the wind is the main agent of transmission of smut

disease

Do not compost infected plant parts

Collect the smutted ear head in a closed bags and dip boiling water

Do not use to management of smut disease chemical because smut disease attacked

grains it cause severe damage of human and animal .

Resistant varieties are available and should be cultivated in regions where smut is a

problem.

There should be awareness campaign about the advantage of control of smut disease

towards our farmers. The advantage of the control sorghum smut including high yield

production and market goods.


41

Questionnaire:

We will keep our respondent questionnaire confidentiality and the information form the

survey will be processed to obtain the average figure. We encourage you to be as candid as

possible and to freely express your truthful opinions in answering the questions

1. What is your age?

A. 10-20 B 21-30 C 31- 40 D 41-50

2. What is Your Gender?

A. Male B. Female

3.Marital status?

A. Yes B. No C. Other

4. Which season is the damage of smut is very high?

A. Spring season

B. Winter season

C. Summer season

D. Autumn season

E. All seasons

5. How many percent of yield loss of sorghum production?

A. 5% B. 10% C. 15% D. 20% D. 20%

6.. What kind of control you use for smut diseases?

A. Crop mixed

B. Chemical control


42

C. Cultural Control

D. Crop ration

7. How many types of smut disease do you know?

A. One

B. Two

C. Three

D. ALL

8. How do you clean the farm for the residue of the smuts for the next year?

A. Spring season

B. Winter season

C. Summer season

D. Autumn season

E. All seasons

9. What are the major problems of sorghum production in Gabilay villages?

A. Water problems

B .Disease problems

C .Soil problems

D .All

10. Which Recent year damage smut disease is very high?

A. 2010

B. 2011

C. 2013


43

D.2014

11. What is the varieties sorghum that is grown in Gabilay area?

A. Cimijamac

b. Karmiici

c. Aadengaab

d.Faruurgeelow

E. ALL

12. Is there any help for sorghum smut during time of production? If they are who they

are?

A. Ministry of Agriculture )

B. Local NGOs

C. International NGOs

D. Extension workers

E. None

13. What are the local names that you know for smut diseases?

A.Awaarayti

B. Others names

C. Madoobeeye

14. Is there any effect of smut on stored grains?

A. Smell/black suit mold

B. Embryo Damage

C. Market Reduction


44

D. All

4.15main problems of smut in sorghum gabilay region?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………

4.16 process which smut transmitted virus into the other plants?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………

4.17other disease is very damage than smut disease in sorghum?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………


45

REFERENCE

1. A.M., Msika, F.S., 1991. New records of long smut caused by

Tolyposporiumehrenbergii of sorghum in Southern Africa. Plant Dis.

2. .Botros.S.E. Abdel-Rahman, T.M Hassan.M,H,A 1999. Studies on

Tolyposporium Ehrenberg the couses of sorghum long smut in upper

.Egypt.Assiutj.Agric.SCI 30.97-107.

3. Books 1992(Sorghum and millets disease second books world review

4. deMilliano, W.A.J., Mtisi, E., Kaula, G.M., Matalaote, B., Mbwaga, .Botros.S.E.

Abdel-Rahman, T.M Hassan.M,H,A 1999. Studies on Tolyposporium Ehrenberg.

5. Dr Hared Lecture of Gollis university 2014 Management of Smut Disease.

6. Extension UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS December 1990 RPD No. 208 (report on

PLANTDISEASE) DEPARTMENT OF CROP SCIENCES).

7. Frederickson RA.2000. Disease and disease management in sorghum .pages 497-

533 in Sorghu–Origin History (Smith Cw and Frederisen RA, ends).

8. Hassan, S.F., Khan Zia, N.A., Khan, M.A., Ubaidul Islam, A.N.M., Khan, M.A.,

1970. Floral infection of sorghum with long smut Tolyposporium ehrenbergii (Ku¨

hn) Pat. J. Agric. Res. 8, 411–412.

9. Kollo, A.I., 2000. Long smut. In: Frederiksen, R.A., Odvody, G.N. (Eds.),

Compendium of Sorghum Diseases, second ed. American Phytopathological Society,

St. Paul, MN, pp. 22–23.

10. Kumar, A., Nath, V., 1991b. Fungicidal control and disease rating scale of long smut

(Tolyposporium ehrenbergii) of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor). Indian J. Agric. Sci. 61,

225–227.

11. Kollo, A.I., Frederiksen, R.A., 1998. Effect of sowing dates on the incidence of long

smut (Tolyposporium ehrenbergii) on sorghum. Int. Sorghum Millets Newslett. 39,

107–109.


46

12. Mi rza, M.S., Hamid, S.J., 1984. Screening sorghums for resistance to long smut.

Pakistan J. Agric. Res. 5, 277–280.

13. Mabry, J.E., Lightfield, J.W., 1974. Long smut detected on importedsorghum seed.

Plant Dis. Rep. 58, 810–811.

14. Manzo, S.K., 1976. Studies on the mode of infection of sorghum by Tolyposporium

ehrenbergii, the causal organism of long smut. Plant Dis. Rep. 60, 948–952.

15. Omer, M.E.H., Frederiksen, R.A., Ejeta, G., 1985. A method for inoculating sorghum

with (Tolyposporium ehrenbergii) and other observation on long smut in Sudan.

Sorghum Newslett. 28, 95–97.

16. Parlak, Y., Karaca, I., 1976. Investigations on the biology of long smut

[Tolyposporium ehrenbergii (Ku¨ hn) Pat.] of sorghum in Southeast Anatolia. J.

Turkish Phytopathol. 5, 61–69.

17. Rao, G.K., Sarwar, H.A.K., 1982. High temperature and depleted soil moisture favors

sorghum long smut (Tolyposporium ehrenbergii). Sorghum Newslett. 25, 111.

18. Source: by Ainsworth 1965 Characteristics of four Smut fungi

19. Tamimi, S.A., 1970/1971. Reaction of some sorghum varieties to long smut disease in

Iraq. Mesopotamia J. Agric. 5/6, 47–57.

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