IMPACT OF GENDER-ROLES ON TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Ekta Poddu and Venue R. Krtshnan

rltism.."..imon.Jg.Ie<f'hem.p.n ol~diff~~""' __ lojuJf" . diHo. ~..., ...... ,~ror-t;...,.J~ IISio>g.""""o'80palnof_fS2

men ""rl ]8 womM) _ .ubo«li"" .e. from " ""11'O.!HI com"""y In IN."'" ImlI". A

new witure->p«lfJc lahl ...... ,*",eIoped.o It>IN,ure f1'O"rJer.roI • • ". .. <1 011 llIlt Imll."

~"""'oIlheid.-l """'_lheldNJ...,.,..". ~...,_""'_·.Se ... 1IohI_'<>rf (IISRQ _ tM """'-'.w.. willie .Mir ~feS , • • ed!heM on "MlSror-.iotvII~p. J"/te8SRI_lheIttdlMoKMeIf ...... owref«fOl~ ..,,,.,..~fodtlmlnillityarnt""'sculinity. Rfiultu_thM.retpnJhlaof..,x. ~ wIoo IIre /JigI>."., llIlt 8SII1 """;"lnlly '«Io<"of nurturing _ fh<o Imll"" fQmininlly f«fOl

of_.re,..,,..ladby_tft h:Jbr..-. lrarufonfytiooMl.

~w WI' define ourwlves Both men ~nd women mII""ger~ a re studied by having them an~wer ",If. pe rce ption gender-rol e questionnaires while their suDordinates rate tllem on the MlQ. further. ~ BSRI Seo-Rol@lnventory osexplored t!waugh f<JCtor ~ in order to yield more s.pecific: and me.ningful gender v. ria ~es. The resu lts of tn" grodef ree;lrch t..Ye special SIgnificance for Indian ma""9~ both men and women. as ,t glVl" " guide to those aspects olgender· ro les . wh ich pos itIVe ly e nco u rage tr3n-;format~ leadl!r"S/'Wp.

~ ~oo... ..... ,_ ''''1,'"10. IOo'I\Sh<dpuo

and how we behave is dete<mjned iat"gc!y bythe gender..,.oIM each one of us is elCpected to fulfill . These in turn .... shaped by the culMal nonns p' .... ailing in the:5oOO!'ty. PrPo'IOUS research has id en tif ied th e gender- ro les of m.scu lin i\)' and &nd r~ 015 being related to tradi~1 ~ip~ Increasingly thou-gh, women a re ~ to be more tla n,/ormat,on .. l. Tnls paper studIes tran~lor""' lionll l Jeadeflh ip 015 11 fullCtion of gender dilfe<ences as opposed to just sexdiffe<enct'S. tt alw seets to underst.lnd th~ special implica tions of haVIng a wakJ"rv,', whrch delermined by the Indian cuftu,e an d histo ry, is in fl uenced by philosophy handed down through the ag€>. It .. 1templ5 10 explore the role. fxpe<led of Ih~ two ~xes a5 pe< the COrlCepl of the Idea l man and the Kleal woman In Iheconlexl of tnd ia.

There has been ext~ research link,ng gender-.roles and the traditiona l styles of leadership. Such studies ,n the are.! 01 traoSfO'rTliltlONlleaderlolllp haw mainly """€5tiga1ed sex di//e<en(I!S. A broade< i0oi: at the chara~le" 51ic, of tra nsformat ional

,

lead"" and a ~udyollndian gend!!r- roles .,.,; . ..... p in ur.dersl<lnd ing how 1mder5 are shaped in the Ind ia n context

Gender-Roles and leade.-ship

Gend€'r-roies may be looked upon a~ a set of norm, prescribing the beh;w;otS and acti";ti", of each sex. They ~re tne norms tha t "nabl" women ~nd me<l to conduct themselves in a particu la r way and to play partiwlJ r roles in the fam ily and sociel)' Gender stereotypes may be seen a, Ih.red sets 01 bej iefs about the p'ycholog iC<l I trait5 of t~ d iffffi'nt sex""

The soci. l- role tneoty proposes that, a, a genera l tendency, people a re e~pe<:ted to ~fI9<lge in activiti", that are consistent ""; th their ru~u,al ly defined germ-roles (Eagly, Karau, and M~k.hijani, 1995), ThMe gender-rol'" 5pillover in to the wo rk place and become incorpo'~ted into the work-rol'" (Gutek and Cohen, 1987) . Gender-roles affect gender identity arid as ~ consequence of these differing wcial identities , women and men h~ve wmewhat different expectation, aboultr,e;r 0\M1 behavior in organil~tional settings(E ly, 1995).

Masculin ity and f"",in inil)', or one's gende< identil)', ,,,fe,, 10 the deg ree to which people _ t~"""'" as maso:ulin e Or I"",in ine, given what it means to be a man Or woman in thewciety (Stet:; and Burke. 2000). Maso:uiin il)' and femininity need not be~ a, opposite ends of t~ ""me continuum, Bern's (1974) theory of androgyny ~tipulat'" that individua ls C<ln be both maso:uHne and 1 "",mine,

~ procell of sociillization. The proces, of socializati on. and spe<:ially gender wcial izotion, has 10 be understood in order to

,

Gender

.Hereotypes llIay

be seen as

shared sets of

beliefs abOIlf

the

psychological

traits oflhe

differe1ll sexes.

see how gender-ro les a re 5h~ped differently in varied 5etting" Gender soci<ll izJtion i ~ a proces, through wh i ~h peop le learn gender-ro les and gender stereotypes. Ma rtin and Ruble (1997: 46) specifted that ·=iafi~ing agents encourage.nd rrodeI delired behaviors, with the ultimate aim that these values be<:ome internalized ~nd servt' as a guide to behavi or~ without the need fo r continuing externlll comtrdints .• This soci<llization is culturally determined, mdking 9ender ~ socia l con~truct, Gender indiC<ltes p'ych ologiC<lI, soc ia l and cultura l difference (Claes, t99 9),

Geflder and leader emergence, Resea rch has shown the emtence of geode< d ifferences in the emergence of a leadei'. Goklepe dnd Schr.eir ( I 989) coflected d~t~ on 122 subje<:t" Regardles:; of sex. group m"",bers with maICu li ne gender characteriSli~, emerged a, leaders. A field study by Fagemon (1990) produced ~im i lar

resu lts. Subjects in th i~ study who WI'fI' high in t~ organ izational hierarchy were significantly higher on mea,ures of mascu li nity th;in were IO'M.'(.IM workers. Kern and MOll (1994) also showed lh;il andr09ynotJs and maso:uline ,ubjects Wei'e tne most likely to emerge as leadets, Kolb ', ( I 999) study dlw favored maso:uline and androgynous individuals.

A:;. and'09yny and maSO:lllinity are W closely linke-d with leader emergence, it follow5thal dilferen tleadership ~tyk:os would ""1uire tne express ion of varied gender-roles, Further, it i, importanl lO study leadership style a, a fun.;tion of gender-roles rather than of biol09ical sex, a, these C<lnnot be equatO'd,

Gender-roles and leadership stylt:. Gender·role ste<eotypes a re ~nked to beIlaviora l theories 01 1e3der\hip. Talk one!lted behavior5 a re .,.;sociated "";!h the rT101SCUline twe ~ nd people ooented beIlaOOr

Tradili(mally.

letlde/'~'hip

{Ifill II llllltlgeri(l1

roles were aliglled

lI'i,h f)pically lIIale

qualiries or with

rhe m(lsculille

01" fmk-oriemed

SlereOlJ1}(!·

w ith the feminine ,t~eot~pe, Feather (1984) ShOwM that ~S(ulinity and fem'nlnlty were Significantly correl.1ted wIth the relal!V(' importancUS519ned to values. T~ values were d8S~fi ed as agentic or instrumental and (Ommunai or ~. They dictate behavior", they c;anywilh them ~t"!! and prescnptM! connotation" The per5OI1-a!11li!red ttleory (Morri,on and Von Glinow, 1990) ~ thaI ferr\llieperwnalitytraltsand behavior patte,", rT\iI)' make female'S I!':IS

loU ited for leadership roles , particula rly those involving dominance and ~E~andJohnson's(I990) ~thesls of studi!':llhowed thllt female leaden adopted 8 more democ rat ic and partICipative st~e, consistent ""';th the gender sten>o\)1:li( expect.J\lorIS.

Trad itiona lly, leader.;h ip and managerial roles wefe ahgned with typica lly male quahtoes or ",th the maKuline or task­onenlt'd S!~(l'oweI and Bunerlield. 1979; Schein, 1975}. This view might howe been moderated among womer! (Schern and Mueller, 1992), but BanI. flbert, Maller-Potter, and Rt>avy (1989) !howed that Sl./Cce'islul ~5IJ~ ""'et'e \tie ones high on mascu lin ily, Requi ring WOO'III!fI toconlarm to the ITIMCUIine ideal puts them in a double bind. "By fulfilling people's expectatIOn, (on<er fling le<>der.; or mana g e rs, women may vio lat e convention, concerning appropriate female behavoor" (E.Jg1y 1'1 aI .• 1995: 126). Aodrogynywas propo..oo ;rs a solution to th is d ilemma (Korabi~. 1990) . Sargent (19B3) called fa. and'ogynous mana.gementthet bler>ds the l'I"oiI5<:uline and femini~ ~lyIeI of inSlrumental and exp.t'Ssive bll'haYlo r. Donnel l an d Ha ll (19BO) car.ied out a sludy of 2000 manager-sa.--:l found that hogh managerwI acho!!wr! intl!gr ated their a:n<trf'lS tor task ~nd people. FU'lher, "in loda~ ' s busine:;s environment, both masculine ~nd fem,none(haracttrlSba are nKe5sary for excellence" (Korabik and A~n. 1989. 23).

To shed further II\1ht on leadership eIICeIlence, gender differences nleOOerlhip effectivene:;s need to be investi9ated .

•

Research has covered both "",x differences and gender-role difftreo<:e'i.

Ge~der differences and leadership elfectll'MeIS, In their rneta -ana~, Eag ly, Makhijaf\l, and Klonsq (1 992) showed that fem*~Wlftde¥aLated,g"tM> to thew male(Olm~ when leadenhip was ea rlled out in ,tereotypkal maK uline style, particu larly when this st~ e was autocratic ordiret\Jl'f', In their s.yrrthesisof resea,dl on there!.Jweeff~ of men and WOIT'Ien managers and leilder.;, eagly el al. (1995) loond Ihllt congruence of Ieadershop rok5",th leade's ~enhanced

"'~ Research on andrl)g~ny has led 10

a>nu.cIiaoryresufts. ~and Bunerfield (1979) through their ,tudy of 574 ur>d"'g raduate students loond that the '~ manage<' was c!esaibed 00 the BSRI as more maKuli~ then androgynous. Baril et al. (19B9) rTlNloUred the sec-role orientation of 651im Irte wpe!'MOO, Thoo;e

who wereandr<>gyr'lCW.n ~e rated as IN'" elfeCl,ve by , uperiors . Powell and BulterfiO!'id (1989) rep!r<ated lhetr NriI'f o;tud)' uWIg a r~ BSRI. Th;,; too showeo' tha t Ihe manager ia l identity remaIned as InitSWhne;rs _.

In sUPPO'1 of androg~ny, Moto""';ldo (1 982) found that and .ogynous managers Wl're rated by their 51JPI'f'tISOt'S as be"'g more likely 10 display ",;cep1ance of non­tr""'llOnal JObchaogeand active listenong, Korabik and Ayman ( ' 989) in tncr, stud~ oI30v.omen shov.ed that SU~"'ted theandr~ women hogher on overal ellectM!Oess, Korabik (1990) offeored a n explanation to the varied findings In th i, ar"". She proposed lhat they uo;e(i v~f1OI.IS """""-"e5 of sec"" orientation, e>:/JfTWIed differenl d~denl var .... ble5. and drew their 51Jbjects Irom difl0!fl'f11 popu lat~.

·While these studies do not offer uroeqUMICal support for an androgynous mana\1ement style. nellher do Ihey demonst.ate that a task oriented st~e h; ......ariably preferable" (Korabik, 1990; 288).

Changing KiN, on the importana of femrniniry, Amongst th is debate about

)

I

I

androgyny, the very concept of femin inity has been emerging to ga in im parlan ce . Fo nda, (t997) showed the increasjng repre-;entation of managerial work in terms of qua lit il'5 defined as feminine in contemporary w rit ings. Grant (1988) :;hawed that qualiti", typic.o lly a,\OCiated with women were u it ic.oi in hl'ping to stop the pro-g r""ion 01 a li enation, apathy, C)'nicism, and low mora le in organizations. Lipman-B lumen (I996) sa id that the cont rib ut ory ,tyle of leader5hip is ~ery effective in the i n terdeper"ldent context,

A tr.ar0U9h ""';!'W of gender re5edf(h throvvs upa rgumrots about the very defiMions and importance 01 moscu lin ity and femininity. Con,idering the fact tha t gende r is a socia l con5tru ct that i, determ ined by cultura l ~ariab~ , we no>ed to see the speeial implications 01 being a man or a woman in the Indian society.

The Ideal Man and the Id ... 1 Woman

A chil d g rowing up in Ind,a ~ expo'il'd to vario\J, ro le models, !-Orne which are very deeply ernt>edded in the socia l and cultu ral matrix. This , t i.ldy looks at two sum role models: two mythological figures that, in thei r own way, are cons idered example, 01 perfection, the couple of Rama and Sila . These two remote figures have been powerfu l eno ugh to embody the ideal man and the idea l woma n,

Swami V~""nda e>:horted that "theVllOmen 01 Ind;'" m1.r.;t g row and develop in the lootprints 01 Sita, and that i, the only way" (Vivel:ar)<)nda, 1972, 256) She i, the t rue Indian woma n, for a ll the Ind ian ideals of a perfected woman ha~e grown out of her li fe, Kakilr (1988) c.olled herthe 'traditional ideal of wom<rnhood' , "Ihi<:h Itill governs the in ner im39e.)'of indMdua l men and women in both the trad it ional an d modern sectors of the Ind ian commun ity. In a study carried out by Prata p in 1960 in a Nonh Indian province, 500 boys and 360 gins were a,ked to select the idea l woman from a list of 24 ~aml'S of god" godd",5eS, and herOl'5 and heroines of history (Kakar, 1988). Sita wlJS 5rol '" the ideal woman, regard less of sexaoo age d i ff~ences. She (On(inl.lt'5 to comman d sim ila r reveren<:e €Vl!n today, even among modern educated peop le in India (Kishwar, 1997) Thi,idea l woman lays down a path for Indian worn"", to follow ,n thei r qu",t for perfect io n, She i, held up a, an exam ple down the centu, i", to the prl'5en t day (Thoma" 1964). The 5tandard,:>he sets remain relevant with most women trymg to 1M> up to them to the best of therr ability (Kishwa r, 1997).

To be a good wife is to be a good wOman. Women can atta in heaven th rough serving their hu,birrKh. This devotion should also be Mended to hi' family membefs, The idea l fem inine identity is a model of chast ity and uncompfilin irlg :>eIf-sa(1'ilice, This pu rity, gentle tendern"" and lingu lar faithfulness rerJldin, und i, turt>ed and ind"'tructible(Kakar, 1988).

The woman must remain cheerfu l amidst suffenngs arid troubles, even when lOre" tested, "Ihite retain ing her virtues . Her cha,tity

,

is the mighty power that hel ps her bear a ll her suffenrlgs. Following the ideal and pure mal;", her li fe sublime and happy (Sivar)<)nda, 1996) . Similarly, Vrvekilnonda (I 972) pra ised ~ purity, patience, and endurance.

For Thoma, (1964) , the paragon of femin ine perfect ion 'haws true greatn"" by annihila ting her individuality. Th is ab!-Olute ""I­surrend~ ~ the groeral idea l of perfection , She would sa crifice all and underg o seve re hard,h ips if it meant fu lfil ling her duty (N ihshreyosananda, 1993). Thi, refusa l to forsa ke her dharma or duty is seen a, emotional strength. She can be defiant in the face of as~ons, ever reta ining her dign ity (Ki:>hwar, 1997) This very strong wom<rn isa symbol of empowerment and Indian autonomy (Mu rphy and Sippy, 2(00). Gandhi dism~ the fact that the wifewasa slave tothe husband. He pra ised the id eal woman as one who is mora lly Itrong , and not one "Iho is passive Or tim id (Prabhu and Rao, 200 1).

Coming next to Rama, Gandh idied with the name olRama, the idea l man , on his lips. Vivekilnanda (I 972: 255) upheld Rama a, the "embodiment of truth , of mora lity, the ideal son , the idea l hu,band iln d above all , the ideal king" He is the ideal of

uncompromising goodness and combine:; idealistic perfections in a ll w~ l k, of life. LUll (1995) , taled th~t the vi nues and value, Rama stands for makes him the ~t appropriate god for modern India, These valu", a re pragmatism, activi,m, discipli ne, a nd chastity,

The Ideal king isonewho iSMcepted byall in h~ kingdom , Even onedissenting ~oi<:e c.ons for g reat saCrifICes (Pa nha", n hy, I 983), He shou ld be just and righteous, cou rageou, and kind, His subjects will love him comp letely, with not a , ing le man being unhappy during his reig n. He is gent le and the protector of people, always

addressi"'l the peaplewith gentle wards,laokir>g after the wella'e of his peop le (S ivanan da , 1996). He ,hall follow the dharma or duty of the king, wh ich i, above all ell(>, sacrificing even hi' own persor)<)1 happine5S (Kj,hwar, t997).

The idea l man does not lie in the face of even extreme da nger, but is brave, ",nd id, and hone5!. The sou rce 01 all good, he shou ld be hard worting with perfect contral over hi' anger. Kind and affectionate, he shou ld be generous Jnd considerate of feel ing, of a ll a round him. Adversities, miseri", or da ngers should nat

affect him adversely (Sr..-3I"111nda, I 996). He I.hould be prepared to mainta in peace both with in an d withou t. He shou ld face such (halleng", head-on, "He ~ the ideal 01 aggressive goodness a, opposed toweak and pasWe goodnes," (Parthasanhy, t983 : I 15). !;Ie should figh t against al l tha t is contrary to mOf~lity and righteousness,

Comparing ~cross tnese two d",,,iptions, we see similaritie, as wel l a, differences, Both involve sell-sa<rilice for the cOmmon good and sticking to the straight an d narrow path of the good and pure. Both advO(~te being assertive to fu lfi ll one', dha rma ,

Wbmen described

,11(!1II:sell'es illll'(I\'s 111m

chamcleri:;l'

I raw,formatiOllllf

leade rsh ip-coll I'i /lei /I g

.ml)(mlilllltes to Iroll:s/or//1

Iheir OWII self-imerest il110

the ;,lIeresl o/Ille group,

ellcoliraglllg

!,articipation, alltl

sharillg power (/Ild

illformatioll

One should show kIndness a nd ronsiderallOn 10"', r<!lalM5 and ft*lwm alib. EmO!lC)l"lal and moral suength is neWe<! to MYI9<1te the v~rio", pItfalls of lile. All that is good has to ~ actively defended. while exeo"c;s;ng full control and disG pline. However. thewoman 'sroles ol mother and wile define lief mo<e in termS 01 the idedl woman. fo< a man his role as a leader may assume predollllr1ance. oot thsdoes not freehlmof he reporcibilibe of a lamily m~n.

s..1hi lind AIen (1968) dOd a cross-w~ural study in l nd~ partially rep licating Bern's item ,"'e-ctlon study. They found that it waS moredesi>able f(lf Indian mIIIes to hiM:' traIts sudla, .1dIienturous. hard womng, authoritari:lrn, and powerful. The Indiafl ma~ is aggressM. acts like a leader. is am\.:Jitious. CompetItIVe. dornonant. and fon:eM is. deperodent. and ~ to lake risb On th!oO!her hand. ~ ismoredesorable lor women to be docile, dome!;ti(. generooJs. in nocent. polite, religious. and submISSive. It appear.; equally desirable fo< men and WOrl1(!r1 to have traits assoc~ted

with asSM...........ess (assenlVe, deleo<.h own belief!;. individualistIC. willing 10 tab a stand. etc.l. This recognize th!o subtle suength of Indian women. 11 ahoappear.;

that Indian ~es and females are equally farrWy-orimted.

These find;~ about gender-ro"" in India raise queslions about cu ltura l differences, Though Ihe lfal\5 01 femininity and masculinit)' <lfe essennally the...me II<:fW;

cultures. il could be argued that the constructs cln be e .. tendM to cover pre-.oiousIy unelq)lored dimensions. These a.lture-specifoc: variiIbIes Glrlno1 be ignon!d while studYIng leadefship. Thi' study. therefore, attempts to explore the relationship between transform~t i ona l leadership and geOOef, incorpor~t i ng tnt Ind ian dimension of the ideal man and woman. jf our gendef·role5 affen OUr identity and our be/1.3w)f, II follows thai these roles wtrefl ta~eo on the specifIC uaditional COI\Ie:l! innuenceuseven more ~troogly. Being & tfansformallOll<ll leader in the Ind,an soclely would requirt acIeqo;ate e>:pre5Sion 01 thedilferem ~ ,."

•

According to Burn. (I'HS. 20). transfoonatrorwl leadership -occurs when one or mo<e persons ffit}llge with othefS in ~uch a way thal leadl'f!; and fo ll owe<s raise one another to higher levels of mol",ation and morality.- A«ording to Bass (19$5). thE're are lour dImensions of tr anslormatrorwlle.1der.;hip--dlaoristnatic; leadefshlp, inspirational leadershIp or moll\/~tion. intellectual stimu\')!lon, and Indi .... :h . .aliZed consideration. o."risrnatrc ieader.;h ip can be further subdiYided intO attributed chIIrisma and idealized inlluence .... '" (harKiens.trcs 01 tr.-..rrsfonnationlrl ~ Research ha, shown that ctrtain chitfactenstio distiro'juish If ansformational INders. I::I.t-nen and lewis (1 987) propQSI!d a constrUCIive'd~tallheory to e<pIaln lhat critical personalit)' dilfefence5 m to translormiltional ~p, HousE, Spang ler. alld Woycke (1991) in a study of U.S, presidents showed that presidential behiMOl"aI cl\arisma was ~Irvety rNted to need for power and activit)' inhIbition and negatively related to need for achievement . Atw.'lIe< and Vamm3nno (1993) show@dthatpooonalatlnhuies accounled lor a signifrcan\ porlion 01 _ari&n(e on ,ubord inates' ratings of transf(lfmatlOll<l lleadersh ip. The tra its and coping slyles that pred icted superiority as compared to subordina te ralings of leadership diflered. Howell and Avolio (1993) demonstrated that individualized COIlSIderabOn. inteleaual ,tmutatoon. and chansrna..-epositively [@\atedlOahogher inlernallocus 01 control. Simoiar!y. SosIk and Megerian (1999) showed Ihat Iransformatlonalleader, who were self· aware possessed high levels of se lf· confoderxe and ""I-efficacy. and provided onenta~OI1 lor 10""'-'. Judge and Bono (2000) ~nked trait:. from the Sog 5 10 If ansformat"""" leader-5hlp behavoo< and showed that em ... o soland agree toe es pOSItIvely predicted Iransformatlonal I~Ip while 0per1ne5$ 10 expenence was posillVely (orrelaled with transfOfmatlOfla lleadership.

1 Kuhnert and Lewi, (1987) sa id thallfansformaliona lleade<5 act according to end valu(!S li ke integrity. self· ,,,-,,pect. and equality, which they integrate into -lhe work group, Howell and Avol io (\ 992) stoo ied 1 50 ""'''''9'''' to show tho! ethi<;31 arid u..ri:>matic k>a~ exercised powe< in socially constructive wa~, too r vision, we,,· ,~s;ve to the int"'''''' 01 others and that they <:<.>nve<ted thei, fo li o ............ into leaders_ Sanerji and Klislman (2000) found that in5p"ationa l leadern, ip was negotiveiy ,..rated to leader', preference for bribery arid favoritilm. and intei lectual stimulation WaS r>egalivEty related to po-efe.ence for bribery. Krish""" (2001 a) """'-"'d that tran,lorrmtior\il l le3ders had idffil iliable patl,.,.", in thei, va lue systems and tha t they gave relatively high priority to 'a world at peace ' and 'responsible, . and ,efatr...ry low priority to 'a world of beauty: 'nabona l ,ewrity: 'intel lectual,' and 'cheerful.'

Mo">,,,. r, Kri,hnan (2QQl b) proposed that the fou r basic comporlef1ts of the Ind ian worldviev.t-an und,.,,;tanding of the real natu re of thi< world, preference lor action over inaction, perceiving the potentilllly drvine nature of oneself and o th,.,,;, and visua lizing freedom as the su preme goa l of human existefKe­fadfita ted the emergence 01 tramformatioM lleader'ih ip.

Sex and ~nder differences among transformational leader>_ Stooie5 com po ring men and """""'efl on rransformationalleader5hip h<lve s.hown mi.<ed re-suits, Bass and Avol io (1 994) found that women manager, were rated as having more idealized influence. beif'g ma re inspiratioMI ond individua lly wn :iiderMe th.n men, They were also rated higher on inleHe<:tual stimulation but the difference was not :iign ificant. Yamma ri oo, Dubin"", (orne<, and JolS£ln (1997) e~t.blished that female leadets formed unique relationships with ea ch of thei r 'illbordino te-s, This imp lie-s tha t women engage in a styieof leadecllip in wh ich subord inates ond leader, exert mutua l (onrrol .00 influence over one ar"lOthet and are mu t ual~ dependent. Car les~ (1998) examined one hundred and twr:>nty women and one hundred and eighty four men a nd obta ined ratif'g' from both superiors and 5Ubordinates, Findings 'ihowt'd that atlhe globa l ~ of a~, 5Uperiors and manag,.,,; rated fema le managers as more tran 'formalionalthan ma le manager~, Self- ratings at a more 5.p(!Cific level of analysi~ 'hawed sig nificant d ifferenc", in interper<ona ily oriented bellavior li ke partic ipatory deci<;ion ma king, caring lor individual 'leed" etc. Subord inates ..... aluated !heII female and male leaders '-"1ua/1y. Eagly and Jo ha nnesen-Schmidt (2 00 1) 'tud ied a large Xlmp le 01 manag,.,,; and meta -ana ly<:ed forty >t".'en stud ie-s. Their resu l !~

showed th at women exceeded men on three tran,formational sea l'" namely t he amibutl'S I'(>rsion of idea lized in fluence , inspirational moti.at ion, and indNidua lized (on,idetation, The 11I'9",t of these differen<;es w~on the indr,;duaiizeod consideration scale, whi<:h has the molt communaf content of these ",bscal",_

Maher (1 997) ,hawed th<lt there wa~ no difference in the way ,ubord inates evaluated thei r actua l ma le and fema le managets. Howelll'l", fema le 5Ubjectsa,w-ciateod transformational leaderJ1 ip behaviors more "";th women , than "";th men , "'ggest ing Ih<lt stereo!ypes playa role

,

ReseafChers ha"" offerer! exp lanations 10 acwunt fOI these diffetences Bass and A.olio (1 994) ",gge-ster!lhat women tend to be mo re nu rtu ring, interested in o thers and s.ocia lly sensitive. Rosener (1990) ~ Ih<lt women described !hemselves In ways that characterize Iransformational lea de rship--wnvinci ng wbordinatl'S to transform their own sejf·interest imo the interesl of Ihe group. encouraging participation , and wring power and i nformatoo. Eag Iy a rid Johan r!esI'I1 -Sch midI (200 1 ) 5Uggested that women adopt the female gender-role_ tndiv'o:jualized co~lidetation may inval.e being attentive, considerate, and nu rturing to one') subord irKItl'S, Being encou raging and "'pportive may loster shaMng optimism and excitement about thelutule. the tendern:ies asse,,,,",, by the in)p irationa l moti.ation su b, cale , Ross and Offermann (1997) obtained 4,200 subordiruterating' for 40 O:aders (35 men. 5 women) and found that that Ifan,formational leade rship wa, po,it ively related to levels of pragmatism. nurturance, and feminine attributes, and negatively rela ted to uiticillnes and ag9 r essian,

Hyporhe5i5 I . tndividua ls who percei.e them,!'/ve, as fem inine would be fated hig~ on the t,ansformationalleader'ih ip faclors_

Hypothesis 2_ Individua l, who perceive them~ as mascu li ne would be rated lowe< on Ihe transformatioNl leadership faaors

Methods

We collected data from a la rge, manufactu ring organization , The company r, the ~ng le largest. integrated steel wo~ in the private ~tor, Wlth a market ,hare of abou t th irteen per cent. located mainly in eallern India , The cro,s-functional o,ampje compri","" ei9hty unique manager-subordinate pa irs f,om two diffetent cilies, Eac h leader in this pair was requested to answer the Bern's Sex­Role IrM?ntory (BSRI) and the questionnairedeveloped \0 investigate sex-roles in the Indian context. The subordina te rated hi, or leader on the transiormational leadeclllp sca le.

The Xlmp le of manag,.,,; belonged to the firs t three level~ of nierarchy_ Their 'iUbordinates' 00 extended to the remaining two

1eveI,_ Thetwentyeight WOmen managerssutveyed , had an age range 01 twenty:ii.!O fifty years, with a med ian of thirty th ree years, The 'iUbordinate Xlmple for tn.. women managers consisted 01 eight women aod twenty mefl, ages rang ing from twenty three to fifty Ii.e years, with a medilln of 33,5 years , The number of yeal"SSj::eIlI working under-the resp!'Ctive ma~, forthis sampie, had a median of 1 5 yea~. The fifty two male managers 'iUrveyed, had an age r~nge twenty :ii~ to fifty yea rs with a median 0140_S )'ears_ The wbordinate Xlmple, in th i' case, comisted of five women and forty seven men , oge ranging from twenty four to fifty:iix yea~. with a median of 35.5 years. The number of years \pent working under the respective manager5, for Ihi~ Xlmp le , nod a median of 2 years.

Measures

Tramform~rionalleadership. To mea,ure transformat iona l

II appears equally

desirable for men and

wOlI/elllo hare traits

associaled lI'itl1

aSSe,.ril'elle~·s

(assertive, defends 011'11

beliefs, illdil'idll{lIi~·lic.

H'illillg 10 take

a stal1d. elc, )

leader-J>ip, Iht mOSI popular in>!rumenl. tt... MuM«Ior ~p Question"",re (MlQ) (SMs 8r A'IOho. 1991), was used. This sc~le gIves scores on ~mibute<i dlarisma, iOe;! lized influence, ~alion;l l motivation, intelledual stimu lah(ln, and indiYiduali zed conSIderation. It eO(l:;ists of forty ,~n items, which requi re the suborni""te to rate the leader on a SCilIe of o to four where 0 means 'not at all' and lour mNrlS 'Irequently. If not a~.'

Sex-roles.. TheB5R1 (~ 1974), \hem"'t widely used inwumenl for this purpose, was used. This helps '" classify individuals as femini ne, mIIscuf ine, androgyn ous, or und iffe rent iat ed. It has th ree sca les comprning femininIty, ma:;rul imty, and neutr~1 itm-G. ~ scale 11M twenty items. yielding si~ty ItemS, In total. The respoodents Me requIred to lfIditale on a ~t scale Iv;mwel each personality r;hara(tefISIlC ilpplles to them. I, on this SCil Ie, deflOlI!s 'neYE'I", or almost never' while seven denotes 'aMiays, or almost always true:

Aqueslion""OreW3S ~ 10 rYlIillUre "",-roles in the IndIan setting. 8ilsed on the lit<'falure, a\lObulE'S and behavior 01 'the ideal man' and the '001 woman' In \he InO!¥! conlexl ~ !Oenbfied. A piIol sludywas conducled with the i"".allisl, which cOOSlSted 01 eoghteen Item, for men and eight!!er1 ilems for W()men, in order 10 obtain feedback on how people pe<ceived t~ roles in the Indian cu llur e. The sampll'tonsisled 01 ~Ieen women who ..-e schooItef(hen . .)nd nIneteen men working at a tt,,"'ng (rotef. Based 0" the findings, IWO "ems were o:IeIeted, one item was add~, tWO it""" were (ombined IntO one. 3Rd 'iOmI' ma'gi",,1 changes were made in a f_ other Items. The SCil le h~d th rrty tW() Items fina ll y. Managers indk.Jted 0(1 ~ sevro_ point SCiliI! how.......,1 the sta lcmerol$ dl'SCribed Ihem (one_ >lroogiy disagr~ 8r \O'Yef1 ~ s\rongly .,..., ResuiU

We did a pmopal 0011 ipOI It! II ¥\iI1ysiI WIth vJ"ma. <0"'"0(1 for eilCh 01 Ihe fou, "'ts of items-----BSRlI'I'I3SCUI"' rty, BSRI feminilli l;\ Ind ian mascu li ni ty, and Indian feminInity.

•

'FM:l BSRi rNSOJirjty factors l'6der./le.wld ~lonOmous), one BSRI f«nl",nlty f«lor (nurlunog). IWO India" masculinity factors (s"'cere and principled), and three Ind"," femininity fa-cIOr~ (fami li~ I, dutIfu l and eMstel W0l' retained.

The four- fiejd ar.alys.is was tllen done. Individuals ..-easslgned into gender-role c.l t0!90llei based on the BSRI KOres. IndMdU;1l rTIolSCUline and femlnone §cores \WIe compared 10 the medi&ns lor the enpre oroup. The BSRI ma:;rulilllty media" was 5.3 while the BSRI fem rnlnity med,a" was 5.0. f>eopil!, who scored IIrgher tMn the median 0(1 both the dimensions, were d8s~fied asandrogyoous IN- 25). SWniIartf. people hawtg orVya high masculine score or only a hIgh femin",e score were clasSi fied as ma,eullne (N .. d6) and lemlnone (N:. 15) respectiYely; II"(!Mduals scoring IMSer IMn lhe medIan on both dlmensloM were designated undi f! ere(lll3led IN - B). After the categor i~atiOll, a",,1yses of va riance of the two eSRJ ma:;ruline 1<10"" lleadeo'-~ke arKf autonornoYs) arod the one eSRllemlnlRe factor (nu(\Uring) acrOSS the four- field c.ltegOfles were (Oroducled. II was foul"(! th.)1 the man~ge" In Ihe masculine c.llegory scor~ sigmficantly (p<.OO1) hogher on leader-lib- than the ones 10 Ihe femon lne and urodit/<'fentialed calegoroes, and slgn iflC.1ntly (p< .OS) higher th.an the OReS '" theandrogj'"OU' r;alr;ogory. Similatl't the managers", the ten1inlRe c.llegory scored signiflC.1ntly (p<:.05) higher on nUrlurlng th,)n the O(IE'S In the ml§cu~ne and undifferentiated CiltegorleS This prOYided l.Upport lor the reli&bility 01 the f..:tor struc\UI'e.

An h:lependent sample I-tesl (two-ta iled} was then done 10 see if there were any differences ina ny of I he variables $1 ud i ed, across ma le and fema le m.onagefs. The results showed that the males were 5ig",fica"tly (p<.05) hIgher tha" lhoe Ietn/IIe!; on theleao:lo!r-i!<e factor_ There.....ere ro siglllfic.lni difference; in ¥'f of the other

~-Tab le 1 provides the means. standa rd deviations , C,onbach a lphu, and

•

-----------------1 T. bl. ,

M .. nl, 5bnd.rd Deviation., Cronbuh A1ph .. , and Correl.tlons be tw.en V.,I.bl .. •

(N ranges hom 7910 SO) M " , , , • , , , • , " " " " I. Le~er ll ke 5.28 0,73 (.71)

2, Autonomous 5.110 067 ." (,72)

3. Nunu"'"9 5.65 078 • • 31 •. 24 (.82)

4. SirKert' 6.2 0 0.61 •. 28 • • , .39 ' .25 P31

5. Priocipled 592 ". •• . 33 ••• 43 •• . 32 ••• S4 (.75)

, farrulial 5.87 0." " '" • . 23 •• . 34 ." (.81 )

• , Dutiful 5.80 0.69 ." ••• SO ." • •• 47 ···.51 ." 1.75)

8. Chao;te 571 '" '" '" "' ••• 70 ' ,26 " 26 '_23 (.SS)

9. Attributed CM ri, ma 2.74 083 " OS ',27 " " " ." "30 (.89)

10. klealiHd Infiueoce 276 0.70 " '" •• 34 " " " ." • • . 35 • " .82 "" II . Insp; raliOlla l Leade<ship 2-8, 0." " OS ' .1.7 T .20 ." '" '" • . 26 •• • . 81 • •• . 89 (. 87)

12. Inle!leclual $tlmulatM)ll 2.74 0.13 '" .0> •• 31 " -.02 09 "' •• 32 • • •. 81 ·· · .86 " ' _83 (.88)

13. IndMd ... hl..J COMiderauon 2.63 0", '" 0> ',28 " 0> 0> " " 24 ''' _88 ···.83 "'_80 .. · .83 (.91)

• Alphas Jre in pa ref'lt heses along the d ia90nal

1 ~ p < .10.' m p < .OS. ·· .. p < .01 . ••• P <: .001,

iiI(/ i \ 'id lIal i:ed

cOllsideratiOIl requires

the lem/er/O sholl'

behavior like trearillg

followers as /ll/iqlle

illdil'idlla/s. Iistel1il1g

attemil'eiy 10 their

cOl/cems. alld gil 'ing

per.wl/a/ artelllioll /0

lIIell/ber.~ 11'110 seelll

I/eglected.

@re\atoornbetwl'eOallvar.ablessludied. The BSRI femninity f..aor of nurturing and the Indian feminInity factor of chimewere signifialnt1y rorr ..... te<! willi all the frve Iransformatlonal leade<slllp variablll'lO. Hypothesrs 1 was tllus supported lor oriy two of the four fe<l'lInin ity va,"'b4es. As none of the mascu linity facto" was COJINted 'Mill ""y of tile tr ~ormallOJl/ll ~ip variables, Hypothf5ill was not supported. Will>in the _'101e Vdriables, leade,·like. autonomous. nurturing. sincere . prindpled. and dutiful were cor r~ated willi each othef. The var",bIes of familial and ~tewere co".,(ated loa few of the olhef !elC.,o!e variolbles. The transformatiooal Ieade<'shIP var",bll'5 of idulized influence. inspi,alional molivallOl1. intel leclual stimulation. and indl~ldualized consIderation. were C1)1f~aled with each olhe<.

We then did reg<ession analyses USIng the forward method 10 _ wl'nth oft"" eighl gl!!1der·roIe factors best predicted each of the fIve transfOfrnational leadership Vdriables. The Indian feminInity faClor of .:haste _Ihe best predictor of attributed cM"sma. iOO"li:zed ,n~. '"'flIIatlOllill mot ivatlOl1, and intellectual stimulwon, and tr.erefore l!!1te.ed the mod~ in SIt'!)

one. The BSRI fem.,.,ityfadO< of nOOlln"l9 explainIng SIgnificant iKkIillon.1l varia~ on an"buted d\.)risma. deiIIiztd ",fllll'llCe,

losporatlOl1al mot .... at>on. and Intellectual stimul3tlO<1 , and l!!1te.ed the m<><Ie!s in step F;IM). The6SRl !emin;"ityfilCtor 01 n\JJ1unng was lhe best p<edlClor ollndi¥Jdualized conSlderato::xl. and Ihe<elore mtered Ihe model In Step olle. The Ioo .... n f""'i"''''ty factor of chaste e.pI~ l ning sign ificant additional ~arian,e in individua l i ~ed

consjderatlOl1, and mtered the model in stt'!) !'WO. Noro. 01 the rem<Hlllllg siJc ~. 'ole faClor<; p<edicted any 01 Ihe five I, afl5fOffTlil t>onaI \eaderYIop ~a""hIn.

Di.cu •• ion

The results indicate lhat in the IndIan se!IJng, men and women managers~. ~re ,ated as more Ifansformaloonallf they are e~ge, 10 soothe hu rt fee li ngs.

"

COmp<l'Sior.ate, semiuve 10 the needs of others. and affeaionate. II isalso important that they define themsel\les as being chaste and virtuous in keeping WIth the importa~allached to theseV»..e5.

There has bH-n l'I1~ re5eo)"h and debole on gender·ro!esand ~ip. Sex d'ff~among Ifdnsformatior\lJlleaders have been widely iflYeStigated. thIS study

~ the speoaI,elaliooshlp ~ geode. dIfferences and tran,formatlOl1al leadership, build ing on Ross and Offermann's (1997) prior research. By breaking the aSR I femininIty and masculinity down into fufthe< factors. il demon'l1ralll'lO that perhaps for reliable leadenhlp r~earch. femlnlnlly and masculinity. as defiJ'll'd by the BSRI. cannot be ~iNied as homogenous variab les. Cerla;n faClors within these are more important. perhaps because the behavior attached 10 lhem ~ more sigrufial~ for leadershop.

We see tr.at geode.-roles ale socially and culturally dete<mmed. The 8s.R1 can be thought as beng leliab\e and prewnllllg a fa" pKtureof gender-roles aaoss VdnOUS cultu res. but there rTII9ht be certam other crucial factors with in cu lturll'lO thai go uninvestig.'lted.l!y redefining the peodf;'1'. roles as per lhe traditional JIOI'OlS and OJ~urai expec\a tlOllS In the Ind",n KIOeIy,

_""'9htto Iookat how Indi/Jn$ ~""""t It ~ntl ally means to be masculine 0'

fem inine. Furthef. how these factors 'Nlte 10 \fansforrnatior.allead~ip has special impflCdu<If'G for Indian men and women

~""'" It appears tr.at reg" rdlns of sex. bemg eager to soothe hurt feelingS, com~te. semilive to the needs of oth ...... and .ffectiOllate ~hall<ll'lO all transformatlOJ\illieade!shrp attnbutioos. This findIng supports Ea91y and Johannesen·Schmidt·s (200 1) suggestIOn Ihat ind iVIdua lIzed conside,atoon may Ifl'IIlIv.e r.e.ng alll!!1t"",. comiderate, and nurtunng toone's 5Ubonlinates. v.t..:h are the te"oeo OI5lhat areconsislent WIth the female gender· role. Individualized considerat!OJ1 requires th~ leade< to show

behavior like treating followers as unique iooividu als, li'ten i"9 attentrvely to their concems, and givi"9 pernlnal attentio n to membe!s who loeem neglected. II follows that such feminine attri bu tes should be ern:ou ra ged a, l<lbordinates would ~itively respond to lhem. As expla ined by Eag ly and 10hannesm-S<:hmidt (2001), oong encouraging and ,upportive of subo rd inal~ may fOSler snowing optim ism and excitement about the fulu re, wh ich ale part of inspi rationa lleade"hip. We alw found Ihal both intellectua l ,timulatio n arid attributed charisma ate pred icted by Ifle Indian fem ininity factor of nu rturing. This indical~ Ihat being sensilive 10 olne(s needs arid being affectionate, etc. is seen a, a

posit""" chatismillica1!oibute. Such a nu rturi rlg attitude also allows peop le to exp reoss theor ideas freely and queostio n tfle stalus quo, which erma",e in tel lectual stimu lalion.

It should be ~ep l in mind, while in l!'rpfet ing the above, that ~x

differences do not play a role h!'re . Bolh the >eXes ra Il' themse/\les ~milarly on tfle factor of nurturing, indicilting th.Jt mt'fl do read ily def.ne tflemSEtves i n lerms of attributes lha t are conside.-ed tyPcally feminine. Rega rdl es, 01 ,ex. men and women wh(!!'l seen as nurtu rirlg are t"'en rated as more tran,lormati<lnal. When we look

at the only difler('f1ce across sexes in the gender-role faclOr" th~ BSru ma~u line factor of leader4ike ,tandsout. II seen1slhat males

a re mO re w illing 10 d""rjf)e t hem~ves as having I<>ade"hip

qualit ies, being a,...,-tive, making decisions easily, etc. Despite Ih is fi nd ing , being leader- like is nOI seen a, being mo'e

translormationa l. The trad itiona l definitIons olleade"hip a re

ch<lr.ging with theadl'l'llt of transformationillleade<5hip, and oor.g nu rturing is now more importaM than oong a leader in the typical -Turning r>OW to the find ings a, per the Irid ian facto's, we see th.Jt the fem inin ity fa cto, of ch~~t e enhances transfo,mationa l leader.;hip. This has inte<esting implications in the Iridian conte;«.

It SO!(>ms tha t in Ind ia. if maroagefS, rega rdl ess of th eir ~x, define

thems.elves as being more virtuous a nd cha'te, the}' a re perce.ve:l as transformational . The norms of the society that a re embod ied

in the mythological frg"r", have bearirlg. even tociay. People, who ha~ internalized the norms of lilftuosity and ch.1stity, are a<:eepted

by the society, a nd such aceepwl<e is vital for a leade<. An Indian manage, might do bette, as a leade< if the subordi nat", view him or her as chaste. Tr~n,fo rmationa lleaders by their very actions

command r~tarld obedien,elrom thei, fo llowers . inspiring

them towards hIgher g",, " while making them to!(>l an Integra l part of the teom. In orde< to be su<:eeuflJ! trJnsfOfmationa lleaders, it is i mpor1~n\ that the Ind ian managers define themselves as

chaste m"td virtuou,. This find ing ho lds true Jems< the ~xes, applying to both men and women managet's.

Suggestions for Future Ren ... ch

The findin gs on chastity and virtu osity need to be explored in detai l and ve,ified . The ,oot, of such percept ions, the ch.1nges

"

accompan)"ng inc:reosirlg wester~ation, and fulure implications should be taken up. Along wi th sell- perceptions of leaders, how the foi lOlNer5 perceive the leadefS on the gender attribules shou ld also be investigated. ~estudies rIeed to be done in Ofganizational ~ttings in Ofder to establish that these firld ing ca n be genera lized . A la,g~, sample size ""tn mare women should a lso be indu ded. Different pam of India mrght have I<Ibcultur", and this >hould be exp lored in deta il. When the g~nder-ro le va riables a'e better understood , the implications for tra nsformational leadersh ip wi ll

be dea rer. ReseJfCh also needs to be carried out in other cu ltur'" in order to identify gender-specific am ibules, wh ich shaped by mtory and ph ilo5ophy, give birth to special societal norms. Ig noring such VJ riables wou ld mean not giving Ihe cu ltura l con text, thei' specia l due.

ConclusIon

There h.1ve been inlense debates ~bout the sex and gender diffe rfflces in leade"hip rese~rch . This study. by exclusively focusing on gende, as ~ socia l const ruct, further narrows the g('f1de< variables to identify Iho~ amibules that a re significantly relaled 10 lf3osformational leader..hip. II p'ovides support for the a rgument th.Jt in order to be tr~nsformatio nal, both men and I'OO"Ietl manage;<; should encou rage the e>:p(e5sioo of the feminine atllibuteof being nurturi ng. Furthe<, in the Indian society, manage«

may ma ke better leade<s if they defined Ihemselves "s virtuous arid chaste. Such rontext-weof" auribul~ r>eed to be investigated further not only in India but J lso in other cultu res.

•

•

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