ijtk 10(1) 39-56.pdf

Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge

Vol. 10 (1), January 2011, pp. 39-56

Biocultural diversity, climate change and livelihood security of the Adi

community: Grassroots conservators of eastern Himalaya Arunachal Pradesh

Ranjay K Singh*1, SN Bhowmik & CB Pandey

1

*College of Horticulture & Forestry, Central Agricultural University, Pasighat 791 102, Arunachal Pradesh;

1Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal 132001, Haryana

E-mail : [email protected]

Received 23.12.2010; revised 20.1.2011

The role of Indigenous and tribal peoples and their traditional environmental knowledge (TEK) is now greatly

appreciated and recognized in developing location specific strategies and mitigation plans for coping with climate change.

The goal of this research, based on six years of collaborative work with Adi tribal peoples from 14 villages of East and

Upper Siang districts of Arunachal Pradesh, was to record Adi knowledge and experiences relating to biocultural resources

and their interactions with climate change and livelihood sustainability. Data were collected using conventional interviews

and village workshops. A total of 700 Adi people participated in these workshops, while two elderly Adi women were

observed and interviewed over the course of 7 days, to document their deep knowledge on the subject. Results indicated that

Adi people are rich in knowledge relating to biocultural resources that play a pivotal role in coping with weather anomalies

and any abrupt climatic changes in order to sustain their livelihoods. People are aware about climate change and its potential

to threaten heir biocultural resources and livelihoods. To combat future climate change and ensure sustainable lifeways, they

are interested in establishing ‘community reserve forests’ (CRF) within undisturbed community forest landscapes. These

could be either at an individual or community level or even at both levels, provided that environmental agencies are able to

link these ‘CRFs’ with REDD programs and that rewards and incentives are given to Adi tribe. The future of the Adi tribe’s

biocultural resources and livelihood sustainability depends very much on their TEK and their active role in research,

planning and policy implementation for climate change mitigation and adaptation.

Keywords: Adi tribe, Traditional environmental knowledge, Climate change, Biocultural resources, Livelihood

sustainability, Arunachal Pradesh

IPC Int. Cl.8: A01C5/00, E04H, G01W

The State of Arunachal Pradesh is considered as one of

the megabiodiversity centres as well as a major abode

of cultural diversity1,2

. The people of Arunachal

Pradesh, represented by 26 major tribes and 110 ethnic

groups, have developed unique bonds with nature –

expressed through ‘biocultural diversity’. They depend

largely on its forests and diverse ecosystems for their

subsistence economy. ‘Biocultural diversity’ is

reflected in the interactions of local culture and

languages of a particular community with communities

of floral and faunal species, through biological,

cultural, social and natural processes enacted over

time3. Biocultural processes and dynamics with one

ecosystem vary from those of another according to the

scale and space of the culture, and overall species

diversity2,3

. The biocultural diversity of Arunachal

Pradesh is mediated through five distinct climatic types

(alpine, temperate, sub-temperate, tropical and

subtropical), interwoven with traditional knowledge

systems (TKS) and strategies that provide continuity

and opportunities for subsistence survival of local

communities within these diverse zones4,5

.

Worldwide, concerns have been expressed that

measurable changes in global climate, including

extreme weather events such as floods, elevated

temperatures, major storms and droughts, have

threatened the sustainability of ecosystems, cultures

and livelihoods6-8,

. This is not just an issue for a

particular cultural group, state, region or country, but

a concern for all human societies, specially peoples,

including indigenous communities, who rely directly

on their local environments for sustenance7,9

.

Arunachal Pradesh exemplifies this concern. Studies

show that climate change can affect plant

biodiversity5,8,9

and even microbial biodiversity of

certain food resources of traditional communities in

Arunachal Pradesh10

, thus leading to erosion of the

state’s biocultural diversity, and thereby of the ______________

*Corresponding author

INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 10, No. 1, JANUARY 2011

40

livelihood security of grassroots conservators of

biocultural diversity2. The studies with traditional

communities of the state indicated that they are rich in

traditional knowledge (TK) about plants, animals,

water bodies and indicators used in weather

prediction2,4,5

. This knowledge – as biocultural

resources, is part of making local strategy for

sustainable livelihood in harsh ecosystems8,11

. Not only in Arunachal Pradesh or India, but

elsewhere as well, the indigenous peoples hold

important environmental knowledge and conserve

biocultural resources that can be important in studies of

climate change and human adaptation to environmental

disturbance6,7,12

. Despite the fact that indigenous people

are and will be greatly impacted by present and

impending climate changes, these communities are

rarely consulted and their voices are often absent in the

academic, policy and public discourses on climate

change6,13

. Even the IPCC II and III reports did not

consider the role of indigenous people in mitigation of

climate change13,14

. A review of Arunachal Pradesh state

developmental and environmental policies reflects that

this government, too, is remiss in joining hands with the

indigenous communities to gain understandings of their

time-tested traditional environmental knowledge (TEK)

in sustaining the biocultural diversity in the times of

changing climate2,15

.

Recognizing the importance of TEK and the role of

cultural diversity in biodiversity conservation and

sustaining livelihoods, an initiative on consulting the

indigenous people of Arunachal Pradesh was started

in 2005. As part of the work, a few selected elder

women have been studied since 2003 in order to

record their specific knowledge and experiences on

changing pattern of local environment and

biodiversity. Findings from two of these case studies,

of Mrs Basum Moyong (65) and Mrs Otek Moyong

(85), are presented in order to correlate the results

from the series of community workshops and to draw

the inferences on TEK and biocultural diversity

accordingly. The objective of studying the Adi

community through the workshops was to explore

experiences and community knowledge relating to

climate, local practices and biocultural aspects in

respect to livelihoods; and to document perspectives

on the initiative of establishing a community reserve

forest for securing livelihoods and conserving native

biodiversity, as well as fetching benefits through

REDD (reduction in carbon emission through

minimizing deforestation and degradation) in future.

Methodology In the study with the Adi tribe,who predominate in

Arunachal Pradesh in terms of population, 12 villages,

namely Sido, Ngopok, Vijari, Yagrung, Sibut, Miram,

Rasam, Siluk Basti, Kebang and Dalung, from the

Pasighat administrative circle (East Siang district)

were selected, while two other villages, Damro and

Adi-Pasi, were sampled from the Maryang circle of

Upper Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh. In each

village, a workshop was organized to consult with

cultural and community leaders and traditional

knowledge holders (TKH), to listen to their past

experiences and present coping strategies relating to

the climate change, and obtain their feedback on

future planning in relation to climate change

adaptation. Study was also conducted with selected

villages of the Adi community to identify un-degraded

community forest and establish community reserve

forests (CRF) (Figs.1 A&B). This aim was motivated

from the global policy on REDD. The concept of the

workshops on REDD was broader than simple carbon

sequestration, also including biocultural diversity

conservation and livelihood aspects - which might be

possible impediments to implementing REDD

policies16

. It was taken as a pilot socio-ecological

study with the Adi community, to learn their

experiences and record feedback and opinions, along

with developing methodological approaches to study

climate change and sustainability in biocultural

diversity (Annexure I).

In each village, a workshop on the issue of REDD

and biocultural diversity was inaugurated and led by

the Chief of the village Kebang (customary

institutions of Adi tribe) – called Gaon Burha, with

the help of members of Village Panchayat (village

level democratic institution). On average, more than

65 people (both male and female) participated in each

village. Before initiating the workshop, rapport

building (a participatory rural appraisal tool) was

undertaken with the key communicators, and

community leaders of each village. The workshops

were organized with the help of an interdisciplinary

team of scientists (ecologist, socio-economist,

biodiversity experts, biochemist, microbiologist and

food and nutrition experts), key communicators and

community leaders. The final regional workshops

were held in Sido and Pasighat villages in East Siang

district to draw consensus on these issues. The

perception of Adi members about climate change

was recorded individually as well as in group using

SINGH et al.: BIOCULTURAL DIVERSITY, CLIMATE CHANGE & LIVELIHOOD SECURITY OF THE ADI COMMUNITY

41

Annexure I

Studying Climate Change, TK and Biodiversity

A. Personal profile

1. Respondent Name:

- language spoken? First Second

a. State: b. District: c. Block: d. Village:

e. Date of survey

f. Name of head of household:

g. Age :

h. Relation to head: i Sex:

j. Marital status: Married/ un-married/ widow/ divorced/children? Grandchildren?

Family background :

k. Physiological status: Non-pregnant. Non-lactating / pregnant / lactating/ breastfed/breast fed+ complementary feed/ weaned/not

applicable

l. Major occupation: Land less agriculture labourer/owner cultivator/landlord/tenant cultivator/artisans/service/business/ others

m. Land holdings: (in ha):

i. Wetland …. ii. Kitchen garden……. iv. Agroforestry……… others

n. Type of activity:

i. Sedentary: Landlord [?] /service/ housewife/ clerk/ teacher etc.

ii. Moderate: (agricultural labour/ other labourer/servant maid/etc)

iii. Heavy: Blacksmith/ worker etc.

o. Household annual income:

other sources of goods/services [i.e. possibly obtain some things by trade or exchange of services?]

B. Socio-economic particulars:

1. Religion: Hindu Muslim Christian Others

2. Community: ST (name of tribe…….) SC Backward [? What does this mean? It sounds quite negative] Others

Notations: __________________________________________________________________

3. Type of House:

a. Mud thatch + wall thatch roof

b. Mud wall +tiled /asbestos/ tin roof

c. Brick / stone wall + thatched roof

d. stone wall + RCC roof

4. Type of family in residence: A. Nuclear B. Extended nuclear C. Joint

Notations: __________________________________________________________________

5. Sources of drinking water: a. Open well b. Stream c. Hand pump d. Tap e. Other

Notations: __________________________________________________________________

6. Separate kitchen: A. Present B. Absent

Notations: __________________________________________________________________

7. Type of cooking fuel:

a. Fire wood b. Kerosene c. Bio-gas d. LPG e. combination of any these two

Notations: __________________________________________________________________


42

C. Details on biocultural resources and climate change

1. To explore the varieties of culturally important traditional foods consumed during the drought/floods

Food items Daily Twice/thrice Weekly Fortnightly Monthly Occasionally

Cereals

Rice

Maize

Millets

1

2

3

Legumes

1

2

3

Vegetables

Green leafy

vegetables from

forest and home

gardens both

1

2

3

Tubers/rhizomes/

Bulbs

1

2

3

Gourds/cucurbits

1

2

Fruits

1

2

3

4

Meat

Fresh

1

2

3

Other forest based

meat

Dried meat

Fish

Chicken

Pork

others

Notations: ______________________________________________________________________

2. Types of food resources consumed in the fermented or the alcoholic forms during the drought?

a

b

c

3. Methods of preparing special liquid and fermented food products during the drought or flood adopted by women is to be known in

(details)?

Foods Method of preparation


43

a

b

c

Notations: _______________________________________________________________________

3. To know the biological indicators in understanding the climate change

Name of plants/insects/animals Season/Months Behaviors of plants/animals/insects/etc Inference

a

b

c

4.After taking the lessons from the biometeorological indicators how you decide or make your yearly strategy of crop (different crops)

management strategies like selection of varieties, water management, stoirge of crops, etc.

a

b

c

Notations:

______________________________________________________________________

5. Name the types of clouds in local parlance and their behaviour in relation to rainfall and drought.

a

b

Notations:

_______________________________________________________________________

6. Name the types of winds in local parlance and their behaviour in relation to rainfall and drought.

a

b

Notations:

_______________________________________________________________________

7. During the drought what types of feeds you select for the feeding to cattlkes and animals?

Name of plants (local plants with botanical names) Season of availability process of use

a

b

Notations: _______________________________________________________________________

8. Could you please indicate that how the rainfall pattern have in last 20 years (this exercise must be made in the group where at least 5

members of community must participate)?

Year Rainfall in (mm) approx Positive or Negative effects

- In 1980-85

-In 1986-1990

- In 1991-1995

- In 1996-2000

- In 2000-2205

- In 2006-2010

- In future

Notations: Describe the types of effects on water, indigenous plants resources, animals, humans, etc.


44

_______________________________________________________________________

9. Could you please indicate that how the temperature pattern have in last 20 years (this exercise must be made in the group where at least

5 members of community must participate)?

Year Temperature in (centigrade) approx Positive or Negative effects

- In 1980-85

-In 1986-1990

- In 1991-1995

- In 1996-2000

- In 2000-2205

- In 2006-2010

- In future

Notations: Describe the types of effects of climate temperature on water, indigenous plants resources, animals, humans, etc.

_______________________________________________________________________

10. Please name the typos of local crops species which are lost in last 40 years due to the drought or the flood as you perceive?

Name of the crops species

a

b

c

Notations: _______________________________________________________________________

11. Please name the types of indigenous plants and tree species which are lost in last 40 years due to the drought or the flood or increased

temperature as you perceive?


a

b

c

Notations:_______________________________________________________________________

12. Please name the types of local fishes, insects and wild animals species which are lost in last 40 years due to the drought or the flood

or increased temperature as you perceive?


a

b

c

Notations: _______________________________________________________________________

13. Please name the types of local birds’ species which are lost in last 40 years due to the drought or the flood or increased temperature as

you perceive?


a

b

c

Notations: _______________________________________________________________________


45

14. How the climate change and the deterioration in indigenous crops species, fishes, animals, insects and birds biodiversity have affected

your food security and livelihood systems?

a

b

c

15. What could be the ways of reviving the lost biodiversity in the localities?

Ways of revival

Notations: _______________________________________________________________________

16. Do you think that the local community of your village could be organized to mitigate with the changes in climate and the

conservation of natural resources and indigenous biodiversity? If yes then how?

At individual levels At community levels At both the levels Ways and means

a

b

c

Notations: _______________________________________________________________________

17. Is there any indigenous and informal (other than Village Panchayat) institutions who hold control and able the make decision about

use and conservation of natural resources in your village? If yes then who are them

Name of institutions W & means of working on natural resources Types of resources conserve

a

b

c

Notations: _______________________________________________________________________

18. Do you feel that the changes in temperature, rainfall or other climatic features have affected your food security? If yes then how and

upto what level?

Types of food resources Extent (in percentage) Name the climatic features

a

b

c

Notations:___________________________________________________________________

19. Knowledge about the traditional resources

A. Name the foods that give energy during the drought, loo or floods…………

List: __________________________________________________________________________

B. Name the foods that help in better body growth during drought, loo or floods …………….

List: __________________________________________________________________________

C. Name the foods which are good for the eyes drought, loo or floods …………………

List: __________________________________________________________________________

D. Name the foods that enrich or strengthen the blood drought, loo or floods …………

List: __________________________________________________________________________

E. Name the foods that improve the digestive system drought, loo or floods …………….

List: __________________________________________________________________________

F. Name the foods that act as laxatives drought, loo or floods ………………….


46

interview schedule. Similarly, the consensus

percentage of participants about criterions for

establishing community reserve forest was recorded

individually and as well as in group using open-ended

questions.

Results

In each village workshop (Fig.2), the idea of

reduction in carbon emission through REDD was first

introduced to participants. Apart from the future

economic and ecological scope of REDD, the

conservation and livelihood dynamics with REDD

were focused on with the participants. A great majority

(83.6%) of the community members were enthusiastic

in assigning certain areas of community virgin forest as

CRF (Fig.3) and linking these with the REDD scheme.

However, despite the assurance that CRF property is

and will be exclusively under the control and

ownership of community members (clan/individuals),

some participants (15.4%) were concerned about the

ownership of CRF property. Many (65.9%) perceived

that, at some point after CRF establishment, it might

become the property of the Government. Ultimately,

however, after the complete concept and philosophy of

List: __________________________________________________________________________

G. Name the foods that balance blood pressure drought, loo or floods ………………..

List: __________________________________________________________________________

H. Name the foods that help alleviate diabetes drought, loo or floods …………………

List: __________________________________________________________________________

Are there any other foods that help particular health conditions?

List: __________________________________________________________________________

20. Does the village have traditional social foresty/agorforestry? If yes then name the species planted in it with size of lands

Name of tree species Approximate areas under the tree species

a

b

c

21 What do you feel that the planted tree species in above listed tree under village social forestry/agorforoestry has been decreased in last

30-40 years? If yes then with what rate and how did it affect the village livelihoods and climate

Size of land reduced in a year Effect on the livelihood General effect on the climate

a

b

c

22. Please suggest the ways and means by which the participation of village community could be enhanced in minimizing the community

forest cutting or degrading the village community forest resources

Ways and means

A

B

C

23. What types of formal training you need to fight with the climate change so that you and your animals could be saved from food,

nutritional and medicinal security?

Areas of training you need In what forms

a

b

c

Notations: ________________________________________________________________


47

CRF (that it is community property) and its linkages

with REDD were reiterated, members of Adi

community were convinced about the advantages of

the CRF. Consequently, they conceived the idea that

ownership would remain with the person concerned,

either a forest conservator or the clan willing to

establish the CRF.

From 700 members participating from 14 villages,

the majority (76.25%) of them expressed positive

opinions about establishing and reserving a certain

size of virgin community forest (VCF) in every

village, as a CRF under the REDD program. The most

important issue emerging from the workshops was

regarding what indicators would be required for

selection of a particular virgin community forest as

the CRF. In discussions held during with the majority

of Adi participants suggested 17 criterions with

different level of respective consensus scores to be

taken into account for the selection of CRF (Table 1).

The composition of these ecological, socioeconomic

and cultural criterions were a further point of

discussions among the scientific members as a test of

rationality and usefulness, while selecting private or

clan lands under CRF and REDD. After knowing the

willingness of individual forest owners and clans to

secure their forests as CRF, along with the TKH and

community members, the team of scientists measured

out areas of community forest. In the end, a total of 14

forest areas from 14 villages were delineated by the

participatory team, to be classed as ‘CRF’ under the

REDD program, with incentives/rewards to be given

to the respective owners.

The majority of scientists (85.5%) emphasized that

selection of a particular forest under the REDD

scheme, should be a collaborative process between

concerned partners, and the forest must be intelligently

managed, carefully monitored. Any benefits arising

from CRF should be equitably shared among

community members. Both the community people

(51.4%) and scientists (82.3%) were of the opinion that

those CRFs that are clan lands may be managed with

the help of village level committee (VLC) and with

participation of customary institutions (CI). In the case

a CRF being established on private lands, a network of

all the privately managed CRF owners might be

developed to discuss issues arising and to pursue the

REDD designation. Ultimately, an association of all

private and clan-based CRF’s can be developed for the

purpose of negotiating with government and concerned

environmental agencies. The village Panchayat may be

one of the institutions to make the link between CRF

holding individuals and/or clans and outside agencies

dealing with the REDD scheme. Most scientists

(66.5%) were of the opinion that, apart from REDD

benefits, the CRF’s could provide great opportunities

for networking with government-run protected areas

and national parks. Significantly, these CRF’s can

provide an array of information on climate change and

genetic resources to subsidize the biodiversity of

genetically poor parks and protected areas.

Environmental anomalies, biocultural resources

and livelihoods

Perceptions of TKHs regarding climate change and

their biocultural resources based livelihoods indicate

that they are facing different levels and scales of

difficulty in use and management of their biocultural

resources because of weather anomalies and climatic

problems (Table 2). Due to this phenomenon, some

Table 1Criteria to be taken into account for the selection of

community reserve forest+

Criterion

Nos

Criterions Consensus

percentage*

1 Size of forest (minimum 10-12 hectares) 65.68

2 Species richness 87.32

3 Diversity of specific plants and animals

4 Degree of degradation and deforestation

(the forest should be fully virgin, with no

record or history of jhum cultivation)

85.67

5 Environmental services 71.24

6 Presence of endemic species 79.84

7 Fragility of landscape 65.72

8 Rate of loss of biodiversity 65.24

9 Research value (environmental

monitoring)

68.97

10 Presence of NGOs in locality 70.29

11 Community based organizations and

institutions

80.24

12 Presence of gender groups 89.68

13 Importance of human communities 91.24

14 Socioeconomic importance of use 93.24

15 Existence of market network for forest

based minor products

85.67

16 Community attitude for preservation and

ensuring the sustainability of community

reserve forest (a considerable amount of

people displacement will be made from

the forest, thus agriculture and

livelihoods activities would be affected);

62.37

17 Presence of land tenureship

* Multiple responses

+ The criterions were explore using focus group discussion (a

PRA tool) from the participating Adi members


48

plant species are changing their phenological patterns.

For example, Mr Tamur Jamoh, a veteran hunter

(Figs. 4 A&B), reported that now, due to a shift in the

flowering and fruiting of the dekang tree

(Gymnocladus burmanicus C.E. Parkinson) (Fig.5),

Adi tribal members are facing the problem of hunting

deer and other wild animals during the period of the

Solung festival, since these wild animals are attracted

by ripe dekang pods. Mr G Lego, a forest conservator,

explained (Fig.6) that although the Adi community

has evolved a particular kind of agriculture system,

namely jhum (slash and burn) agriculture which has

been an example of a location specific strategy to

cope with environmental variation and to mitigate

uncertainties, the productivity and management

practices of jhum agriculture have decreased over the

last 40 yrs, at least in part due to weather anomalies.

In another example, 12.5% of the elder hunters of

Damro and Maryang areas (Upper Siang district)

explained that now they need more time to search for

the emo plant (Aconitum spiketum, used as an arrow

poison in hunting), because this species is as common

or predictable in its range as it was 30 yrs ago. This

makes hunting animals more difficult. Some of the

participants of this region (35.7%) mentioned that

now, due to the erratic rainfall, unpleasant weather

and other uncertain climatic factors, some of the local

inhabitants are migrating from one mountain to

another in search of sites for jhum cultivation and

better livelihood options. A few of the cultural leaders

of the Pasighat circle, such as Mr Kaling Borang, Mr

Tate Jamoh (Fig.7), Mrs G Lego, Mrs Orik Ralen

(Fig.8), Shri Litin Jamoh and Mrs Omang Tamuk (a

conservator of Gymnocladus burmanicus, Fig.9),

believed that CRF could provide added value, not

only in terms of benefits under REDD, but also in

providing habitats to minimize overexploitation of

certain animal and plant species of great cultural

importance to the Adi. For example, the reduction in

populations of mithun (wild cattle, Bos frontalis,

given as dowry item to brides), kebungs (a type of

squirrel, Ratufa sp, as also a dowry item; Fig.12),

dekang (the tree, Gymnocladus burmanicus, whose

fruits (Fig.10) are used for shampoo and soap and

bartered with other sub-tribes of Adi community and

ekkam (Phyrinum pubinerve Fig.13), used as

wrapping material for foods and wedding gifts and for

other cultural occasions), etc. In each village, a team

of scientists and community members conducted a

transect walk and a forest trek to assess the extent of

degradation and deforestation of a community forest

to be declared as the CRF. During the assessment, the

TEK of community members was used to help

identify any changes in the nature of the community

forest, in animal behavior or plant features known to

TKHs.

During the workshop, the about half (48.9%) of the elder women recalled their past history and presented a picture of weather anomalies they had experienced. They mentioned that 30 yrs ago, they never observed

Table 2Perception of traditional knowledge holders about

climate change and their livelihood security based on biocultural

resources

Indicators on climate change Perception % of

TKH (n=700)*

Ethnobotanical from community forest is

deceasing gradually

48.97

Indigenous fishes from forest stream and other

water bodies need now more time to harvest

for the desired level of amount

56.49

Surplus food resources need more care for

preservation

62.34

Fermentation period of alcoholic beverages

and foods are reduced

42.31

Need of more time and distance for collecting

ethnobotanicals needed for food and

medicines

65.74

Population of wild animals are reducing 72.19

Insect and pest problems are increasing in

local crops and other indigenous biodiversity

39.17

Jhum land is rapidly loosing either moisture

or prone to soil erosion due to heavy rain

68.94

Species diversity of aquatic biodiversity

(forest stream and community river) and

terrestrial biodiversity is reducing due to high

silting and temperature fluctuations

57.89

Food chain is affected due to heavy rain and

or drought

51.29

People need now more frequent contingency

planning for reducing risk associated to crop

and farming system as a whole

42.98

Water supply (harvested from mountain top

chanalized through bamboo pipe) is disturbed,

and some times dried and some times carry

more silt or broken particles

61.27

Labour intensity and cost is increased for

maintaining jhum land from moisture

conservation to soil erosion control point of

view

51.28

If weather anomalies and climate change trend

remains same, then biocultural diversity and

sustainability of subsistence livelihood would

be threatened

95.64

* Multiple responses


49

such unpleasant and uncommon weather during the summer and rainy season. They stated that till 1970s, during the floods they were in a position to access the wild food plants in abundant quantities from the community forest, but at present extent of it are very

small even in the undisturbed and un-degraded forest. Why it is so? Is it the signal of change in behaviors of food resources or in human behavior? There were abundant quantities of aquatic biodiversity in the forest river and seasonal water bodies, but we don’t get it now. Why? Is it the signal of climate change or

overexploitation of resources? The question is complex. If it is due to overexploitation of resources with increasing population, then why do the problems remain same in the undisturbed and un-degraded community forest resources, which you scientists are interested in making into a CRF and linking it with

REDD. It was a challenging question for scientists. Now, Adi people don’t get a sufficient quantity of anke (wild chestnuts Figs.11 A,B,C), belang (wild jackfruit seeds, Fig.19), tasat (Arenga obtusifolia Mart., Fig.14), taste [(Cyathea andersonn Linn.), the fruits are used for eating during drought)], taje

[Amomum sp] and kebung (a squirrel) during the drought, and other species of forest for Adi festivals, as perceived by locally community members. Why did it happened? Adi hoped that in the future, the CRF could provide some solutions to Adi foods, medicinal and cultural problems caused by weather anomalies

and human disturbances. On the issue of climate change and problems of

availability of culturally rich bioresources, one of the

cultural leaders, Mr Kaling Bornag (Pasighat village),

and Mr Tate Jamoh (a veteran hunter of Sibut

village), expressed that they are now facing

frequently erratic rainfall, unpredictable floods (as in

the year 2003) and increasing temperatures, so

different from the past. If the trends of variability in

climatic features remain the same then what will be

the future of ethnicity, food habits and culture of the

Adi community? Shall they be able to conserve their

food habits, agricultural, hunting and food gathering

practices, their knowledge nurturing institutions and

close proximity with the native forests?... Probably

not…. The threat of climate change to their culture

and biodiversity is further aggravated by the alarming

rate of erosion in knowledge about biodiversity and

culture among their younger generation and people

living in transitional social systems”. In further

discussions, the majority of scientists present at the

workshop agreed (79.8%) that although the biological

values of a particular site of CRF play an important

role, the community interest, culture and other socio-

economic concerns are equally important to ensure

the CRF’s sustainability under the REDD program

with reference to use of private and clan lands of

tribal people.

Case study 1- Mrs Basum Moyong: A veteran

traditional knowledge holder of indigenous

biodiversity, culture and environment Mrs Basom Moyong (65) belongs to Minyong

ethnic group of the Adi tribe and lives in Pasighat,

Arunachal Pradesh. She is known for her knowledge

on local biodiversity, history and environment. Her

activities and comments were monitored for a week

and she was able to share her knowledge of changes

in local biodiversity over time. She recalled that in the

earlier days, there were many monkeys in our

community forest…many of them were so big in size

that their visit in our village was enjoyable. With the

passage of time and destruction of the forest,

populations of these monkeys are no more. Is it

caused by weather anomalies or human aggravation?

It could be both! On special cultural occasions, they

even ate roasted meat of a hunted monkey, although,

Miyong believed that a person eating monkey’s meat

is likely to inculcate monkey-like behavior in his/her

children. That’s why the majority of people don’t eat

monkey’s meat. Nowadays, due to the dirty water

available in the town area, a number of diseases and

ailments are increasing among humans. Earlier, they

used to use drinking water straight from a river or

streams which were passing through networks of roots

of certain medicinal plants that could purify the water.

That made them healthy. Further, it was learned that

human health’s problems are further aggravated due

to adulterated foods of the market consumed by our

people, changing food habits of local tribes without

knowing their positive and negative effects, etc. To

cure such health problems, Adi women-like Mrs

Basom Moyung, modify the microecosystem ([small

patches of community forest) through burning, which

helps not only to generate many new herbs and shrubs

used in food and medicine, but also such practices are

integral part of Adi jhum cultivation (slash and burn

agriculture).

In response to a question asked on how burning

and cutting of the forest vegetation for shifting

cultivation is affecting local environment, it was

recorded that about 30 yrs ago the system of burning

small patches of community forest for jhuming was


50

sustainable, given the total period over which a single

space was cultivated. At present, however, it is not

like that. These days, this burning cycle of jhum land

is reduced up to 8-10 yrs. Moreover, due to scarcity of

forest land, farmers are now selecting steep slopes for

the shifting agriculture lands, which is against the

convention of using only mild slopes for this system.

This problem is further aggravated by population

growth and demands of more frequent shifting lands.

Due to these factors, the rate of growth of flora and

fauna has now decreased and whole ecosystem is

deteriorating, while earlier it was more sustainable.

These disturbances may contribute to an imbalance in

local environment. After burning, Adis were able to

plant fruit plants, betelnut, jackfruit, etc. around the

kitchen garden as reported by Basum. In the main

land, women grew local ginger, turmeric, brinjal,

local paddy, okjok (Bauhinia variegata), finger millet,

foxtail millet, jowar, bajra, cucurbit crops, local

species, etc. were all grown according to different

slopes and depth of soils. Most of the beans and cover

crops were planted at the highest slope of shifting

land to stop soil erosion and use deficit moisture

during shortage of rainfall. Similarly, the banana and

okjok trees were planted around the fields to act as a

living fence (for the animals as well as to protect

against high wind velocity during winter). In the

shifting land, ethnobotanicals such as gam-oying, alap

(black tiny seeds like the seeds of black cumin used to

control blood sugar) and loram (leaves and stem used

in gastric trouble) were reared and used in earlier

times. Unfortunately, these species are now decreased

in numbers and their use is mostly restricted to the

elders as perceived by Mrs Basum Moyong.

During the time of British occupation (late 1949-

50’s), the whole area was under dense forest, with

thousands of wild animals. Adi male folk use to hunt

wild animals with the help of a paste made of emo

(Aconite ferox) root and caught fish in the community

river using foam made from green leaves of onger

(Zanthoxylum rhesta DC., Fig.15) that make the fish

unconscious for about half an hour, without

contaminating the water. Other species were rugzi,

tulphi and dhikotamoh, which were popular and

frequently used for catching fish in ponds and rivers.

But now these indigenous practices that were bonded

with Adi culture, traditions, and survival skills are

threatened at alarming rate. The reasons could be

changing socio-cultural and political contexts and

anomalous climate. About the weather and its

connectivity with biocultural resources, Mrs Basum

Moyong stated that now the weather is different than

what they experienced 40 yrs back. It has changed. If

it is continued then it will become a serious matter for

conservation of biocultural resources and securing

livelihoods of Adi tribe.

Case study 2- Mrs. Otek Moyong: A veteran

traditional knowledge holder of culture, environment

and indigenous biodiversity In the series of learning with elderly women, Mrs

Otek Moyong (80) who lives in Pasighat, was

contacted about exploring her knowledge and

indigenous survival strategy under the current harsh

ecosystem. It was learned that Mrs Otek Moyong was

always intent on diversifying her local enterprises to

reducing the risks associated with either heavy rain or

drought. She reared pigs, local chickens and ducks,

while her husband reared mithun- a semi-wild animal,

in the forest. In response to a question about changes in

weather, local natural resource use and conservation,

she shared her knowledge and experiences. It was

learned with her that about 50 yrs ago when there were

a lot of sawmills established in nearby areas of

Pasighat, then lot of trees were cut from the community

forest for timber, etc. It has resulted in changing the

landscape as well as local traditions of survival with

nature. Consequently, village of Otek Moyong changed

looked like a bald man without hair since the mountain

lost its huge vegetation. It has resulted in losses of

many of ethnomedicinal plants through heavy soil

erosion caused by sever rains and silting or destroyed

by contractors carrying harvested trees and boulders

from the foothills for construction purposes. The

nearby mountain, many a time she use to go to the

slopes and plant local crops and ethnobotanicals which

were and can be used as both food and medicine. She

shared that there were a number of wild plants and

animals in those days like trees, ficus, anke (wild

chestnut), teak, wild bamboos, belang (wild jackfruits),

etc. Many species of insects were found inside the

tree’s wood and their availability was known by the

cries or the sounds they make at night or at noontime.

There were many birds of varied colours and sizes,

some of them as large as a goat and with wings as

broad as 2-3 m. But nowadays, there are only 20-25%

of former numbers in the community forest. Why has it

happened? They all vanished due to overexploitation.

Could it be caused by changes in the local environment

or as a direct impact of weather anomalies? It could be

both.


51

It has been learned with Otek Moyong that if ancestors of Adi were also hunters and were using wild animals as food stuff then why is only the newer generation blamed for the overexploitation? Then it has been noted from her that during the olden days,

there were some norms of the village Kebang (the Adi’s Indigenous Institution) that on particular days, festivals, or special occasions, common hunting would take place. Hunting was undertaken with traditional weapons and practices (using emo). The place, time, types of wild animals to be hunted, and

total period required for hunting were decided by elders of village before any hunting proceeded. A fine was imposed on violators of this norm and they were even punished. At present, on the other hand, it is going on blindly every day and 24 hrs, using guns and pistols (mostly by youngsters), which go against the

rules of Adi’s ancestors. Certain vegetables and plants used for treatment were naturally grown in the community forest and individual kitchen gardens. Adi women used to share their ethnobotanicals and local products harvested from these two micro-ecosystems both individually and collectively. In the case of a

food crisis or drought or flood, these local bioresources were shared with each member of the village community in order to cope with the risk of food security. The Adi women grow multiple crops (with local varieties and land races) in particular lands so that even if a single crop/variety is deficient in its

yield, other crop/varieties will compensate for it for foods, fodder and medicinal security. This local strategy was developed (and is still used in traditional villages) to minimize the risk of crop failure and to enable Adi to make stock for off-season use of food products.

Adis were able to use varieties of local wild plants

as food and ethnomedicines, though these have been

reduced over the time, as reported by Otek Moyong.

They include black turmeric (used as a medicine for

gastric), ada (ginger-two types), onger, marshang

oying, bamboo shoots, Adi dhania, oji-onu, bayum,

etc. These ethnobotanicals provide insurance for

survival during extreme weather drought or floods,

though the productivity of each varies according to

weather conditions. But, if the pattern of weather

change remains the same Adi can use anke (wild

chestnut) and belang (wild jackfruit) or not? This is

matter of thinking. These two species are most

compatible for the Adi tribe for use as food during

droughts. On local biological indicator relating to

environment, Mrs Otek Moyong stated that they still

predict weather through local bio-meteorological

indicators such as the bamboo flowering (Fig.16

indication of drought and rapid increase of rat

population which destroy paddy crop, and thus make

situation epidemic) and insect tari (Aspongopus najus,

Fig.17). If this insect flies during sunset then a good

rainfall is predicted, and they adopt tall varieties of

paddy for cultivation. This insect is used in making

chutney also and its habitat – the rocks and moist sands

around the riverbank–is disturbed by the contractors

who carry away the boulders. These days they do not

see much to ruk-kung (Oecophylla smaragdina) insect

(Fig.18). It has been noted that eggs of this insect are

very nutritious during a food crisis. It is boiled and

consumed for weakness, while the adults of the same

insect can be used to cure malaria, by allowing them to

bite the back. This insect is found more on citrus

species or wild mango. Why they are disappearing? Is

it because of weather change? It could be!

The flora and fauna of community forests are always

given prior importance by Adi tribal members and the

medicinal practitioners of the area. One of the plants,

katbuk (a local herb) is a medicinal species occurring on

mountain slopes. Earlier, this plant was found in

abundance but it has now become a rare one. Another

local plant, pemilagin (a vine) is found in and around the

mountains of the River Siang. Inside its stems, a large

quantity of fluid can be found, which is used for treating

redness of the eyes and which can be stored for a week

in the shade. It is also diminishing across its range.

Similarly, a climbing plant called nilokontho, the roots

of which can be used to treat gastric problems, was

found formerly in large quantities in and around the

villages, but nowadays it is very rare and the cause of its

decline is unknown. Mrs Moyong added that earlier

there were a number of wild fruits in the community

forest used to dye clothes, but these have been also

reduced. The major concern is whether the

disappearance or reduction of wild flora and fauna are

due to weather anomalies or climate change or to

disturbance both by humans and climate change? The

effect of low temperature (by refrigeration) on the yeast

load in some fermented foods and beverages of the Adi

tribal community of East Siang district of Arunachal

Pradesh was studied10

.

Discussion and conclusion

Adi people hold rich knowledge on plant and

animal resources they use as food and medicine.

The Adis are aware of weather anomalies and related


52

Figs. 1-10 A & B TKHs & Scientists measuring forest area and species richness for CRF, 2 A village workshop on biocultural resources

sustainability & CRF, 3 Community Forest of Siido village declared as CRF, 4a Mr Tamur Jamoh explaining story about dekang use and its

relation to hunting and food gathering, 4b Mr Tamur Jamoh with other TKHs and author RKS in community forest showing to tree of dekang, 5

Dekang tree, 6 Mr G Lego- a forest conservator explaining to group of scientists and TKHs, 7 Mr Tate Jamoh with local fern, explaining history

of community forest and types of changes took place in it, 8 Mrs Orik Ralen- a veteran biodiversity conservator and community leader (Sibut

village), 9 Mrs Omang Tamuk- a conservator of dekang tree (Yagrung village), 10 Dekang (Gymnocladus burmanicus) fruits


53

Figs. 11-19 a Anke (wild chestnut) tree, 11 b Anke (wild chestnut) fruit bunch, c Anke (wild chestnut) seed, 12 Kebung (Ratufa sp.), 13

Ekkam plant, 14 Tasat tree, 15 Onger plant, 16 Bamboo flowering in Sido village, 17 Tari insect (stink bug/ Shield bug) used in weather

prediction as well as food in making chutney, 18 Ruk-kung insect (Oecophylla smaragdina, 19 Belang (wild jackfruit)


54

phenomena - so-called climate change. They worry

about the sustainability of their biocultural resources

and their livelihood security. Certainly, erratic

temperature and rainfall may threaten the livelihoods

of Adi community members who depend on

biocultural diversity. The hypothesis of climate

change and viability of the microbial populations

existing in fermented foods and traditional alcoholic

beverages (made of indigenous flora and fauna) of

Adi tribe was tested in different temperature regimes.

The experiment showed that the yeast load in the

fresh fermented products is very high. Refrigeration

together with preservation of yeast cultures can

negatively or even positively affect cultures, while

bringing about cytological modification as evident

from some heat shock sensitive ethnic fermented

foods of Adi tribe. The experiment revealed that such

types of weather changes- if happened in future, then

sustainability of food resources and dependent culture

may become threatened. This experiment revealed

that the knowledge of Adi tribal members relating to

climate change and weather anomalies is

considerable. The elderly women and men are

relatively more experienced in the history and culture

of bioresources of their localities, and they suggest

that changes are occurring due to both climate change

and anthropogenic factors. These elderly people are

depositories of information on biocultural resources

and climate change history; hence they may

contribute to any participatory program focused on

mitigation and adaptation to climate change,

especially in harsh ecosystems. Even though some

erosion in knowledge has been noticed, Indigenous

practices relating to biodiversity as adopted by the Adi

tribe may contribute in local planning of mitigation to

climate change and other disturbance7,17

. Since, until

2005 there had been no substantive efforts or

initiatives by any agency in India to consult with

Indigenous peoples in relation to REDD, the

grassroots feedback and opinions of the Adi people as

recorded through this workshop represent an

important effort, potentially of immense value to

governmental and environmental agencies in more

effective application of policies on REDD,

conservation and livelihood security.

Regarding the diversity of plant and animal species

and cultures of the Eastern Himalaya, world

environmental agencies such as UNEP and the World

Bank may include name of India (specially states rich

in biocultural diversity) under the REDD list and may

ensure that the rewards and benefits accrue to the

Indigenous people who are favoring CRF and REDD.

This can be appropriately pursued by environmental

agencies of India. Many international organizations

and Indigenous Peoples’ groups have raised their

voices, including the climate change conference at

Cancun, Mexico18

. Fortunately, in Asia, both India

and China are rich in biocultural diversity and may

collaborate in developing strategies for coping with

climate change, conserving the forest cover along

with the people and cultures depending on forest

ecosystems19,20

. The Government is aiming to frame

its policy mechanisms to provide economic incentives

to state and local governments to save their forests18

.

Given this policy, if followed, the Himalayan state-

like Arunachal Pradesh will be given greater

importance and special incentives to save its forests.

In such a situation, the groundwork and initiatives

with local communities such as the Adi, will provide a

real picture of the people’s aspirations from the

government for saving forest as CRF.

There is an urgent need, particularly in the

northeastern regions of India, to establish CRF and

promote conservation, along with instituting a reward

mechanism for indigenous peoples, to ensure their

livelihood sustainability. A network of many CRF

under the REDD concept may be created through a

mission mode project sand communities movement in

which governments, NGOs, scientists, private sectors

and policymakers might participate. Lessons can be

taken from the REDD program, initiated elsewhere and

led by the other world agencies21-24

. The representation

of indigenous people must be ensured in any public

debate or the policy matters concerning REDD and

affecting the culture and livelihood aspects of

Indigenous people20-24

. A proper discussion is yet to be

undertaken to determine the consensus and rationale

for establishing incentives and rewards under REDD

for the Indigenous people in recognition of their efforts

in establishing and keeping CRF’5. This must be made

after through discussions with the appropriate body of

indigenous people and communities members. Apart

from climate change and REDD as a source of rewards

and incentives, the conservation of species and forest

dependent livelihoods of iIndigenous people may be

taken into account by the REDD leading agencies and

governments12,17

.

Indigenous and traditional people hold a rich body

of environmental knowledge learnt from nature


55

through trial and incremental application from time

immemorial. They have experienced cause and effect

of particular environmental phenomena, and this rich

knowledge and experience could be an integral part of

REDD and climate change responses. The TKH can

actively participate in the process of monitoring the

network of CRF under REDD or protected areas

initiatives. Their knowledge and wisdom will help

scientists in deliberating present approaches and

reconciling them with past phenomena of a particular

ecosystem. The REDD program may use mechanisms

such as certification and validation to ensure

appropriate benefit sharing for Indigenous people and

local communities. A bond of CRF and conservation

of TKS, and sustainable livelihoods may be possible,

if the concerned communities receive appropriate

training and empowerment. These communities

should be invited not only to discuss effects of and

responses to climate change, but should also be

consulted for learning about the environment and

developing adaptive strategies. Consultation could be

pursued through a set of experiences of local people

(Annexure I). There is a need for special care to

protect TK, especially with reference to climate

change. TK holders who are not yet aware of global

climate change and its negative consequences need to

be further informed. Newer generations of indigenous

people who are departing from their native culture

and environment need specialized education and

training in biodiversity conservation and TK to reduce

the rate of knowledge erosion. In the initiative of CRF

and REDD, the incentives and rewards initiated by the

world agencies must be initiated quickly for tribal

peoples to protect forest biodiversity and TK in their

traditional territories.

Acknowledgement Author is grateful to Dr Igul Padung, Principal,

Doying Gumin College, Pasighat and Central

Agricultural University, Imphal, Manipur for the

financial and logistic supports to organize workshops

in villages. The inputs of all the community and

cultural leaders, and the traditional knowledge holders

are appreciated and acknowledged. RKS is especially

thankful to Mrs Orik Rallen, Mrs Omang Tamuk, Mr

Lithin, Mr Tate Jamoh, Mr Mr Tamur Jamoh and all

who were parts of village workshops and provided

their invaluable inputs. All of the traditional

knowledge described are shared by numerous elders

and plant specialists from across the various sub-

tribes of Adi community of different villages from

East Siang district are gratefully acknowledged. RKS is

grateful to Prof Nancy J, Turner, University of Victoria

for her technical guidance provided to conduct the

study and significant editorial contribution.

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ijtk 10(1) 39-56.pdf

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