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Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995.

Ch. 1

- Since the goal of all Protestant education was to create Christian citizens for the new Jerusalem, the foundation of their education had to rest squarely on the scriptures. In addition, an education to create righteous citizens must include the study of music. Music was to be included in Protestant education because it had the power to affect mens minds and souls.

Musicmakes men gentler and milder, more mannerly and more rationalHe who knows this art is in the right frame, and fitted for every good pursuit. We can not do without music in our schools.4

Luther was very adamant about the importance of music in the lives and education of all Christians. He posited music as a gift of God and the delight of men. Singing was an activity commanded by scripture and one of the chief delights of any believer. Thus, no truly educated Christian citizen of the new order could be musically illiterate.

Music is one of the fairest and best gifts of God...Music is one of the best of the artsIt chases away melancholyKings, princes, and lords must maintain musicthe common people and private individuals desire itMusic is a fair, glorious gift of GodWe should practice the young continually in this art, for it will make able and polished men of themSingers, too are never overwhelmed with care, but are joyful; and, with their singing, they drive care out and away.5

Singing had a twofold purpose: 1) to teach doctrinal truths and 2) to create men and women6 of virtue. The attainment of both goals was certainly a necessary component to build the new and proper Jerusalem. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 19-20.)

- FN4: Martin Luther, The Value of Music translated by Henry Barnard in German Teachers and educators, 158-159, translated from Karl Raumer, Geschichte der Pdagogik, Vol. I, 143-145. The original may be found in Georg Walch, Luthers smtliche Schriften, Vol. XXII, 2249-2253, quoted in Frederick Eby, Early Protestant Educators: The Eduactional Writings of Martin Luther, Jean Calvin, and Other Leaders of Protestant Thought (New York: McGraw Hill, 1931), 160. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 19.)

Ch. 1

- In worship, Latin was also retained. Even though Luther translated the scriptures into German, he devised liturgies in both German (Deutsche Messe 1526) and Latin (Formulae Missae 1523) to meet the needs of various congregations. The Formulae Missae was intended for use in cathedral and collegiate settings and the Deutsche Messe for smaller congregations with less-skilled pastors.12 Luther saw no need to stop using Latin in worship if those leading worship, i.e. boy choristers, trained teachers, and pastors, knew Latin, as would be the case in a city or town. In liturgy, the issue was understanding the scriptures. If those present understood Latin, then Latin should be used in the worship service. When those present did not understand Latin, as in rural areas, the vernacular was to be used. One of the responsibilities of the schools, administered by the church, was to provide singers for the various worship services. Logically then, Latin worship services sung by boys enrolled in the citys Lateinschule provided an excellent opportunity to practice ones Latin skills. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 25-6.)Ch. 1 Rhau

- Service Music

In his preface to Vesparum precum Officia he [Rhau] stated that it had always been his desire particularly to assist schoolboys by providing them with materials through which they might praise God and learn the truths of the Scriptures, and through which they might also love and study the honorable discipline of Music. He further stated that from their early years the pupils should be exposed to the precepts of the musical art and through the singing of worthy examples learn to apply the rules to practical experience.239 To accomplish this task, Rhau published fifteen major collections between 1528 and 1545.240 Ten of the fifteen publications were specifically to provide music for Lutheran worship services and are as follows: (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 105-6.)- FN239: The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 6th ed., s. v.Georg Rhau by Victor Mattfeld. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 105.)Ch. 1 Conclusion

- Summary

The Reformers acknowledged music as a gift from God. Furthermore it was mans recreation to praise God with music. However the music used to praise God must not be just any common music, (musica vulgaris) produced haphazardly without knowledge of the proper rules, but rather music based on the correct principles found only in musica practica as expressed in musica choralis and musica figuralis. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 121-2.)

Ch. 2

- In 1527, Melanchthon, Bugenhagen, Luther, and others undertook a review of German education. The administration of the schools was to be supervised by both state and ecclesiastical authorities. Decisions concerning the administration of the schools would be conveyed in written ordinances or Schulordnungen. The schools would be evaluated yearly to measure their compliance with the ordinances and Lutheran doctrine. The evaluations, known as visitations, were designed to ensure a quality education. Having been written by the most prominent of the Lutheran reformers, both the Schulordnungen and the evaluations helped to establish a foundation of authority; a prescription for right learning, right behavior, and a proper and righteous society. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 22.)

Ch. 2

- The 1528 School Ordinance for Braunschweig, designed by Johannes Bugenhagen, perhaps best summarized the Lutheran vision of a proper education. It outlined a suitable curriculum and provided the underlying rationale for the emphasis on education within the Protestant movement.

Before all elseemploy honorable, well-grounded, scholarly masters and assistant to the honor of God the Almighty for the welfare of the youth and the satisfaction of the entire city[so that] poor, ignorant youth may be properly trained, learn the Ten Commandments, the Creed, the Lords Prayer, the Christian sacramentsto sing the psalms in Latin, and read passages every day from the Latin scriptures. In addition they are to study the humanities from which one learns to understand such mattersthat in time there may come good schoolmasters, good preachers, good jurists, good physicians, God-fearing, decent, honorable, well-grounded, obedient, sociable, scholarly, peaceable, sober but happy citizens, who henceforth may train their children in the best ways and so on to their childrens children.10

Like Melanchthons Book of Visitation, the Braunschweig ordinance also asserts the necessity of a proper education as the foundation of a better society. Education was not something to be pursued only by those with a clerical vocation. Education was necessary for all three estates: church, state, and commerce, if they were to co-exist properly and peacefully. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 23-4.)

-FN 10: Friedrich Koldewey, Braunschweigische Schulordnungen in Monumenta Germaniae Paedagogica (Berlin: A. Hofmann, 1886, 1890), Vol. I, 27-38, translated and quoted in Eby, 193. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 24.)

Ch. 2 Role of music in reformed curriculum

- It was music that ...bound the whole curriculum together.29In most schools not only the day but each class period was begun with a song. In addition, music was interrelated with other subjects in various ways: with mathematics through the theoretical foundation of intervals and mensuration, with Latin through the language used in musical instruction, especially the memorization of music rules in Latin with Greek quotations interspersed and though the majority of the texts set to music, with religion and philosophy through the subject matter of sacred music, the discussion of the origins and objectives of music and through the singing of sententiae [saying of the type of proverbs] of moral content.30 (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 32.)- FN29: Freidrich Sannemann, Die Musik als Unterrichtsgegenstand in den Evangelischen Lateinshulen des 16. Jahrhunderts, (Ph. D. Universitat zu Berlin, 1903), 48, quoted in Livingstone, 376. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 32.)- FN30: Schnemann, Geschichte der deutschen Schulmusik, (Leipzig, 1928), 102f, quoted in Livingstone, 375-376. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 32.)Ch. 2 division of classes

- FN37: Halle had eight to nine classes and a student was exposed to music for five to six years. (Livingstone, 371). As the century progressed, the Schulordnungen reflected a more sophisticated educational structure and class divisions increased. In the Ordinances of Saxony 1528 and Wittenberg 1533, three classes are indicated. Six classes were at the St. Sebald school in Nuremberg in 1554 and ten classes at the Hof Albertinum in 1549. (Bellingham, 65).

FN38: Eby, 182. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 35.)Ch. 2 Melanchthons 1528 plan

- According to Melanchthons School Plan 1528, it was indispensable that children be divided into distinct groups.38 In Melanchthons model, Group One consisted of those children learning to read. The curriculum included the alphabet, the Creed, the Lords Prayer, other prayers, singing, and the grammatical works of Donatus and Cato. The primary pedagogical tool was repetition. It must be noted that even in the most elementary education, music was considered indispensable. Melanchthons description of activities in Group One as found in the School Plan of 1528 follows.

The schoolmaster must give them the explanation of a verse or two, and then in a few hours call upon them to repeat what he has thus said; and in this way they will learn a great number of Latin words, and lay up a full store of phrases to use in speech...These children must likewise be kept at music, and be made to sing with the others.39The second group of children was comprised of those who could read and were ready for grammar and the following of regulations. The required literature for the second group consisted of the Paedology of Mosellanus, the Colloquies of Erasmus, Aesops Fables, and the works of Terence and Plautus. Scripture to be studied included those Psalms which comprehend the sum and substance of Christian life,40 (Psalms 112, 34, 128, 125, 127, 133) a grammatical exposition of the gospel of Matthew, and for the more advanced boys, the Pauline epistles, Timothy, First John, and Proverbs. Grammar skills to be learned included studies in etymology, syntax, prosody, and the parsing of verbs. As with Group One, Melanchthon insisted that The first hour after noon every day all the children, large and small, should be practiced in music.41 Group Three consisted of students who were well trained in grammar. Their curriculum included the works of Virgil, Ovid, and Cicero. When these boys became familiar with etymology and syntax, they were to pursue the study of prosody or metrica. Logic, conversation, and composition in Latin were also encouraged. Advanced Latin skills, however, did not preclude the necessity of continued training in music. Like the younger students, Group Three also participated in musical training, for the ordinance required that the hour after mid-day, together with the rest, they [group three] are to devote to music42(Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 35-7.)- FN40: Philip Melanchthon, Book of Visitation School Plan, translated by Henry Barnard, German Teachers and Educators, 169-171, translated from Karl von Raumer, Geschichte der Pdagogik, Vol. I, 155-158 and Reinhold Vormbaum, Evangelische Schulordnungen, Vol. I, 1-8, quoted in Eby, 180-187. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 36.)Ch. 2 Melanchthon School Plan

- Several of the ordinances suggest that administrators were concerned that too much time was being spent on musical rehearsal and participation in musical responsibilities and too little time on other studies. Six hours of music instruction per week (including Saturday) were listed in the Sebaldusschule in Nuremberg (1526), in Kuraschen (1528), in Frankfurt (1575),95 in Hamburg (1529),96 and Braunschweig (1535).97 Five hours of musical instruction were recommended in the Schulordnungen of Dresden (1575),98 Brandenburg (1564),99 Braunschweig (1600) ,100 Stralsund (1591),101 and Laubach (1573).102 Four hours of music instruction, excluding Wednesday and Saturday, were practiced at Torgau (1531),103 Wittenberg (1535),104 Magdeburg (1553), Weimar (1562), and Meissen (1575).105 (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 55.)- FN94: Finck, Introduction to Book V of Practica Musica, (Wittenberg, 1556), trans. Neuchterlein, 58. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 55.)Ch. 2 Faber, Ch. 3 How musica poetica was taught

- Faber states in the preface to Ad musicam practicam introductio that what before had been used in manuscript form, had now been printed so that students could use the time to better advantage for learning and practicing the rules and examples.162 (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 76.)- FN162: Livingstone, 362. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 76.)Ch. 2 Relationship between Calvius and Dressler

- FN278: Neuchterlein, 114. At age 14, Calvisius, the son of a laborer, was sent to Frankhausen and two years later enrolled in the Magdeburg Lateinschulen where he remained until 1579. Cantors at the school when Calvisius was enrolled were Dressler and Schroeder. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 125.)

Ch. 3 Cantors also teach Latin

- The proper language for education became one of the early concerns of the Reformers: should it be German or Latin? After much debate it was decided that although vernacular literacy was a suitable goal for rural children, the sons of city burghers would need the skills that could be acquired only by studying Latin. Economically successful cities required lawyers, bankers, and tradesmen who could read contracts, deeds, and other legal papers written in Latin. It became evident to the Lutheran reformers that a liberal arts education would be necessary for the movement to produce trained professors, doctors, theologians, and bureaucrats.11 In addition, the Humanist movement, with its renewed emphasis on the secular writings of the ancient Greek and Roman authors, only reinforced the traditional emphasis on the Latin studies of grammar, rhetoric, and dialectics. Thus it came to be that the basic element in the curriculum of a Protestant education was the study of Latin as expressed in grammar, music, religious teachings, and mathematics. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 24-5.)Ch. 3 How musica poetica was taught

- In creating their new world order, Protestant educators adopted several of the proven pedagogical method of the medieval education system: namely, the dialectic question-and-answer presentation of written materials and memorization of the basic tenets as proof of acquired knowledge. Education was still primarily conveyed by a three step method: 1) Praecepta or rules, 2) Exempla or examples, and 3) Imitatio, or direct application of the rules. The language of the Schulordnungen reveals the method of teaching expected of the cantor.

Cantor legit [reads], explicat [explains], exponit [goes over the material point by point], proponit [lays before the pupil, i.e., makes him see], tradit [transmits to the student] praecepta et exempla, peragit exercitia musicae figuralis [carries through or performs repeatedly (not simply does) exercises...]. Through exercitia [exercises] the student acquires exercitatio [literally: result of being practiced, i.e., skill or mastery]. And, above all, Musica minor Fabri recitatur [Fabers Compendiolum is memorized!].16(Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 26-7.)- FN16: Johannes Rautenstrauch, Luther und der Pflege der kirchlichen Musik in Sachsen (14-19 Jahrhundert), (Leipzig: Breitkopf und Hrtel, 1907), 91f; Friedrich Sannemann, Die Musik als Unterrichtsgegenstand in den Evangelischen Lateinschulen des 16. Jahrhunderts (Ph. D. diss. Universitt zu Berlin, 1903), 63, quoted and translated in Livingstone, 361. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 27.)Ch. 3 Latin school structure

- Administration

The administration of the schools was shared by church and state. For the Latin schools, the reigning prince or city council appointed an administrative body of lawyers and clergy (Konsistorium) with the responsibility of protecting and maintaining the church and schools. The highest church authority in school matters was the General Synod which consisted of the Konsistorium and the District Superintendents. The Particular Synod, comprised of local clergy of that specific district, also had input into the administration of the schools. The Konsistorium held the responsibility of appointing the Rector of each school. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 37.)Ch. 3 Rector

- The Rector, or headmaster, had the daily task of running the school. In his hands rested the moral and academic well-being of the students. He was required to have adequate theological training and an artis magister or liberal arts degree. The qualifications of a rector were similar to that of a pastor, and in fact many times the rectorate was viewed as a stepping stone into the pastorate.43 The master (rector), had to be able to read the scriptures in Latin, and understand the gospel of Christ.44 (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 37-8.)- FN 44: Johannes Bugenhagen, Schulordnung aus der Braunschweigschen Kirchenordnung, (1528) in Vormbaum, Vol. I, 8-18; Koldewey, trans., School Ordinance from the Church Ordinance of the Town of Brunswick, quoted in Eby, 195. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 38.)Ch. 3 Importance of Kantor

- The number of faculty per school varied from location to location depending upon the enrollment and the advanced level of the school. If only two teachers were required, they were the rector and the cantor. If three teachers were required, a rector, cantor, and a sexton were hired. In the more advanced schools a complete faculty listing would have been as follows:

1. Rector, Magister, Meister, Schulmeister

2. Con-rector, Subrector, Supremus, or a Cantor

3. Baccalaureus or Paedagogue4. Cantor, Infimus, Baccalaureus or Paedagogue45The cantor was to have a theoretical and practical knowledge of music, the skills required to teach Latin grammar and poetry, and a sound theological background to aid in preparing the students for worship and catechism. A cantors musical responsibilities included providing the music for the daily Matins and Vespers services and the Sunday services. In addition, the cantor was responsible for preparing the singers for any wedding, baptism, funeral, or civic celebrations held in the city. Although the rector had to have a magister atrium degree, the cantor did not. The cantor,46 as second in rank to the rector, could expect approximately half to three-quarters of the rectors salary47.

A cantor was required to take an examination for the position and submit recommendations from clergy and other musicians. Two or three applications were selected for the examination which was conducted in the presence of the clergy, the city council, and a member of the congregation.48 (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 39-40.)- FN45: Livingstone, 91. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 39.)- FN48: Arno Werner, Vier Jahrhunderts im Dienste der Kirchenmusik (Leipzig, 1933), 121 quoted in Herbert D. Neuchterlein, The Sixteenth-Century Schulkantorei and its Participation in the Lutheran Service (Ph. D. diss. University of Michigan, 1969), 114. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 39.)Ch. 3 Melanchthons other works

- Details from the 1528 Braunschweig School Ordinance, authored by Melanchthon, provide an example of one school systems requirements for faculty and theory respective salaries.54 The town of Braunschweig was to employ seven teachers for two schools, St. Martins and St. Catherines, together representing five precincts or congregations. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 42.)Ch.3 Condition of music teacher

- As one might expect, not all teachers were pleased with their wages. The following excerpt from Musica Practica by Hermann Finck, teacher at Wittenberg University, relates his dissatisfaction with musicians wages and laments the lack of support and encouragement given to composers by government officials. Essentially his comments reveal that German composers received neither the recognition nor the monetary benefits of musicians elsewhere.

...excellent artists in no matter what pursuit have greater advantages in foreign countries than among our people...where they without doubt produce the greatest fruits as a result of their industry and diligence. In this connection ample stipends are established for them, they are adorned with rewards and dignities, which advantages cannot but stimulate talent for liberal arts and arouse as great an incentive as possible among the students. Now in our land fine composers (to say no more) are not held in such honor and esteem, and indeed more often barely escape the danger of starvation. And so that it appears that men of our country have but little for work and earnest efforts; and, although many excel in genius, but few can bear the fruit. Others with much genius and burning with the desire to get away frequently lose their nerve and are compelled to break off in the middle a course of study which they began with great hopes. He who considers these matters properly will acknowledge that it is not our people nor the mind of our people that is to blame for having brought about this deplorable state of perversion, but those who control matters of government are too reprehended to promote the fine arts with great liberality and assist free minds.76(Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 47-8.)- FN76: Finck, trans. Kirby, 251-52. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 48.)Ch. 3 Latin school students

- Although a boys formal education may have begun at age six,80 matriculation in the Latin schools generally began at age eight. His studies generally continued until he was eighteen.81 Sternfeld credits Neander with starting his charges at eight years old at which time they had already had two years of reading, with elementary Latin, music and calligraphy [and] continuing their intensive schooling up to the eighteenth year.82 In general, pupils below the age of eight were considered too young for effective music making.83 The correlation between age and school form remained as haphazard in the Reformation era as in earlier periods, and it was not unusual for a boy of twelve to share a bench with youths four or five years older.84Examinations of pupils at the school of the Heilig Geist Spital in Nuremberg in the 1570s show this clearly. In 1574, for example, thirty-five boys were examined; one was twelve years old, four were thirteen, eight were fourteen, three were fifteen, ten were sixteen, three were eighteen, one was nineteen, two were twenty, three were twenty-one.85(Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 49-50.)Ch. 3 Kantorei

- Fincks introduction to Book Five of his Practica Musica may provide some insight on the additional rehearsal time required, as well as when and where it took place.

In order that our Kantorei from day to day be enhanced with more artistic singing of lovely motets, and so that the cantors and the boys find their rehearsal more purposeful and convenient, we propose and desire that they have a minimum of one hour daily rehearsal, and that they be permitted to come to the kapellmeisters house for extra rehearsal when necessary. This is not only for the purpose of sufficient rehearsal of songs in order to avoid confusion in the chapel, but also for the purpose of accustoming oneself to the style of the Netherlanders, singing the text properly, and singing artistically with embellishment and tempered voices.94(Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 54-5.)Ch. 3 Students of musica poetica

- In his Compendium musices (1552), Coclico, not a cantor but a private teacher in Nuremberg, described the ideal music student and provided a list of what every student of singing should know. To Coclico, the desirable student was young, had a desire for learning music, and exhibited a natural enthusiasm for music.138 According to Coclico, every singer needed to understand:1391. hand or scale

2. mutations3. clefs4. solmizations5. pronunciation of musical syllables

6. knowledge of eight modes

7. shapes of notes

8. ligatures9. points10. pauses

11. prolation, augmentation, diminution, imperfection, alternation, syncopation

12. embellishmentMost of the pedagogical treatises written by the cantors would have emphasized a curriculum similar to Coclicos, with perhaps the exception being the inclusion of embellishment. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 67-8.)- FN138: Coclico, trans. Seay, 6. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 68.)Ch. 3 Students of musica poetica

- According to Coclico, Josquins students progressively learned a series of musical skills: physical signing complete with its corresponding knowledge of the musical rudiments, solmization and mutation, improvisation, diction, and finally composition.

...when he [Josquin] had been his students firmly grounded in singing, able to pronounce neatly, to sing ornately and to put the text in the correct place, he taught them the perfect and imperfect types (of consonances) and the way of singing counterpoint on plainchant with these types.194(Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 86-7.)- FN194: Seay, 16 (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 87.)Ch. 3 Learning method

- Imitation

However, all learning dealing with musica practica was not through the memorization of praecepta, reading through rhyme, copying blackboard examples, or the mere execution of exercises. Some learning was best achieved through imitation. Imitation referred not only to copying and creation of counterpoint in the style of one of the Netherlands masters, but also the learning ones voice part by imitating the actions of learned singers. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 87-8.)Ch. 3

- Composers

The earlier generation of Netherlands school of composers as well as composers contemporary to the cantors are those most frequently represented in textbooks. They are sometimes named and credited with particular compositions, sometimes not. Signing-voice excerpts as well as complete compositions by Ockeghem, Obrecht, Ghiselin, de Orto, Mouton, de la Rue, Van Werbecke, A. Agricola, Gafurius, Isaac, Brumel, Senfl, H. Finck, and Josquin247 may be found.248The older generation of Netherlands composers were most frequently cited for their mensural complexities. For example, in Gumpelzhaimers Compendium, motets and mass excerpts by Josquin, Issac, Lassus, Agricola were used to demonstrate major and minor tactus, perfect and imperfect tempus, augmentation, diminution, and imperfection. Likewise, Fabers text for advanced students, Introductio, included twenty-two examples for three voices and twenty-six examples for four voices many in canonic form, and attributed by Faber to Josquin, Isaac, Senfl, Moulu, and others.249 In Musica Figuralis, or the second part of Musica Practica Praecepta, Zanger used as examples a mensuration canon by Josquin, five three- and four-voice compositions by Josquin, two three- and four-voice compositions by Thomas Sporer and one composition each by Brumel, la Rue, Obrecht, Ockeghem, Agricola, and Walter.250In an attempt to pass to the next generation correct, not controversial, concepts of music, the Schulordnungen were conservative in their recommendations concerning music, if indeed specific composers were mentioned, In the Duties of the Schoolmaster as found in the school ordinance within the church ordinance for the Electorate of Saxony, 1580, rectors are cautioned against promoting the music of their own cantors.

Likewise, the singers are always to perform in the Church what they are ordered by their rector...above all, that in the church they do not sing their own musicshould they be composers themselvesor the music of other beginning composers, but that they sing the music of the old and excellent composers who are well experienced in this art, such as Josquin, Clemens non Papa, Orlandus and the like.251Most of the schulordnungen recommended the works of Josquin, Clemens non Papa, Orlando di Lasso, Uttendal, Gallus, and Palladius.252 The Kuraschen Kirchenordnung of 1580 suggested the Kantorei sing music by learned and renowned composers of the old art such as Josquin, Clemens non Papa, Orlando di Lasso and others.253 However the same document warned against too much figural signing and advised that in consultation with the pastors, the cantor should also sing psalms with the entire congregation, especially those pure, beautiful, and instructive Christian psalms and hymns which Dr. Luther himself wrote or which he recommended as pure and Christian.254

Inventories also indicate what repertoire was in use.

The cantor of the Thomas school in Leipzig in the 1540s left at his death 42 volumes of printed and written music which included compositions by the foremost masters of the century, Issac, Josquin, Obrecht, de la Rue, Brumel, Senfl, Finck, Dietrich.255Part XXIII of the Hof Ordo included an inventory of the music given to the cantor for use in the church and the school. A sample of its contents256 reveals:

1. Six singing books...by Johann Hedler

2. Five leather-bound books by Nicolaus Medler (1548)

3. Five copies of several five- and six- voice Lenten motets

4. Six copies of four-six voice motets by Lassus

5. Four copies of Lindners German Magnificat (1583)

6. Six copies of songs by Vittoria

7. Five copies of spiritual song by Meiland, Lassus, Burck, Le Maistre, and Schroeter,

8. The winter part of the Gradual. (The summer parts were stolen during the war in 1553)

9. Several summer graduals restored Enoch Widman (1593-95)

10. Eight song books in which there are motets and Magnificats by Casper Hassler, Bodenschatz, and Vulpius

Instructions were left that this music should remain at St. Michales and should be kept in a locked desk and used to the glory of God.257In Sebald Heydens treatise Musicae, id est artis canendi libri duo (1537), and a second, revised edition De Arte Canendi (1540), one finds works by the following composers: Alexander Agricola, Anton Brumel, Johannes Ghiselin, Isaac, Des Pres, Obrecht, Ockeghem, Orto, Pisaro, de la Rue, Senfl and von Werbecke.258 Heydens 1537 publication lists the names of composers from whom he borrowed examples.

Let the boys know that these canons have been gathered into this work not from any authors at all, but from the most excellent and highly-praised musicians Josquin, Obrecht, Pierre de la Rue,Heinrich Isaas, and such like, so that for this reason they value these books of mine all the more.259Although there was some suspicion of contemporary works as the appropriate source for teaching, around the middle of the century a definite change in sanctioned repertoire occurred. An example of this change may be found in the Chronicles of Hof, 1565. Moses Phlmann as cantor had used the music of the older generation of composers, Josquin, Clemens, and Senfl. In this year (1565) after Moses Phlmann, the former cantor, had been made a deacon, Nicolaus Flessa of Munchberg succeeded him [as cantor], and he presented the very best songs of Orlandus, [Jakob] Meiland, and others, which were previously unknown in our churches.260Even during the second half of the century, however, as both textbooks and performing repertoire were changing to include a more contemporary works, some cantors, like Wilfflingseder, still emphasized the works of the old masters in their pedagogy.

While the more briefly written teaching books of his younger contemporaries preferred by this time to lead towards Clemens non Papa and Lassus, and therefore were no longer in need of the mensural theory, the Erotemata offered sections from works by Ockeghem, Heinrich Finck, H. Issac, Josquin, J. Obrecht, J. Mouton, A. Brumel, J. Ghiselin, M. de Orto, L. Senfl, and others.261(Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 111-6.)

- FN248: For a detailed distribution of works of these composers over the various treatises, see Sanneman, 129. For a listing of compositions within the inventory of the library of the Meissen City School, see Rautenstrauch, 76ff, quoted in Livingstone, 368, note 339. For a summary of composers whose works were performed in German school, see Schnemann, 145. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 111.)- FN251: Vormbaum, 256, trans. Bellingham, 61. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 113.)- FN 260: This account was written by Enoch Widmann (1511-1615) who became rector at Hof in 1591 in his Hofer Chronik of 1612. It is quoted in Ktzel, Musikpflege (1957), 86, quoted in Bellingham, 113-114. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 116.)

- FN 261: Die Musik Geschichte und Gegenwart (1968), s. v. Wilfflingseder, by Martin Ruhnke, 652f, quoted in Bellingham, 183. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 116.)

Ch. 3 Latin school

- The Lateinschulen musical education was intended for the sons of wealthy burghers, and civic and ecclesiastical leaders, not for the general populace, and in particular, not the rural populace. However, this musical education was available to young boys of limited financial resources if they possessed the musical talent to be accepted as a member of the school and church choir.278 (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 125.)

Ch. 4 The new reformed agenda

- Music was included in the Protestant curriculum not only because of its ability to indoctrinate theologically or affect spiritually, but also because it was one of the accepted studies of the medieval quadrivium.28 Music was the subject which bridged the traditional medieval curriculum to the new reformed agenda. Musical training was central to the entire curriculum and tied all aged to one activity. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 31.)Ch. 4 Conclusion

- The academic canon was established by two methods: either by retaining the authorities of old, or by reinterpreting them. The retention of older ideas bought for the new system a measure of respectability. The reinterpretation of former teachings allowed for creativity and ingenuity to be securely enfolded by the mantle of the past. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 122-3.)

(chapter not yet allocated)Melanchthons influence on musical theorists

- Similar catechetical formats may be found in the Works of Agricola, Dressler, Schneegass, Machold, Gumpelzhaimer, Roggio, Oridryus, H. Faber, G. Faber, Lossius, Lampadius, Zanger, Dietrich, Beurhaus, Wilphlingseder. In fact, treatises not written in erotematic style are more the exception than the rule.141

The question-and-answer format was a favorite pedagogical tool used by the Lutheran Reformers. In the catechism it put forth simply and directly the tenets of the faith. In the musical textbooks and treatises, the erotematic, or question-and-answer format, simply, directly, and effectively dispersed the rudiments of music to readers of various ages. By the mid-sixteenth century, the question-and-answer technique had replaced the older lecture method.142 By means of the dialogue format used in his own writings, Philip Melanchthon, the Praeceptor Germaniae, influenced ...many music teachers who were his associates or students, ... [and] was acknowledged by Spangenberg and Agricola in their books whose titles bear the word Quaestiones.143 In a 1544 letter to his former pupil, Lucas Lossius, Melanchthon advised: The teacher should not only present this subject matter, but it is also most beneficial for youth to exercise by means of questions.144 (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 69-70.)- FN143: Bellingham, 138. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 70.)- Latin was the language of the educated. There was no need to lessen educational expectations for the Lutheran educational system. To retain Latin was to maintain educational propriety, a must for the burgeoning Protestant movement. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 25.)- School Organization

An overview of the organization of education in sixteenth-century Germany reveals four basic types of schools:311) University schools:

a) Academica

b) Lyceum

c) Gymnasium

d) Upper division of the Jesuit colleges

2) Latin schools of advanced character:

a) Gymnasium and Academicum Illustre32b) Frstenschulen- Schools sponsored by princes33c) Landesschulen- State-supported schools

d) Klosterschulen- monastery schools

e) Gelehrtenschulen or Pdagogien343) Latin schools of less advanced character under city council administration:

a) Partikularschulen35b) Trivialschulen

c) Ratsschulen

d) Lateinschelen

and

4) German or Deudsche schools:

a) Winkelschulen or corner schoolsb) Schriebschulen or writing schoolsc) Stadtschulen

d) Evangelical and Catholic parish schools

The German or Deutsche schools were a source of elementary education, designed primarily to enable boys and girls to read and write German.

...the dividing lines between the four general types were not sharp, especially with regard to subject-matter, since the teaching of quadrivial university subjects was anticipated in the upper Latin schools. Overlapping in the three lower types of schools was frequently made necessary by lack of space: many of the school-ordinances indicate that the three school-types were housed in the same building and often met in the same room.36(Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 33-4.)- FN31: Steinhuser, Die Musik an den Hessen Darmstedtischen Lateinschulen in 16 und 17 Jahrhunderts und ihre beziehungen zum kirchlishen und burgerlichenleben (Ph. D. diss., Geissen, 1936) 6, quoted in Livingstone, 82-83. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 33.)- FN35: A school teaching the stadium particulare or the trivium as opposed in the stadium generale, or all seven of the liberal arts. See Livingstone, 86.

FN36: Bruce Bellingham, The Bicinium in the Lutheran Latin Schools during the Reformation Period (Ph. D. diss., Univ. of Toronto, 1971), 52-53. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 34.)- These four basic types of schools were generally divided into classes or levels according to age and ability. Three to five classes was the norm, but some schools had as many as eight to ten classes or divisions.37 By repetition and memorization, students were expected to comprehend gradually the rudiments of Latin grammar, the eloquence of Latin poetry, the art of rhetoric, the power of logic, the essentials of both kinds of music (choral and figural), and the basic tenets of the Lutheran faith. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 34-5.)- Daily Schedule

The events of a typical school day for a singer in a Lutheran Lateinschule can be surmised by inspecting the teaching schedule for the cantor. The 1571 Dresden Schulordnungen reveals the following weekly schedule for the Cantor. The Cantors four-hour daily teaching was later increased to six hours per day in 1584.

Monday and Tuesday

6:30 am Morning Prayers (classes 1, 2, 3)

8:00 am Flowers of the Poets88 (class 2)

12 noon A half-hour is granted for exercise, then a half-hour of explaining the precepts of music (classes 1, 2, and part of 3)

1:00 pm Listening to and Amending the Scriptures (class 4)

2:00pm Vesper Prayers (classes 1, 2, 3)

Wednesday

6:30 am Prayers in the Church (classes 1, 2, 3)

8:00 am Flowers of the Poets and memory exercises (class 1, 2, 3)

12 noon Music (classes 1, 2, and some of 3)

1:00 pm Scriptures exegesis exhibited in front of the cantor (class 5)

2:00pm Vesper Prayers (classes 1, 2, 3)

Thursday and Friday

6:30 am Morning Prayers (classes 1, 2, 3)

8:00 am Recitation of lessons (class 5)

1:00 pm Musical exercises (class 1, 2, 3)

2:00pm The cantor listens to the students (classes 5)

Saturday

6:30 am Recitation and Exposition of Dr. Luthers Catechism (classes 4)

8:00 am Gospel Lessons (class 5)89(Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 51-2.)- FN90: Sternfeld, 100-101. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 52.)- Niemller, however, contends that although ...the regulation giving musical instruction daily in the first hour of the afternoon was widespread, but quite certainly it was not a universal, as Schnemann still thought at his time.92 (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 53.)- FN91: Schnemann, 93, quoted in Bellingham, 64. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 53.)- Similar to the Dresden ordinance above, a perusal of many of the Schulordnungen reveals the following general pattern: two days a week in the study of music theory and two days a week in the actual rehearsal of music, more often than not, figural or polyphonic music. In some ordinances, choralis or plainchant singing was included during the study of rules on Monday and Tuesday. At other times, choralis rehearsal was reserved for Saturday morning before the Sunday service. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 53-4.)- As the sixteenth-century drew to a close, more and more complaints were made about the length of time that memory work required. Early seventeenth-century theorists suggested going over the material many times but not memorizing it.160 In fact, a slight reaction against memorizing is beginning to stir around 1600. Calvisius is the first to object to it and his pupil Genzenbach recommends frequent reading-over instead.161 (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 75-6.)- Repertoire

The repertoire sung by the boys in schools, church, and community consisted of chants, chorales, liturgical service music primarily for Vespers and Matins, motets ranging from simple counterpoint to polychoral compositions, music for funerals, baptisms and weddings, bicinia, musical odes, and music for plays and processionals.

Repertoire expressly given in music theory textbooks consisted of solmization and mutation deductions, canons and fugas for two to eight voices, modal examples, psalm incipits and differentiae, single- or multiple-voice contrapuntal examples demonstrating intervals and mensural theory, and representative motets. The music in the textbooks was generally presented in a progressive manner, beginning with an example of the vocables with their respective pitches and climaxing in a multiple-voice motet. An exception to the general format was the four-voice motet O Herrn Jesu Christe by Adam Gumpelzhaimer used as a frontispiece for his Compendium Musicae of 1591 as well as the accompanying crucifix canon. (Wilson, Betty Karol Fairchilds. "Choral Pedagogy: Crossroads of Theory and Practice in Sixteenth-Century Germany." PhD diss., Boston University, 1995, 95-6.)13