MEDICINAL HERBSWITH THEIR

FORMULATIONS

– Volume 1 –

byDr. M.P. Singh, FMA

Head of the Department Forest SciencesBirsa Agricultural UniversityRanchi – 834 006 (Jharkhand)

&Himadri Panda, M.SC., F.I.C., F.I.C.S.

Industrial Consultant, Technical Consultant, GIDC,Fellow of Essential Oil Association of India, Fellow of Indian Pulp & Paper Technical Association,Fellow of Indian National Science Congress, Fellow of Oil & Colour Chemist's Association (U.K.),Member of Chinese Academy of Forestry, Former Chemist (R&D), I.T.R. Co. Ltd., Bareilly (U.P.),

Former Chief Chemist (Q.C. & R&D) Tarpina Private Ltd., Ramnagar, Uttaranchal

2005DAYA PUBLISHING HOUSE

Delhi - 110 035

iii

MEDICINAL HERBSWITH THEIR

FORMULATIONS

– Volume 2 –

byDr. M.P. Singh, FMA

Head of the Department Forest SciencesBirsa Agricultural UniversityRanchi – 834 006 (Jharkhand)

&Himadri Panda, M.SC., F.I.C., F.I.C.S.

Industrial Consultant, Technical Consultant, GIDC,Fellow of Essential Oil Association of India, Fellow of Indian Pulp & Paper Technical Association,Fellow of Indian National Science Congress, Fellow of Oil & Colour Chemist's Association (U.K.),Member of Chinese Academy of Forestry, Former Chemist (R&D) I.T.R. Co. Ltd., Bareilly (U.P.),

Former Chief Chemist (Q.C. & R&D) Tarpina Private Ltd., Ramnagar, Uttaranchal

2005DAYA PUBLISHING HOUSE

Delhi - 110 035

© 2005 PUBLISHERISBN 81-7035-580-X (Set)ISBN 81-7035-581-8 (Vol. 1)ISBN 81-7035-582-6 (Vol. 2)

All rights reserved. Including the right to translate or to reproduce this book or parts thereof except for briefquotations in critical reviews.

Published by : Daya Publishing House1123/74, Deva Ram ParkTri Nagar, Delhi - 110 035Phone: 27383999Fax: (011) 23244987e-mail: dayabooks@vsnl.comwebsite: www.dayabooks.com

Showroom : 4762-63/23, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj,New Delhi - 110 002Phone: 23245578, 23244987

Laser Typesetting : Classic Computer ServicesDelhi - 110 035

Printed at : Chawla Offset PrintersDelhi - 110 052

PRINTED IN INDIA

iv

PREFACE

Natural medicines, and especially plant based remedies, have for a long time been the main, andoften the only, drugs used by doctors, and they also constituted the basis in the production ofpharmaceutical medicines.

At the beginning of the 20th century, as the science of pharmaceutical chemistry blossomed–particularly with the complex synthesis of organic compounds—the production of chemotherapeuticsbecame predominant in the pharmaceutical industry. Medical science was thus able to deal with anumber of previously incurable and/or life threatening disease, especially infectious ones, usingsulphonamide drugs, new antibiotics, and other chemical preparations. A significant role ineradicating a large number of infections was also played by immunotherapy.

This book on Medicinal Herbs has been compiled and written mainly for medical, pharmaceuticaland research scientists who are today or may in future to be concerned with the identity, efficasy andsafety of Indian Medicinal Plants as well as of other countries. This book describes and illustratesmore than 500 species of the most important medicinal plants and provides information on theirhabitats and growing conditions. The author have tried to give as much as informations as possibleincluding the latest scientific findings. The toxicities of some medicinal plants and the need for theircareful handling are emphasized throughout the book. It is our hope that all readers will find somethingof value and also this book may enkindle serious interest in therapeutic use and clinical research onmedicinal plants. We want to stress that this book is not a uniform or systematic encyclopedia ofmedicinal plants. What has been attempted here by us is to provide a focus on medicinal plantslimiting the number of indications and formulations in a pragmatic manner to enlist a global interestin India’s rich flora with a therapeutic potential of unprecedented magnitude.

In this book, by using the avenues of documented ayurvedic experience and informed dialogueon modern data as well as traditional literature, we want to emphasise that this work has historicaland contemporary validity that will advance as the therapeutic use of the single plant and theirformulation grows worldwide. Human history has shown that multiple options do exist forsafeguarding health. To avoid any mistakes in identification any differences between the plants andother similar species have been highlighted.It is our pleasure to acknowledge the help which wereceived from very many publications for completing the book. Much of the information was gleanedfrom the libraries of Botanical Survey of India. However, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, IndianAgricultural Research Institute, Delhi, Central Library, Patna University, Patna and Birsa AgriculturalUniversity, Ranchi (Jharkhand State).

We are indebted to Dr. B.S. Singh, Mr. Ifthekar Alam, Miss Rashmi Renuka Toppo, Miss LeenaEkka, Mr. Subhas Chandra Mahto for their sincere and wilting help in correcting the typed manuscripts.

We thank Mr. Anil Mittal of Daya Publishing House for taking keen interest in making thepublication as good as possible.

M.P. SinghHimadri Panda

vi

CONTENTS

Preface v

— Volume 1 —

1. Introduction 1

2. Nursery Technology 6

3. Biofertilizers and Biological Pest Control 9

4. Organic Farming: An Approach for Sustainable Herbi-culture 19

5. Medicinal Herbs with their Formulations 27

Abrus precatorius, Linn. or A. Minor or A. Paucifloros 29

Abutilon indicum, G. Don. or A. asiaticum 32

Acacia arabica, Willd. or A. Ferruginea 33

Acacia catechu, Willd, A. Suma; or A. Wallichiana or A. Polyacantha 36

Achillea millefolium, Linn. 41

Achyranthes aspera, Linn. 43

Aconitum heterophyllum, Wall. or A. Cordatum 44

Acorus calamus, Linn. or A. Odoratus 47

Adenia hondala 49

Adenosuma indiana 51

Adhatoda vasica 52

Adhatoda zeylanica medicus 54

Adiantum philippense, A. lunulatum Burm. f. 55

Adonis vernalis 57

Aegle marmelos, Corr. 58

Aerva lanata (Linn.) Achyranthes lanata Linn. 61

Aesculus hippocastanum, Linn. 62

Agrimonia eupatoria 64

Agropyron repens 65

Ailantus excelsa, Roxb. 66

Alangium salvifolium 70

Alcea rosea syn. Althaea rosea 73

Alchemilla xanthochlora 74

Allium cepa 74

Allium sativum, Linn. 77

Alnus glutinosa 82

Aloe indica; A. barbadensis 83

Alpinia calcrata Rose 84

Alpinia galanga, Willd., or A. calcarata 85

Alstonia scholaris, R. Br. 88

Althaea officinalis, Linn. 90

Amarantus tristis, Linn., or A. Tricolor 92

Amorphophallus Campanulatus, Blume. 93

Anchusa officinalis 94

Andrographis paniculata, Nees. 95

Anethum graveolens 97

Angelica archangelica 100

Anisomeles malabarica 102

Annona squamosa, Linn. 104

Antennaria dioica 105

Anthemis nobilis, Linn. 106

Anthyllis Vulnerat 108

Apluda mutica, Linn. 109

Arctium lappa 110

Arctium tomentosum 111

Arctostaphylos uva ursi, Spreng. 112

Argemone mexicana, Linn. 112

viii

Argyreia nervosa 116

Aristolochia bracteata, Retz. 116

Aristolochia clematitis 117

Aristolochia indica 120

Armoracia rusticana 121

Arnica montana 122

Artanema longifolium 123

Artemisia abrotanun 123

Artemisia absinthium 126

Artemisia dracunculus 128

Artemisia vulgaris 130

Arum maculatum 133

Asarum europaeum 134

Asparagus adscendens, Roxb. 136

Asparagus racemosus, Willd. 137

Astrantia major 140

Atropa belladonna, Linn. 141

Avena sativa, Linn. or A. orientalis 144

Bacopa monnieri 145

Baliospermum axillare or B. montanum or Jatropha montana 147

Baliospermum solanifolium 149

Ballota nigra 150

Balsamodendron mukul, Hook. 150

Bambusa arundinacea, Retz. 153

Barleria prionitis, Linn. 155

Basella alba, Linn. 156

Bauhinia purpurea, Linn. 157

Bauhinia racemosa, Lam. 158

Bauhinia tomentosa, Linn. 159

Bellis perenis 160

Berberis vulgaris, Linn. 161

Betula pendula 168

Biophytum candolleanum 169

Biophytum sensitivum 170

Blumea balsamifera 170

Boerhaavia chinensis, Aschers & Schweinf 172

Boerhaavia diffusa, Linn. 172

Bombax malabaricum 176

ix

Borago officinalis 178

Boswellia serrata, Roxb. 179

Brassica nigra, Linn. & Koch 181

Bryonia alba 183

Bryonopsis laciniosa 184

Bryophyllum calycinum 185

Butea frondosa, Roxb. & Koen or B. monosperma 185

Buxus sempervirens 189

Caesalpinia bonduc, Roxb. 189

Cajanus indicus 192

Calacanthus grandiflorus 194

Calendula officinalis, Linn. 195

Calluna vulgaris 196

Calotropis gigantea, R. Br. 197

Calystegia sepium 201

Cannabis sativa 202

Capsella bursa pastoris, Moench. 213

Cardiospermum halicacabum, Linn. 214

Carica papaya, Linn. 216

Cassia angustifolia, Vahl. 219

Cassia auriculata, Linn. 221

Cassia fistula, Linn. 224

Cassia tora 226

Cayratia carnosa gagnep 229

Cayratia pedata 229

Cayratia trifolia 230

Celosia argentea, Linn. 231

Centaurea cyanus, Linn. 231

Centaurium erythraea 233

Centella asiatica, (Linn.) Urban 234

Centrosema pubescens 236

Cephalandra indica 237

Cetraria islandica 239

Chamomilla recutita 240

Chamomilla suaveolens 241

Chelidonium majus 242

Chenopodium ambrosioides, Linn. 242

Chonemorpha fragrans 245

x

Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium 246

Chrysanthemum parthenium 248

Chrysanthemum vulgare 249Cichorium intybus, Linn. 250

Cichorum endivia, Linn. 252

Cicuta virosa 253

Cinnamomum tamala 254

Cissampelos pariera 255

Cissus quadrangularis, Linn. 256

Cissus repens 258

Cissus vitiginea 259

Citrullus colocynthis, Schrad. 259

Citrus medica, Linn. 261

Claviceps purpurea 263

Clematis recta 266

Cleome viscosa, Linn. 267

Clerodendron phlomidis, Linn. 268

Clerodendrum serratum, (Linn.) Moon 269

Clitoria ternatea, Linn. 271

Cnicus benedictus 271

Coccinia grandis or Coccinia indica, Wt. & Arn. 272

Cocculus cordifolius 273

Colchium autumnale 278

Coleus ambonicus 280

Coleus aromaticus, Benth. 281

Commelina bengalensis, Linn. 283

Conium maculatum, Linn. 284

Convallaria majalis 285

Convolvulus microphyllus, Linn. 286

Conyza canadensis 287

Corchorus capsularis 288

Corchorus fascicularis, Lam. 289

Cordia latifolia, Roxb. 291

Coriandrum sativum, Linn. 292

Coronilla varia 294

Corydalis cava or C. bulbos 295

Corylus avellana, Linn. 296

Costus speciosus, Sm. 297

xi

Crataegus monogyna 299

Crataeva nurvala Buch.-Ham. 299

Crataegus laevigata (Syn. C. oxyaceae) 301

Crataeva adansonii 303

Cressa cretica, Linn. 304

Crocus sativus, Linn. 305

Croton tiglium, Linn. 307

Cryptolepis buchanani or Nerium reticulatum Roxb. 310

Cucumis callosus 311

Cucumis melo, Linn. 312

Cucumis trigonus 313

Cucurbita pepo, Dc. 315

Cuminum cyminum, Linn. 316

Curculigo orchioides 319

Curcuma longa, Linn. 320

Cuscuta reflexa, Roxb. 324

Cyamopsis tetragonoloba, Taub. 325

Cyathula prostrata 326

Cyclea peltata 327

Cydonia oblonga 328

Cymbopogon citratus, Stapf. 330

Cymbopogon maritinii 330

Cynara cardunculus 332

Cynodon dactylon 334

Cyperus esculentus 335

Cyperus rotundus, Linn. 336

Cytisus scoparius 338

Dalbergia latifolia 339

Daphne mezereun 340

Datura metel 341

Datura stramonium 342

Daucus carota 344

Delonix elata, Gamble 347

Delphinium consolida 347

Desmodium laxiflorum 349

Desmodium trifiolium, Dc. 349

Desmodium velutinum 351

xii

Dictamnus albus 352

Digitalis grandiflora 353

Digitalis lanata 356

Digitalis purpurea 359

Dolichandrone falcata, Seem. 361

Drosera peltata, Sm. 362

Dryopteris felix, Mas. 363

Ecbolium viride 364

Eclipta alba, Hassk. 365

Elephantopus scaber, Linn. 367

Elettaria cardamomum, Maton. 368

Eleusine coracana 370

Embelia acutipetalum 371

Embelia ribes, Burm. 372

Emblica officinalis 374

Enicostema littorale 378

Epilobium angustifolium 378

Equisetum arvense 379

Erythrina indica, Lam. 381

Erythrina stricta 384

Eugenia aromatica, Kuntze 385

Euphorbia hitra 387

Euphorbia nivulia, Ham. 387

Euphorbia thymifolia, Burm. 391

Euphrasia officinalis 392

Evolvulus alsinoides, Wall. & Linn. 393

Fagopyrum esculentum, Gaertn. 395

Feronia elephantum 397

Ficus bengalensis, Linn. 398

Ficus hispida, Linn. & F. daemona 400

Ficus racemosa, Linn. 402

Ficus microcarpa, Linn. 403

Ficus religiosa, Linn. 404

Ficus tsiela, Roxb. 405

Filipendula ulmaria 406

Flacourtia indica 407

Foeniculum vulgare, Gaertn. 408

Fragaria vesca 410

xiii

Fraxinus excelsior 411

Fumaria officinalis, Linn. 412

Galega purpurea, Linn. 417

Galeopsis segetum 418

Galium verum 419

Galium odoratum 420

Garcinia morella, Desr. 421

Gardenia turgida 424

Genista tinctoria 424

Gentiana lutea 425

Geranium robertianum 428

Geum urbantum 429

Glechoma hederacea 430

Glinus oppositifolius 431

Gloriosa superba, Linn. 432

Glycine max 434

Glycomis pentaphylla, Correa. 437

Glycyrrhiza glabra, Linn. 440

Gmelina arborea, Linn. 445

Gossypium arboreum 446

Gossypium herbaceum, Linn. 447

Gratiola officinalis 449

Grewia tiliaefolia, Vahl. 449

Habenaria diphylla 450

Hedera helix, Linn. 451

Hedychium spicatum, Ham. 452

Helianthus annus, Linn. 454

Heliotropium indicum, Linn. 456

Helleborus niger, Linn. 459

Hemionitis arifolia 460

Hepatica nobilis 461

Herniaria glabra 462

Hibiscus esculentus, Linn. 463

Hibiscus hispidissimus 464

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Linn. 464

Hippophae rhamnoides, Linn. 468

Holarrhena antidysenterica, Wall. 469

Holarrhena pubescens 475

xiv

Holoptelea integrifolia, Planch. 476

Holostemma ada-kodien 477

Homonoia riparia 478

— Volume 2 —

Humulus lupulus 479

Hybanthus enneaspermus 480

Hygrophila schulli 481

Hygrophila spinosa 482

Hyoscyamus niger, Linn. 484

Hypericum perforatum, Linn. 486

Hyssopus officinalis, Linn. 488

Ichnocarpus frutescens 490

Indigofera tinctoria, Linn. 491

Inula helenium 493

Ipomoea digitata, Linn. 498

Ipomoea marginata 500

Ipomoea mauritiana 500

Ipomoea nil 501

Ipomoea obscura 502

Iris germanica, Linn. 503

Ischoemum pilosum, Hack. 505

Ixora coccinia 506

Jasminum angustifolium, Vahl. 507

Jasminum grandiflorum, Linn. 508

Jatropha gossypifolia, Linn. 510

Juglans regia 510

Juneperus communis, Linn. 511

Justicia betonica 515

Kaempferia galanga, Linn. 516

Kaempferia rotunda, Linn. & K. longa 518

Laburnum anagyroide 519

Lactuca virosa 519

Lagenandra toxicaria 520

Lagenaria siceraria 521

Lagenaria vulgaris, Seringe 522

Lamium album 524

Lavendula angustiifolia 525

xv

Leonurus cardiaca 527

Leptadenia reticulata 528

Leucas aspera 529

Leucas stricta 529

Levisticum officinale 530

Linaria vulgaris 531

Linum usitatissimum, Linn. 531

Ludwigia hyssopifolia 534

Ludwigia octovalvis 535

Luffa acutangula, Roxb. 535

Lycopersicum esculentum 537

Lycopus europaeus, Linn. 538

Lysimachia nummularia 540

Madhuca indica Gmel. 540

Mallotus phillippinensis 542

Malva neglecta 545

Malva sylvestris, Linn. or M. vulgaris 546

Mangifera indica, Linn. 548

Marrubium vulgare, Linn. 553

Martnia diandra, Glox. 555

Melastoma malabathricum, Linn. 555

Melia azadirachta, Linn. 556

Melilotus officinalis, Willd. 563

Melissa officinalis 565

Mentha aquatica 565

Mentha arvensis, Linn. 567

Mentha viridis, Linn. 568

Mentha piperita 569

Menyanthes trifoliata 571

Merremia emarginata 572

Merremia tridentata 573

Mimosa pudica, Linn. 574

Momordica charantia, Linn. 575

Morinda citrifolia, Linn. 579

Morinda pubescens 581

Moringa oleifera 581

Mucuna pruriens, Bak. M. prurita 585

Mukia maderaspatana 587

xvi

Murraya koenigii or Bergera koenigii 588

Musa sapientum, Kuntze or M. paradisiaca 591

Naravelia zeylanica 596

Nasturtium officinale, R. Br. 596

Nelumbo nucifera, Gaertn 597

Nepeta cataria 600

Nerium odorum, Soland or N. Oleander 602

Nigella sativa, Linn. N. indica 604

Nilgirianthus ciliatus 606

Ocimum basilicum 607

Ocimum gratissimum, Linn. 610

Ocimum sanctum Linn. 611

Ocimum tenuiflorum 613

Ononis spinosa 614

Operculina turpethum 615

Origanum majorana Syn. 617

Origanum vulgare, Linn. 618

Oroxylum indicum, Vent. or Colosanthes indica 619

Orthosiphon pallidus, Royle 620

Oxalis corniculata, Linn. 620

Paeonia officinalis 622

Pandanus odoratisimus, Willd. 622

Panicum pilosum 623

Papaver bracteatum 624

Papaver Rhoeas, Linn. 626

Papaver somniferum, Linn. 628

Pavetta indica 635

Pavonia odorata, Willd. 636

Pedalium murex, Linn. 637

Petasites hybridus 638

Petroselinum crispum 639

Peucedanum ostruthium 640

Phaseolus trilobus 641

Phaseolus vulgaris, Linn. 642

Phyllanthus air-shawii 643

Phyllanthus amarus 644

Phyllanthus emblica 644

Phyllanthus niruri, Linn. 646

xvii

Physalis alkekenji, Linn. 646

Pimpinella anisum, Linn. 650

Pimpinella saxifraga 652

Piper betle, Linn. 652

Piper longum, Linn. 655

Piper nigrum Linn. 660

Plantago lanceolata 662

Plumbago indica 664

Plumbago zeylanica, Linn. 665

Polyalthia longifolia, Benth. 668

Polycarpea corymbosa, Lamk. 669

Polygala amara 669

Polygonatum odoratum 670

Polygonum aviculare, Linn. 671

Polygonum bistorta 672

Polygonum hydropiper, Linn. 673

Polygonum lapathifolium 675

Polypodium vulgare, Linn. 677

Pongamia glabra, Vent. 678

Populus nigra 680

Populus trenula 681

Portulaca oleracea, Linn. 682

Potentilla anserina 683

Primula veris 684

Prosopis spicigera, Linn. 685

Prunella vulgaris, Linn. 686

Prunus dulcis 687

Prunus padus, syn. Padus avium 688

Prunus spinosa 690

Psidium guyava, Linn. 691

Psilanthus travancorensis 694

Psoralea corylifolia, Linn. 695

Pterocarpus marsupium, Roxb. P. indicus 698

Pterocarpus santalinus, Linn. 701

Pueraria tuberosa 702

Pulmonaria officinalis 703

Punica granatum, Linn. 703

Quercus infectoria, Oliv. 707

xviii

Quercus robur 709

Ranunculus ficaria 709

Raphanus sativus, Linn. 710

Rhamnus catharticus 712

Rhamnus frangula 713

Rheum acuminatum 714

Ribes nigrum 716

Ricinus communis, Linn. 716

Robinia pseudoacacia 720

Rosa canina 721

Rosa centifolia 722

Rosamarinus officinalis, Linn. 724

Rubia cordifolia, Linn. 725

Rubus fracticosus 729

Rubus idaeus 730

Rungia repens, Nees. 730

Ruta graveolens, Linn. 732

Saccharum officinarum, Linn. 736

Salix alba 739

Salmalia malabarica, Sch. & Endl. 741

Salvia officinalis 741

Salvia sclarea 742

Sambucus ebulus 744

Sambucus nigra 745

Sambucus racemosa 746

Sanguisorba officinalis 747

Sanicula europaea 748

Santalum album, Linn. 748

Saponaria officinalis 752

Saraca asoca 753

Saraca indica, Linn. 754

Satureja hortensis 755

Saxifraga rotundifolia 756

Scrophularia nodosa 757

Sedum acre 758

Semecarpus anacardium, Linn. 758

Sempervivum tectorum 762

Sesamum indicum, Dc. 763

xix

Sida acuta, Burm. 765

Sida cordifolia, Linn. 766

Sida rhombifolia 769

Silybum marianum 770

Sinapsis alba 771

Smilax china, Linn. or Chinensis 772

Solanum americanum 774

Solanum capsicoides 775

Solanum dulcamara, Linn. 775

Solanum indicum, Linn. 777

Solanum melongena 779

Solanum verbascifolium, Linn. 780

Solanum violaceum 782

Solanum virginianum 783

Solanum xanthocarpum 784

Solidago Virga Aurea, Linn. 789

Sophora japonica 791

Sorbus aucuparia 793

Sorghum vulgare 794

Sphaeranthus africanus 795

Sphaeranthus hirtus 795

Spondias pinnata 796

Stachys officinalis 797

Stereospermum colais 798

Stereospermum suaveolens, DC. 798

Strychnos nux-vomica, Linn. 800

Stylocoryne lucens 804

Symphytum officinale 805

Syzygium caryophyllatum 805

Syzygium cumini 806

Tabernaemontana alternifolia 807

Tabernaemontana divaricata 808

Tamarindus indica, Linn. 809

Taraxacum officinale 810

Taxus baccata, Linn. 811

Tectona grandis, Linn. 814

Tephrosia purpurea, Linn. 815

Tephrosia villosa, Pers. 817

xx

Teramnus labialis 818

Terminalia arjuna, W. & A., Pentaptera glabra 819

Terminalia bellirica 822

Terminalia chebula, Retz., T. reticulata 824

Teucrium chamaedrys 828

Thespesia populnea 830

Thymus serpyllum, Linn. or T. vulgaris 831

Thymus vulgaris 832

Tilia cordata 833

Tilia platyphyllos 833

Tinospora cordifolia, Miers. or Menispermum 834

Tinospora sinensis 836

Tragia involucrata 837

Trianthema portulacastrum 837

Tribulus terrestris, Linn. 838

Trichodesma indicum 841

Trichosanthes cucumerina 843

Trichosanthes palmata, Roxb. 843

Trichosanthes tricuspidata 844

Tridax procumbens, Linn. 845

Trifolium pratense 846

Trifolium repens 847

Trigonella foenum graeceum, Linn. 848

Triumfetta rhomboidea, Jacq. 851

Tropaeolum majus 853

Tylophora asthmatica, W. & A. 854

Tyssilago farfara, Linn. 855

Ulmus minor, Syn. U. carpinifolia 856

Uraria lagapodioides 857

Urena lobata, Linn. & U. sinuata, Linn. 858

Urginea indica, Kunth. or U. scilla or U. maritima 858

Urtica dioica, Linn. 861

Vaccinium myrtillus 862

Vaccinium vitis-idaea 863

Valeriana officinalis, Linn. 864

Valeriana wallichii, Dc. 865

Vallaris solanacea 866

Vanda roxburghii R. Br. 868

xxi

Veratrum album 869

Verbascum densiflorum 870

Verbascum palomoides 871

Verbena officinalis 872

Vernonia cinerea 873

Veronica officinalis 875

Vigna Pilosa 876

Vigna radiata 878

Vigna trilobala, Verde 879

Vigna vexillata 879

Vinca minor 880

Vincetoxicum hirundinaria 881

Viola odorata 882

Viola tricolour 883

Vitex negundo 883

Vitex trifolia 885

Wedelia calendulacea, Less. 888

Withania somnifera, Dunal 889

Woodfordia floribunda, Salisb. 894

Wrightia tinctoria, Br., or W. rothii 895

Xanthium strumarium, Linn. or X. indicum 896

Zea mays, Linn. 897

Zingiber officinale 899

Zizyphus oenoplia, Mills 904

6. List of Endangered Medicinal Plants 909

7. Recommendations for Sustainable Management of Medicinal Plants 917

Glossary of Medical Terms 923

Bibliography 927

Index 949

xxii