im_02.doc

8/14/2019 im_02.doc

1/24

Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Two

FOUNDATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter, students should be able to:

1. Define the key biographical characteristics.

2. Identify two types of ability.3. Shape the behaior of others.!. Distinguish between the four schedules of reinforce"ent.#. $larify the role of punish"ent in learning.%. &ractice self'"anage"ent.(. )*hibit effectie discipline skills.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

+his chapter looks at three indiidual ariablesbiographical characteristics, ability, and learning.

-iographical characteristics are readily aailable to "anagers. enerally, they include data that are contained inan e"ployee/s personnel file. +he "ost i"portant conclusions are that age see"s to hae no relationship toproductiity0 older workers and those with longer tenure are less likely to resign0 and "arried e"ployees haefewer absences, less turnoer, and report higher ob satisfaction than do un"arried e"ployees. -ut what aluecan this infor"ation hae for "anagers +he obious answer is that it can help in "aking choices a"ong obapplicants.

Ability directly influences an e"ployee/s leel of perfor"ance and satisfaction through the ability'ob fit. ien"anage"ent/s desire to get a co"patible fit, what can be done irst, an effectie selection process will i"proethe fit. A ob analysis will proide infor"ation about obs currently being done and the abilities that indiidualsneed to perfor" the obs ade4uately. Applicants can then be tested, interiewed, and ealuated on the degree towhich they possess the necessary abilities. Second, pro"otion and transfer decisions affecting indiiduals alreadyin the organi5ation/s e"ploy should reflect the abilities of candidates. 6ith new e"ployees, care should be takento assess critical abilities that incu"bents will need in the ob and to "atch those re4uire"ents with theorgani5ation/s hu"an resources. +hird, the fit can be i"proed by fine'tuning the ob to better "atch an

incu"bent/s abilities. 7ften "odifications can be "ade in the ob that, while not haing a significant i"pact on theob/s basic actiities, better adapts it to the specific talents of a gien e"ployee. )*a"ples would be to changeso"e of the e4uip"ent used or to reorgani5e tasks within a group of e"ployees. A final alternatie is to proidetraining for e"ployees. +his is applicable to both new workers and present ob incu"bents. +raining can keep theabilities of incu"bents current or proide new skills as ti"es and conditions change.

Any obserable change in behaior is pri"a facie eidence that learning has taken place. 6hat we want to do, ofcourse, is ascertain if learning concepts proide us with any insights that would allow us to e*plain and predictbehaior. &ositie reinforce"ent is a powerful tool for "odifying behaior. -y identifying and rewardingperfor"ance'enhancing behaiors, "anage"ent increases the likelihood that they will be repeated. 7urknowledge about learning further suggests that reinforce"ent is a "ore effectie tool than punish"ent. Althoughpunish"ent eli"inates undesired behaior "ore 4uickly than negatie reinforce"ent does, punished behaiortends to be only te"porarily suppressed rather than per"anently changed. &unish"ent "ay produce unpleasantside effects such as lower "orale and higher absenteeis" or turnoer. In addition, the recipients of punish"enttend to beco"e resentful of the punisher. 8anagers, therefore, are adised to use reinforce"ent rather thanpunish"ent.

inally, "anagers should e*pect that e"ployees will look to the" as "odels. 8anagers who are constantly late towork, or take two hours for lunch, or help the"seles to co"pany office supplies for personal use should e*pecte"ployees to read the "essage they are sending and "odel their behaior accordingly.

26

8/14/2019 im_02.doc

2/24

8/14/2019 im_02.doc

3/24


A Age 4cont5

Notes:

3. It is te"pting to assu"e that age is also inersely related to absenteeis".

8ost studies do show an inerse relationship, but close e*a"ination findsthat the age'absence relationship is partially a function of whether theabsence is aoidable or unaoidable.

In general, older e"ployees hae lower rates of aoidable absence.

>oweer, they hae higher rates of unaoidable absence, probably due totheir poorer health associated with aging and longer recoery periodswhen inured.

!. +here is a widespread belief that productiity declines with age and thatindiidual skills decay oer ti"e.

?eiews of the research find that age and ob perfor"ance are unrelated.

+his see"s to be true for al"ost all types of obs, professional andnonprofessional.

#. +he relationship between age and ob satisfaction is "i*ed.

8ost studies indicate a positie association between age and satisfaction,at least up to age %@.

7ther studies, howeer, hae found a ='shaped relationship. 6henprofessional and nonprofessional e"ployees are separated, satisfactiontends to continually increase a"ong professionals as they age, whereas itfalls a"ong nonprofessionals during "iddle age and then rises again in thelater years.

B 6ender1. +here are few, if any, i"portant differences between "en and wo"en that will

affect their ob perfor"ance, including the areas of:

&roble"'soling

Analytical skills

$o"petitie drie 8otiation

Sociability

8/14/2019 im_02.doc

4/24


29

8/14/2019 im_02.doc

5/24


C .arital 7tatus

Notes:

1. +here are not enough studies to draw any conclusions about the effect of"arital status on ob productiity.

2. ?esearch consistently indicates that "arried e"ployees hae fewer absences,undergo less turnoer, and are "ore satisfied with their obs than are theirun"arried coworkers.

3. 8ore research needs to be done on the other statuses besides single or"arried, such as diorce, do"estic partnering, etc..

8 Tenure1. +he issue of the i"pact of ob seniority on ob perfor"ance has been subect to

"isconceptions and speculations.

2. )*tensie reiews of the seniority'productiity relationship hae beenconducted:

+here is a positie relationship between tenure and ob productiity.

+here is a negatie relationship between tenure to absence.

+enure is also a potent ariable in e*plaining turnoer.

+enure has consistently been found to be negatiely related to turnoerand has been suggested as one of the single best predictors of turnoer.

+he eidence indicates that tenure and satisfaction are positiely related.

$ Ability1. 6e were not all created e4ual0 "ost of us are to the left of the "edian on so"e

nor"ally distributed ability cure.

2. )eryone has strengths and weaknesses in ter"s of ability in perfor"ingcertain tasks or actiities0 the issue is knowing how people differ in abilities andusing that knowledge to increase perfor"ance.

3. Abilityrefers to an indiidual/s capacity to perfor" the arious tasks in a ob. Itis a current assess"ent of what one can do.

!. Indiidual oerall abilities are "ade up of two sets of factors: intellectual andphysical.

# *ntellectual Abilities1. Intellectual abilities are those needed to perfor" "ental actiities.

2. I tests are designed to ascertain one/s general intellectual abilities. )*a"plesof such tests are popular college ad"ission tests such as the SA+, 8A+, and

8/14/2019 im_02.doc

6/24


# *ntellectual Abilities 4cont5

Notes:

!. Bobs differ in the de"ands they place on incu"bents to use their intellectualabilities. or e*a"ple, the "ore infor"ation'processing de"ands that e*ist in a

ob, the "ore general intelligence and erbal abilities will be necessary toperfor" the ob successfully.

#. A careful reiew of the eidence de"onstrates that tests that assess erbal,nu"erical, spatial, and perceptual abilities are alid predictors of obproficiency at all leels of obs.

%. +he "aor dile""a faced by e"ployers who use "ental ability tests is thatthey "ay hae a negatie i"pact on racial and ethnic groups.

(. Cew research in this area focuses on 9"ultiple intelligences, which breaksdown intelligence into its four sub'parts: cognitie, social, e"otional, andcultural.

6 9hysical Abilities1. Specific physical abilities gain i"portance in doing less skilled and "ore

standardi5ed obs.

2. ?esearch has identified nine basic abilities inoled in the perfor"ance ofphysical tasks. 47ee $%hibit ,',5

3. Indiiduals differ in the e*tent to which they hae each of these abilities.

!. >igh e"ployee perfor"ance is likely to be achieed when "anage"ent"atches the e*tent to which a ob re4uires each of the nine abilities and thee"ployees/ abilities.

! The Ability'ob #it1. )"ployee perfor"ance is enhanced when there is a high ability'ob fit.

2. +he specific intellectual or physical abilities re4uired depend on the ability

re4uire"ents of the ob. or e*a"ple, pilots need strong spatial'isuali5ationabilities.

3. Directing attention at only the e"ployee/s abilities, or only the abilityre4uire"ents of the ob, ignores the fact that e"ployee perfor"ance dependson the interaction of the two.

!. 6hen the fit is poor e"ployees are likely to fail.

#. 6hen the ability'ob fit is out of sync because the e"ployee has abilities thatfar e*ceed the re4uire"ents of the ob, perfor"ance is likely to be ade4uate,but there will be organi5ational inefficiencies and possible declines ine"ployee satisfaction.

%. Abilities significantly aboe those re4uired can also reduce the e"ployee/s ob

satisfaction when the e"ployee/s desire to use his or her abilities is particularlystrong and is frustrated by the li"itations of the ob.

8/14/2019 im_02.doc

7/24


A 8efinition of ;earning

Notes:

1. 6hat is learning A generally accepted definition is 9any relatiely per"anentchange in behaior that occurs as a result of e*perience.

2. +he definition suggests that we shall neer see so"eone 9learning. 6e cansee changes taking place but not the learning itself.

3. +he definition has seeral co"ponents that desere clarification:

irst, learning inoles change.

Second, the change "ust be relatiely per"anent.

+hird, our definition is concerned with behaior.

inally, so"e for" of e*perience is necessary for learning.

A. Theories of ;earning

+here are three theoriesclassical conditioning, operant conditioning, and sociallearning.

Classical Conditionin1. $lassical conditioning grew out of e*peri"ents conducted at the turn of the

century by a ?ussian physiologist, Ian &alo, to teach dogs to saliate inresponse to the ringing of a bell.

2. ey concepts in classical conditioning E&alo/s e*peri"entF +he "eat was an unconditioned sti"ulus0 it inariably caused the dog to

react in a specific way. +he bell was an artificial sti"ulus, or what we call the conditioned sti"ulus.

+he conditioned response. +his describes the behaior of the dog0 itsaliated in reaction to the bell alone.

3.

8/14/2019 im_02.doc

8/24


A Theories of ;earning 4cont5 Notes:

Social L"a#nin1. Indiiduals can also learn by obsering what happens to other people, by being

told about so"ething, as well as by direct e*periences.

2. 7?S$I)C$):

8/14/2019 im_02.doc

9/24


C 7haping: A .anagerial Tool

Notes:

1. 6hen we atte"pt to "old indiiduals by guiding their learning in graduatedsteps, we are shaping behaior.

2. It is done by syste"atically reinforcing each successie step that "oes theindiidual closer to the desired response.

3. 8ethods of Shaping -ehaior.

&ositie reinforce"entfollowing a response with so"ething pleasant

Cegatie reinforce"entfollowing a response by the ter"ination orwithdrawal of so"ething unpleasant

&unish"ent is causing an unpleasant condition in an atte"pt to eli"inatean undesirable behaior

)*tinctioneli"inating any reinforce"ent that is "aintaining a behaior.6hen the behaior is not reinforced, it tends to gradually be e*tinguished.

!. -oth positie and negatie reinforce"ent result in learning. +hey strengthen aresponse and increase the probability of repetition. -oth punish"ent ande*tinction, howeer, weaken behaior and tend to decrease its subse4uent

fre4uency.

#. ?einforce"ent, whether it is positie or negatie, has an i"pressie record asa shaping tool.

%. A reiew of research findings:

So"e type of reinforce"ent is necessary to produce a change in behaior.

So"e types of rewards are "ore effectie for use in organi5ations thanothers.

+he speed with which learning takes place and the per"anence of itseffects will be deter"ined by the ti"ing of reinforce"ent. +his point ise*tre"ely i"portant and deseres considerable elaboration.

8 7chedules of Reinforce(ent

1. +he two "aor types of reinforce"ent schedules are: 1 continuous and 2inter"ittent.

2. A continuous reinforce"ent schedule reinforces the desired behaior each andeery ti"e it is de"onstrated.

3. In an inter"ittent schedule, not eery instance of the desirable behaior isreinforced, but reinforce"ent is gien often enough to "ake the behaior worthrepeating.

It can be co"pared to the workings of a slot "achine.

+he inter"ittent payoffs occur ust often enough to reinforce behaior.

!. )idence indicates that the inter"ittent, or aried, for" of reinforce"ent tendsto pro"ote "ore resistance to e*tinction than does the continuous for".

#. An inter"ittent reinforce"ent can be of a ratio or interal type.

%. ?atio schedules depend upon how "any responses the subect "akes0 theindiidual is reinforced after giing a certain nu"ber of specific types ofbehaior.

34

8/14/2019 im_02.doc

10/24


8: 7chedules of Reinforce(ent 4cont5 Notes:

1. Interal schedules depend upon how "uch ti"e has passed since the lastreinforce"ent0 the indiidual is reinforced on the first appropriate behaior aftera particular ti"e has elapsed.

2. A reinforce"ent can also be classified as fi*ed or ariable.

3. Inter"ittent techni4ues be placed into four categories, as shown in )*hibit 2'!.

!. i*ed'interal reinforce"ent schedulerewards are spaced at unifor" ti"einterals0 the critical ariable is ti"e, and it is held constant. So"e e*a"ples:

+his is the predo"inant schedule for "ost salaried workers in CorthA"ericathe paycheck.

#. Kariable'interal reinforce"entsrewards are distributed in ti"e so thatreinforce"ents are unpredictable.

&op 4ui55es

A series of rando"ly ti"ed unannounced isits to a co"pany office by thecorporate audit staff

%. In a fi*ed'ratio schedule, after a fi*ed or constant nu"ber of responses are

gien, a reward is initiated.

A piece'rate incentie plan is a fi*ed'ratio schedule.

(. 6hen the reward aries relatie to the behaior of the indiidual, he or she issaid to be reinforced on a ariable'ratio schedule.

Salespeople on co""ission

Inst#$cto# Not"% At this point in the lecture you "ay want to introduce the +)A8 )J)?$IS): 9ositiveReinforce(ent vs 9unish(ent found in the te*t Hand at the end of the lecture notes. HAllow 2@'2# "inutes for thee*ercise.

$ Reinforce(ent 7chedules and Behavior 4$%hibit ,'5

1. $ontinuous reinforce"ent schedules can lead to early satiation. =nder thisschedule, behaior tends to weaken rapidly when reinforcers are withheld.

$ontinuous reinforcers are appropriate for newly e"itted, unstable, or low'fre4uency responses.

2. Inter"ittent reinforcers preclude early satiation because they do not followeery response.

+hey are appropriate for stable or high'fre4uency responses.

3. In general, ariable schedules tend to lead to higher perfor"ance than fi*edschedules.

!. Kariable'interal schedules generate high rates of response and "ore stableand consistent behaior because of a high correlation between perfor"anceand reward. +he e"ployee tends to be "ore alert since there is a surprisefactor.

35

8/14/2019 im_02.doc

11/24


Inst#$cto# Not"% At this point in the lecture you "ay want to introduce the 7- IC +>) C)6S: The !igh'Tech7toc) Bubble and Reinforce(ent 7chedulesbo* found in the te*t. +he purpose of the e*ercise is to help studentsbetter understand how learning theory is applied to situations which occur in daily business life. A suggestion fora class e*ercise follows the introduction of the "aterial in the bo* below.

OB IN THE NEWSG The !igh'Tech 7toc) Bubble and Reinforce(ent 7chedules

+he Casda4 stock inde*, which is heaily laden with the stocks of high'tech and Internet relatedco"panies, soared to oer #@@@ in 8arch 2@@@. In 1LLM and 1LLL, this inde* had been raising at better than M@percent. In spite of stratospheric price earnings ratios H"any of the fastest rising stock, in fact, had no earningsand were losing tens of "illions of dollars a "onth, "ost stock analysts continued to reco""end that inestorsbuy stocks in co"panies like $isco Syste"s, 7racle, &ets.co" and A"a5on.co" because of the analysts/ beliefthat the price of these stocks would go a whole lot higher. +hey were wrong Hin the Spring of 2@@2, the Casda4inde* was below 2@@@, but "illions of inestors bought into the analysts/ irrational e*uberance.

6ith the rally in technology stocks in the late 1LL@s ca"e a change in the way that "any people looked at theirinest"ent portfolios. Instead of passiely handing their "oney oer to a traditional stockbroker and pursuing along'ter" strategy, "any people beca"e aggressie traders. +hey opened up on'line brokerage accounts and

relied on real ti"e 4uotes and $C-$ to proide the" with a daylong supply of "arket news and stockreco""endations. +hey actiely bought and sold stocks, in so"e cases selling a stock within "inutes of buying itif they could lock a 4uick profit.

In retrospect, the e*plosie run'up in the Casda4 inde* was an e*a"ple of the power of inter"ittent reinforce"entschedules. 8any of the inestors who bid up Internet shares were happy to ad"it they knew nothing aboutbusiness, technology or aluation theories. ae students break into s"all groups.2. Assign a learning theory to each group and ask the" to apply the theory to the facts of the case.3. Ask the" to use a learning theory to e*plain the behaior of inestors during this ti"e period.!. >ae a spokesperson fro" each group outline their application of the theory.#. Ask the class to decide which theory has the strongest possibility for this situation.

36

8/14/2019 im_02.doc

12/24

8/14/2019 im_02.doc

13/24


6 7pecific Organizational Applications Notes:

1. =sing lotteries to reduce absenteeis"

In the opening case study $ontinental Airlines has created a lottery thatrewards its !@,@@@ e"ployees for attendance.

+wice a year, $ontinental holds a raffle and gies away eight new sportutility ehicles.

7nly e"ployees who hae not "issed a day of work during the preioussi* "onths are eligible.

+his lottery follows a ariable'ratio schedule.

8anage"ent credits the lottery with significantly reducing the co"pany/sabsence rate.

2. 6ell pay s. sick pay

7rgani5ations with paid sick leae progra"s e*perience al"ost twice theabsenteeis" of organi5ations without such progra"s.

7ne 8idwest organi5ation i"ple"ented a well'pay progra". It paid abonus to e"ployees who had no absence for any gien four'week periodand then paid for sick leae only after the first eight hours of absence

a. +he well'pay progra" produced increased saings to the organi5ation,reduced absenteeis", increased productiity, and i"proed e"ployeesatisfaction.

b. orbes "aga5ine used the sa"e approach to cut its health care costs.

It rewarded e"ployees who stayed healthy and did not file "edical clai"sby paying the" the difference between N#@@ and their "edical clai"s, thendoubling the a"ount. orbes cut its "aor "edical and dental clai"s byoer 3@ percent.

3. )"ployee discipline

)ery "anager will, at so"e ti"e, hae to deal with proble" behaiors.

8anagers will respond with disciplinary actions such as oral repri"ands,written warnings, and te"porary suspensions. +he use of discipline carries costs. It "ay proide only a short'ter"

solution and result in serious side effects. Disciplining e"ployees for undesirable behaiors tells the" only what not

to do. It does not tell the" what alternatie behaiors are preferred. Discipline does hae a place in organi5ations.

In practice, it tends to be popular because of its ability to produce fastresults in the short run.

!. Deeloping training progra"s

8ost organi5ations hae so"e type of syste"atic training progra".

In one recent year, =.S. corporations with 1@@ or "ore e"ployees spent in

e*cess of N#M billion on for"al training for !(.3 "illion workers.

#. Social'learning theory suggests that training should:

7ffer a "odel to grab the trainee/s attention.

&roide "otiational properties.

>elp the trainee to file away what he or she has learned for later use andproide opportunities to practice new behaiors.

7ffer positie rewards for acco"plish"ents.

If the training has taken place off the ob, allow the trainee so"eopportunity to transfer what heOshe learned to the ob.

38

8/14/2019 im_02.doc

14/24


6 7pecific Organizational Applications 4cont5 Notes:

%. Self'"anage"ent

7rgani5ational applications of learning concepts can also be used to allowindiiduals to "anage their own behaior.

Self'"anage"ent re4uires an indiidual to deliberately "anipulate sti"uli,internal processes, and responses to achiee personal behaioral

outco"es. +he basic processes inole obsering one/s own behaior, co"paring the

behaior with a standard, and rewarding oneself if the behaior "eets thestandard.

Inst#$cto# Not"% At this point in the lecture you "ay want to introduce the class e*ercise ?78 $7C$)&+S +7SIae the olunteers step out of the roo". +ell the" they "ay hae to wait up to 1@ "inutes.!. 7ffer the class the following situation. As a "anager, they hae an e"ployee who repeatedly co"es to work

late. +he co"pany policy is that after three ti"es of being "ore than !# "inutes late Hcu"ulatie the"anager "ust put the e"ployee on progressie discipline. >ae the class brainstor" how they would handlethe discipline interiew. Ask for two olunteers to be the "anagers. EIf your class has a history of beingreluctant to olunteer, discuss the e*ercise with at least two students separately, and ask the" to be preparedto olunteer if no one does so.F Select your "anagers. >ae one take the "anager/s chair, the other uststand ne*t to the chair for the "o"ent.

#. Step out into the hall and e*plain to the two olunteers that they will hae a discipline "eeting with their9"anager. Kolunteer nu"ber one is to ad"it to the proble", offer a relatiely la"e e*cuse, and acceptwhateer discipline is gien. Kolunteer nu"ber two is to offer a story about being a single parent, haing childcare proble"s, haing a "other who needs che"otherapy weekly and haing to drie her in the "orning,etc., etc. &ile it on.

%. >ae olunteer nu"ber one enter the class and take the 9e"ployee seat. Ask the standing "anager to stepinto the hall. )*plain to both the "anager and the e"ployee in the hall they are not to discuss the e*ercise

while they are waiting.(. ?eturn to the classroo"0 ask the class to note what happens in the interiew and be prepared to discuss it.

+hen hae "anager nu"ber one begin the discipline interiew, telling hi"Oher that heOshe has only 1@"inutes. At the end of the interiew, hae the students take their seats.

M. -ring in the second pair of e"ployee and "anager. ?epeat your instructions, and let the" role'play. >aethe" take their seats when done.

L. Discuss and record on the board how the interiews were conducted, what was done well, and what couldhae been done better. Start by letting the "anagers self'report0 "ake sure they talk first about what they didwell. +hen discuss as a class.

39

8/14/2019 im_02.doc

15/24


1@. Cote if the difference in circu"stances resulted in a different outco"e. Ask each "anager how heOshe feltdisciplining hisOher particular e"ployee. =se the discussion to point out the need for consistency and thedifficulty of the discipline interiew process for "anager and e"ployee.

40

8/14/2019 im_02.doc

16/24


+UESTIONS FOR REVIEW

/ hich biographical characteristics best predict productivity Absenteeis( Turnover 7atisfactionAns,"#G inding and analy5ing the ariables that hae an i"pact on e"ployee productiity, absence,turnoer, and satisfaction is often co"plicated.A" - +he relationship between age and ob perfor"ance is increasing in i"portance. Also, the older you get,the less likely you are to 4uit your ob. +he age'absence relationship is partially a function of whether theabsence is aoidable or unaoidable. In general, older e"ployees hae lower rates of aoidable absence.?eiews of the research find that age and ob perfor"ance are unrelated. 8ost studies indicate a positieassociation between age and satisfaction, at least up to age %@.7ther studies, howeer, hae found a ='shaped relationship. 6hen the two types, professional and nonprofessional e"ployees, are separated,satisfaction tends to continually increase a"ong professionals as they age, whereas it falls a"ongnonprofessionals during "iddle age and then rises again in the later years.G"nd"# - +he eidence suggests that there are few, if any, i"portant differences between "en and wo"enthat will affect their ob perfor"ance. +here are no consistent "ale'fe"ale differences in proble"'solingability, analytical skills, co"petitie drie, "otiation, sociability, or learning ability. +here is a difference inter"s of preference for work schedules. So"e studies hae found that wo"en hae higher turnoer rates0others hae found no difference. +here does not appear to be enough infor"ation fro" which to draw"eaningful conclusions. +he research on absence consistently indicates that wo"en hae higher rates ofabsenteeis" than "en do.&a#ital Stat$s - +here are not enough studies to draw any conclusions about the effect of "arital status on

productiity. ?esearch consistently indicates that "arried e"ployees hae fewer absences, undergo lessturnoer, and are "ore satisfied with their obs than are their un"arried coworkers.T"n$#" -Studies consistently de"onstrate seniority to be negatiely related to absenteeis". +enure is also apotent ariable in e*plaining turnoer. 9+enure has consistently been found to be negatiely related toturnoer and has been suggested as one of the single best predictors of turnoer. +he eidence indicatesthat tenure and satisfaction are positiely related.

, Assess the validity of using intelligence scores for selecting new e(ployeesAns,"#G I tests are designed to ascertain one/s general intellectual abilities. +he seen "ost fre4uentlycited di"ensions "aking up intellectual abilities are nu"ber aptitude, erbal co"prehension, perceptualspeed, inductie reasoning, deductie reasoning, spatial isuali5ation, and "e"ory. Bobs differ in thede"ands they place on incu"bents to use their intellectual abilities. +he "ore infor"ation'processingde"ands that e*ist in a ob, the "ore general intelligence and erbal abilities will be necessary to perfor" the

ob successfully. A careful reiew of the eidence de"onstrates that tests that assess erbal, nu"erical,spatial, and perceptual abilities are alid predictors of ob proficiency at all leels of obs. +he "aor dile""afaced by e"ployers who use "ental ability tests is that they "ay hae a negatie i"pact on racial and ethnicgroups.

D 8escribe the specific steps you would ta)e to ensure that an individual has the appropriate abilities tosatisfactorily do a given "obAns,"#G 8anagers should conduct a careful ob assess"ent so that they can identify key abilities, and thenscreen applicants for their fit to those ob'related needs. +he ability'ob fit is critically i"portant to e"ployeesatisfaction and longeity.

0 $%plain classical conditioningAns,"# - $lassical conditioning grew out of e*peri"ents conducted at the turn of the century by a ?ussian

physiologist, Ian &alo, to teach dogs to saliate in response to the ringing of a bell.

8/14/2019 im_02.doc

17/24


+UESTIONS FOR REVIEW 4cont5

7perant conditioning argues that behaior is a function of its conse4uences. &eople learn to behae to getso"ething they want or to aoid so"ething they do not want. +he tendency to repeat such behaior isinfluenced by reinforce"ent or lack of reinforce"ent. >arard psychologist -.. Skinner/s research onoperant conditioning e*tensiely e*panded our knowledge. Any situation in which it is either e*plicitly statedor i"plicitly suggested that reinforce"ents are contingent on so"e action on your part inoles the use ofoperant learning.Social learningindiiduals can also learn by obsering what happens to other people, by being told aboutso"ething, as well as by direct e*periences. It is an e*tension of operant conditioning, it also acknowledgesthe e*istence of obserational learning and the i"portance of perception in learning. &eople respond to howthey perceie and define conse4uences, not to the obectie conse4uences the"seles. +he influence of"odels is central. +here are four processes: attentional processes, retention processes, "otor reproductionprocesses, and reinforce"ent processes.

E !ow (ight e(ployees actually learn unethical behavior on their "obsAns,"#G &robably the biggest issue is that of the role "odel set by "anagers and e*ecuties. &lus,e"ployees see people all around the" engaging in unethical practices. +hey hear these people, whencaught, giing e*cuses such as 9eeryone does it, or 9you hae to sei5e eery adantage nowadays, or 9Ineer thought I/d get caught.

> 8escribe the four types of inter(ittent reinforcersAns,"# - In an inter"ittent schedule, not eery instance of the desirable behaior is reinforced, butreinforce"ent is gien often enough to "ake the behaior worth repeating. +he inter"ittent payoffs occur ustoften enough to reinforce behaior. Inter"ittent techni4ues be placed into four categories, as shown in )*hibit2'!. 1 In a fi*ed'interal reinforce"ent schedule, rewards are spaced at unifor" ti"e interals. 2 In aariable'interal reinforce"ent, rewards are distributed in ti"e so that reinforce"ents are unpredictable. 3 Ina fi*ed'ratio schedule, after a fi*ed or constant nu"ber of responses is gien, a reward is initiated. ! In aariable'ratio schedule, when the reward aries relatie to the behaior of the indiidual, he or she is said tobe reinforced.

F hat are the five steps in behavior (odificationAns,"# - +he typical 7- 8od progra" follows a fie'step proble"'soling "odel: Identifying critical behaiors

Deeloping baseline data Identifying behaioral conse4uences

Deeloping and i"ple"enting an interention strategy

)aluating perfor"ance i"proe"ent.

G *f you had to ta)e disciplinary action against an e(ployee1 how1 specifically1 would you do itAns,"# - )ery "anager will, at so"e ti"e, hae to deal with proble" behaiors. Disciplining e"ployees forundesirable behaiors tells the" only what notto do. It does not tell the" what alternatie behaiors arepreferred. Appropriate discipline is clear on what is desired as well as haing ele"ents of positiereinforce"ent for doing what is desired. Discipline needs to balance strategies to e*tinguish undesiredbehaior with strategies to encourage desired behaior.

/- 8escribe the four processes in successful social learningAns,"# - Social learning inoles learning by obsering what happens to other people, by being told aboutso"ething, as well as by direct e*periences. our processes deter"ine the influence that a "odel will haeon an indiidual. Attentional processes &eople learn fro" a "odel only when they recogni5e and pay attention to its

critical features. ?etention processesA "odel/s influence will depend on how well the indiidual re"e"bers the "odel/s

action after the "odel is no longer readily aailable. 8otor reproduction processesAfter a person has seen a new behaior by obsering the "odel, the

watching "ust be conerted to doing. ?einforce"ent processes. Indiiduals will be "otiated to e*hibit the "odeled behaior if positie

incenties or rewards are proided.

42

8/14/2019 im_02.doc

18/24


+UESTIONS FOR CRITICAL THIN*ING

/ ?All organizations would benefit fro( hiring the s(artest people they can get@ 8o you agree or disagree withthis state(ent 7upport your answerAns,"#G +his is clearly the philosophy of 8icrosoft, and it see"s to be working. 8ost other organi5ationsfocus on e*perience. 8icrosoft gies e*traordinary attention to one single factorintelligenceP +his hasresulted in greater diersity as well. 8icrosoft beliees its greatest asset is the collectie intellectual resourcesof its e"ployees.

, hat do you thin) is (ore li)ely to lead to success on a "ob3a good ability'"ob fit or personality'organizationfit $%plainAns,"#G ?esearch see"s to indicate the personality'organi5ation fit is critical for "anagers and e*ecutiesto be successful. +he key to ability'ob fit is knowing how people differ in abilities and using that knowledge toincrease the likelihood that an e"ployee will perfor" his or her ob well. +he answer is not really eitherOor butbothOand.

D Besides past wor) history and an e(ployee&s "ob perfor(ance1 what other (itigating factors do you thin) a(anager should use in applying discipline And doesn&t the (ere atte(pt to use (itigating circu(stancesturn disciplinary action into a political processAns,"#G +his is an i"portant 4uestion because of the issues of fairness and the legal re4uire"ent ofi"partiality. 7n one hand, it is i"portant that discipline is ad"inistered fairly and e4uitably and that discipline

is consistent across indiiduals for si"ilar offenses. At the sa"e ti"e, een our court syste" recogni5es thatthere are "itigating circu"stances that so"eti"es need to be considered. 8anagers need to use a consistentprocessall e"ployees go through the entire process that does include consideration of "itigatingcircu"stances. >aing senior "anagers reiew any e"ployee discipline case also proides for confir"ationor adusting of the "anager/s original decision. 8any large co"panies re4uire certain leels of reiew of anye"ployee discipline issue depending on the seriousness of the iolation and conse4uence of the discipline.inally, as we will see in later chapters, al"ost anything, al"ost any decision within an organi5ation can be"ade a political decision. =nifor" processes and training help "ini"i5e that eentuality.

0 hat abilities do you thin) are especially i(portant for success in senior'level (anage(ent positionsAns,"#G Student/s answers will ary. So"e ideas they "ay hae regarding abilities should include:leadership, proble" soling, critical thinking skills, e*cellent co""unication skills, decision "aking, etc. +hey"ay want to specify leel of education and training as well, such as an 8-A, etc.

hat have you learned about ?learning@ that could help you to e%plain the behavior of students in a classroo(if 4a5 the instructor gives only one test3a final e%a(ination at the end of the course 4b5 the instructor givesfour e%a(s during the ter(1 all of which are announced on the first day of class 4c5 the student&s grade isbased on the results of nu(erous e%a(s1 none of which are announced by the instructor ahead of ti(eAns,"#G +he instructors are using different schedules of reinforce"ent which "ay cause the students toreact according to the type of reinforce"ent proided. In Ha the instructor is using fi*ed'interal, but only onceat the end of the course. -ecause the students are not getting any reinforce"ent throughout the ter", they"ay not be learning the "aterial as the class progresses. So"e students "ay beco"e an*ious and 9want toknow how they are doing, and others "ay si"ply wait to the end of the ter" to study since it 9doesn/t "akeany difference anyway. In Hb the instructor is using continuous reinforce"ent at fi*ed interals. +hisproides students with fre4uent feedback on perfor"ance in the class. Students can adust their inputsHstudying, class attendance, etc. based on the feedback the tests proide. In Hc the instructor is using

ariable'interal type of reinforce"ent. -ecause the course perfor"ance "easure"ents are unpredictable,students would need to stay on top of the "aterial to be ready for a test or 4ui5.

43

8/14/2019 im_02.doc

19/24


POINT.COUNTERPOINT -All !u(an Behavior *s ;earnedPOINT

>u"an beings are essentially blank slates that are shaped by their eniron"ent. -.. Skinner, in fact,su""ari5ed his belief in the power of the eniron"ent to shape behaior when he said, 9ie "e a child at birthand I can "ake hi" into anything you want.

6e hae a nu"ber of societal "echanis"s that e*ist because of this belief in the power of learned behaior.

8/14/2019 im_02.doc

20/24


TEA& EXERCISE - 9ositive and Negative Reinforce(ent

P$#!os"G +o de"onstrate the power of power and negatie reinforce"ent.Ti/"#"0$i#"dG Appro*i"ately 2@ "inutesPa#tici!ant#ol"s - Select two olunteers.

T1" Tas2

1. +he two olunteers are selected to receie reinforce"ent fro" the class while perfor"ing a particular task.+he olunteers leae the roo".

2. Identify an obect for the student olunteers to locate when they return to the roo". H+he obect should beunobtrusie but clearly isible to the class. )*a"ples that hae worked well include a s"all triangular pieceof paper that was left behind when a notice was torn off a classroo" bulletin board, a s"udge on thechalkboard, and a chip in the plaster of a classroo" wall.

3. +he instructor specifies the reinforce"ent contingencies that will be in effect when the olunteers return to theroo". or negatie reinforce"ent, students should hiss or boo when the first olunteer is "oing away fro" the

obect. or positie reinforce"ent, they should cheer and applaud when the second olunteer is getting closer to

the obect.!. +he instructor should assign a student to keep a record of the ti"e it takes each of the olunteers to locate

the obect.#. Kolunteer 1 is brought back into the roo" and told,

9;our task is to locate and touch a particular obect in the roo", and the class has agreed to help you.;ou cannot use words or ask 4uestions. -egin.

Kolunteer 1 continues to look for the obect until it is found, while the class assists by giing negatiereinforce"ent.

%. Kolunteer 2 is brought back into the roo" and told, 9;our task is to locate and touch a particular obect in the roo", and the class has agreed to help you.

;ou cannot use words or ask 4uestions. -egin. Kolunteer 2 continues to look for the obect until it is found, while the class assists by giing positie

reinforce"ent.(. $onduct a class discussion. >ae the ti"ekeeper present the results on how long it took each olunteer to

find the obect.M. +hen discuss: 6hat was the difference in behaior of the two olunteers

6hat are the i"plications of this e*ercise to reinforce"ent schedules in organi5ations

T"ac1in Not"s%

1. In the discussion of the results, raise the issue of the ethicality of shaping behaior with negatie and positiereinforce"ent. 9Is it right for a "anager to use these techni4ues to direct the behaior of an e"ployee

2. Students "ay need help "aking the "ental transition fro" being indiidual contributors Hthey are responsibleonly for the"seles and their own goals as students to the position of a "anager Hresponsible for others andgetting things done through others. 6hat they see as "anipulation as students "ay be perfectly legiti"ateas so"eone who works through others.

3. Discuss specific conte*ts where negatie reinforce"ent would be best and situations where positie would bebest. Students "ay well feel that only positie reinforce"ent should be used, particularly if they co"e out of apublic school syste" with a heay e"phasis on self'estee".

ESource: Adapted fro" an e*ercise deeloped by

8/14/2019 im_02.doc

21/24


ETHICAL DILE&&A - *s OB .od a #or( of .anipulation

+wo 4uestions: Is 7- 8od a for" of "anipulation If it is, is it unethical for a "anager to "anipulate thebehaior of a e"ployee

$ritics of 7- 8od say that it "anipulates e"ployees. +hey argue that when "anagers purposely selectconse4uences to control e"ployee behaior, they rob workers of their indiiduality and freedo" of choice. orinstance, an auto parts plant in entucky reinforces safe working conditions through a ga"e called safety bingo.)ery day that the plant has no accidents, e"ployees can draw a nu"ber of their bingo card. +he first e"ployeeto fill a bingo card wins a teleision set. +his progra", critics "ight argue, pressures e"ployees to behae inways they "ight no other wise engage in. It "ake these hu"an beings little different fro" the seal in the circuswho, eery ti"e it does its assigned trick, is gien a fish by its trainer. 7nly instead of getting a fish, so"ee"ployee walks off with a teleision.

7n the sa"e 4uestion regarding the ethics of "anipulation, the answer typically surrounds what the ter"9"anipulation "eans to you. So"e people beliee the ter" has a negatie connotation. +o "anipulate is to bedeious or conniing. 7thers, howeer, would argue that "anipulation is "erely the thoughtful effort to controloutco"es. In fact, one can say that "anage"ent is "anipulation because it is concerned with planned efforts toget people to do what "anages wants the" to do.

6hat do you think

Inst#$cto# Not"%

+hese 4uestions can be used as a group Q A in class, or in conunction with the $ase )*ercise G Bonne Bell#actory $(ployees Average Age >- found below. Another idea would be to assign the following 4uestions as a

ournal entry or short ho"ework assign"ent.

uestions:

1. Do 7- 8od interentions rob workers of their freedo" of choice2. 6hat is "anage"ent/s responsibility to its workers3. 6hat does the ter" "anipulation "ean to you!. If using 7- 8od interentions "ake it a better place for workers, is that ok in your opinion If they are

only used for productiity increases, is that ok Is one reason different than the other in your "ind 6hyor why not

CASE EXERCISE - Bonne Bell #actory $(ployees Average Age >-

+he "orning shift at the -onne -ell plant in

8/14/2019 im_02.doc

22/24


Cot only hae seniors proen to be productie and loyal, they also help keep costs down. Since "ost receieSocial Security, they do not rely on their obs to fully support the"seles. +hey do not need N1# or N2@ an hour

obs to "ake ends "eet. +hey see" "ore than happy to accept pay rates that start at N(.#@ an hours and "oeto NM after a year. Additionally, the co"pany saes by proiding these e"ployees with no health benefits. 8ostof these workers are coered by a spouse/s "edical plan or 8edicare and say they do not need e*tra coerage.

+$"stions

Not" to Inst#$cto#% Student answers will ary, but could include the ele"ents bulleted below each 4uestion.

1. >ow do the facts in this case align with research on age in the chapter 7lder workers are the fastest seg"ent of the workforceit ust "akes sense to include the". +he workers hae a high degree of productiity. +here is low absenteeis" and low turnoerboth are supported by the research on older workers.

2. Is this factory engaging in reerse age'discri"ination 7nly if they are receiing different treat"ent based solely on age. If they are prohibited fro" working

elsewhere in the co"pany, are denied pro"otions or other opportunities based on age, are paid at alower rate, then yes, they are being discri"inated against. 6orking on a special tea" does notnecessarily "ean they are being discri"inated against.

3. Do you think these older workers would perfor" as well if they were integrated into a depart"ent withyounger workers Support your position. +hey probably hae "any years of labor force participation where they hae deeloped their

co""unication skills, and other perfor"ance related behaiors. >oweer, so"eti"es discri"ination can be powerful and "ay inhibit older workers precluding the"

fro" doing their best.

!. Do you think that success that -onne -ell has had with hiring older workers is transferable to otherco"panies 6hy or why not ;es, howeer, they would need to rethink their assu"ptions of older workers and look closely at their

work processes. Additionally, there would need to be a pool of potential older workers to draw fro".+he cost saings that -onnie -ell e*perienced "akes it worth the ti"e e*ploring the issue.

47

8/14/2019 im_02.doc

23/24

8/14/2019 im_02.doc

24/24


(. +ake this 4ui5: Do you like to be reinforced to learn "ore about perfor"ance "anage"enthttp:OOwww.p'"anage"ent.co"O4uestionO4uesante.ht"
http://www.p-management.com/question/quesante.htmhttp://www.p-management.com/question/quesante.htm

im_02.doc

Documents