Energy Northwest Columbia Generating Station Proposed Enhancements

Transformation of mothballed nuclear facilities into hydrogen oxygen energy storage and electrical generation facilities.

Dennis Charles Grant – CISSP, CISM, IEEE Member Master Infrastructure Planning and Management Candidate

National Science Foundation Cyber Corps Scholarship for Service Recipient Center for Information Assurance and Cybersecurity

University of Washington Seattle, WA, USA

and Cyber Security Instructor

Center for Cybersecurity Education Computer Science Department

Columbia Basin College Pasco, WA, USA

Abstract— Energy Northwest currently owns facilities which were constructed with the intention of implementing nuclear power production operations. Four of the five nuclear power plants envisioned and constructed during the 1970’s and early 1980’s were not completed and have never been utilized for power production. The halted construction was cause for the largest obligation bond failure in US history. These facilities are ideally suited to implementation of another energy related project which should be much less controversial.

One of the most challenging aspect of electrical power distribution is matching energy supplies with demands. With nuclear power, the output can be reduced to avoid over-production during seasons when hydroelectric production must be increased to reduce water levels. Unfortunately, when that output is dampened, the energy which is not produced is completely wasted. Reduced nuclear power production does not cost less to operate, or extend the lifetime of the fuel. Other forms of clean energy, including wind and photovoltaic production, are much less able to be tuned to demand.

The unused nuclear facilities on the Hanford Nuclear Reservation are perfect for the electrolysis of water and hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell operations. They are well located and connected to necessary infrastructure, well-constructed and durably designed, and are sitting empty as idle assets ready to be retrofit and occupied. This work examines the requirements for such an implementation.

This proposal is for an energy storage facility, it does not suggest that all power used to produce hydrogen for storage come from the Columbia Generating Station. A significant amount of unused potential energy from many diverse sources is currently being wasted on a regular basis. The grid connected storage of that energy from many sources provides efficiency advantages for the entire complex electrical grid.

Keywords—electrolysis; fuel cell; hydrogen; energy storage.

I. INTRODUCTION Energy Northwest is committed to responsible care for the

environment and has produced carbon-free energy for almost 50 years. The organization achieves this through a mixture of projects including hydroelectric, nuclear, wind and solar. Energy Northwest provides clean energy to ratepayers throughout the Northwest and works to protect the environment for current and future generations. In fact, the Energy Northwest website states:

“Energy Northwest promotes consideration of the environment in everything it does. To the fullest extent possible, activities are designed and conducted to reduce and manage adverse environmental impacts and risks to natural resources and human health. Opportunities to improve the environment are continually pursued.” (Energy Northwest, 2013).

The company also seeks to explore new options and opportunities to enhance the efficiency of current operations and develop new carbon-free energy generation capabilities. In keeping with this commitment, this work proposes enhancements to the Columbia Generating Station which will improve efficiency, create extensive energy storage capability, and further reduce impacts to the environment.

Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells are one of the most flexible and efficient sources of electrical generation ever developed. The United States National Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA) has used them for decades as the primary source of power on spacecraft. They are modular and scalable in design and may be constructed to be as large or small as required to meet physical space or energy output demands. When hydrogen and oxygen are recombined in a fuel cell, they produce electricity on demand, along with very pure water and a little heat. (Hoffman, 2001).

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Excess energy can be channeled into specialized battery banks for short term storage. Although this short term storage can be used to easily level the daily demand cycle, there is a much more important long term storage which may be derived from the use of these batteries. A great deal of effort has been put into designing batteries which do not gas, in order to reduce maintenance requirements. But the gassing inherent in most batteries can be leveraged for great benefit in electrolytic cells. The gasses can easily be compressed and readily stored. These gasses can be recombined at will to create electricity in a fuel cell, with the byproduct of 99.9% pure water.

Electrolytic cells are designed to promote gassing rather than inhibiting it. Though there are many types of electrolytic cells, in this work the terms electrolytic cells and electrolysis will be used to exclusively refer to the electrolysis of water into hydrogen and oxygen..

Electrolysis requires electricity and clean water for charging inputs and requires an external load to regularly discharge the cells. The electrolytic process can be used for short term load leveling in order to improve the efficiency of other electrical production methods. More importantly, the gasses created can be stored for long periods and recombined in the hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells on demand.

Use of nickel alloys for a substrate have been shown to provide profuse and very predictable gassing and manageability in the electrolysis process. Hydrogen and oxygen gasses can be derived by electrolysis in a reliable cycle during the charge, overcharge and discharge process. Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells are extremely clean burning and reliable. Long term storage of potential energy in compressed gas enables supply to lead demand by weeks, months or years.

II. BACKGROUND Three nuclear plants were originally designed to operate on

the Hanford Nuclear Reservation north of Richland, Washington. Two of those plants were “mothballed” in the early 1980’s due in-part to successive cost overruns and a loss of public support for nuclear power after the incident at Three Mile Island near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania in late March of 1979. Although there were no injuries, impacts or exposures in that event, there were communications problems which led to conflicting information in the media and causing general public mistrust of nuclear power. (World Nuclear Association, 2013). The Hanford reactors were not alone in being abandoned during this era. All 100 nuclear reactors planned in the U.S. in 1974 had construction canceled by 1984. (Center for Land Use Interpretation, 2013).

Two of the mothballed facilities (shown in the right half of figure one) are not now intended to be used for nuclear power production. (Washington State, 2003), (Ammons, 2003). These assets are ideally suited to a different energy project which takes advantage of extensive infrastructure investments they are proximate to. The durable construction which has already been completed represents sunk costs available to offset the expense of construction for a new facility.

Fig. 1. Showing Plant One and Plant Four in close proximity to functional Plant Two, (aka Columbia Generating Station [on left]). Hanford Nuclear Reservation, Richland, WA, USA.(Center for Land Use Interpretation, 2013)

The one functional reactor on the Hanford Reservation, (the Columbia Generating Station shown in the left half of figure one), has been in operation since 1984 and produces nearly 1,200 megawatts of electricity through boiling water. (Energy Northwest, 2013). Although the system is highly efficient, the cooling towers currently allow warm clean water vapor to dissipate into the environment. There is no secondary power production cycle or storage capacity for this system, and though the facility does not produce any carbon emissions like coal, natural gas or petroleum, there is certainly room for improvement in capturing and using the excess heat and clean water which are being produced and released into the environment. The cooling towers are in constant use with the exception of refueling periods, and emit steam into the environment which may be captured and reused for secondary power production and condensation..

III. PROPOSAL The two unfinished Hanford projects, Plant One and Plant

Four, which are currently sealed, should be remodeled to accommodate aqueous electrolysis and hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells. Although this use will require renegotiation of the agreement made with Washington State in early December of 2003, the current state administration will likely embrace this opportunity. Governor Inslee is well known for his passion for renewable energy. Clean-energy jobs were a centerpiece in his gubernatorial campaign. (Song, 2012), (Cary, 2012).

The heat dissipation mechanisms used for the Boiling Water Reactor at the Columbia Generating Station should be re-architected to capture a majority of the steam currently being released to the environment for secondary use. Such use would supply Plant One and Plant Four with clean water and power low output electrical generators. The current cooling towers should be kept in place as a shunt, for steam to be released only when required by operational necessity.

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Construction should be handled in a phased approach, with one plant being retrofitted initially, such that the second plant remodel can benefit from lessons learned in the first implementation. Common infrastructure should however be optimized for both of the plants to be fully functional. Prior to site evaluations, it would not be beneficial to predict which of the two plants should be undertaken as the first phase project, and which would be best for the final phase. Exact sizing and pricing of the major components are outside the scope of this overview and will require further study to determine. Architectural designs for the two sites were not found as publicly available. In the absence of detailed site plans, scoping dimensions and materials would be an exercise in futility.

A jointly managed design team is recommended to move forward with architectural review, definition of specifications, and construction cost estimates. Researchers from Pacific Northwest National Labs and advisors from the Department of Energy can be readily integrated with Energy Northwest engineering staff to prepare preliminary designs, materials estimates, environmental and economic impact studies and an overall cost / benefit analysis.

Funding for the detailed design phase should be a joint effort as well. Though Energy Northwest is expected to take the lead role, there are many public and private sources of capital available for this type of undertaking. Funding for the phased implementation can be financed through bonds, private investors, or through federal and/or state investments. The Department of Energy readily makes grants and loans for renewable electric generation investments. Several private investment bankers specialize in clean energy projects. State and county governments throughout the region have an enduring interest in energy projects which benefit the regional economy in profound and lasting ways.

IV. DETAILS Although advancements have certainly been made in

hydrogen storage mechanisms, including the understanding and use of metal hydrides for hydrogen storage directly in solid metals, (Pukazhelvan, 2012), many researchers agree that improving electrolysis directly improves the economic viability and reduces the payback period for capital investment.

There has been a huge amount of research performed related to hydrogen electrolysis and hydrogen fuel cells. Most of this research is quite technically complex and incorporates a level of detail not important to this conceptual proposal. But a substantial body of work does exist, much of which is based on pioneering efforts in the early 1950’s.

Important improvements in electrolysis occurred in 2007 and 2008 in two technical directions; studies in high temperature electrolysis and separate improvements in cathode materials. Japanese researchers published interesting results related to steam electrolysis in solid oxide electrolytic cells in conjunction with a nuclear reactor, (Fujiwara, 2008), while a Korean team increased overall efficiency by 46% using a very high temperature gas-cooled reactor, (Shin, 2007). During the same timeframe, nickel sulfur and manganese (Ni-S-Mn) alloy electrodes were proven by Chinese researchers to provide higher electrochemical activity with increased stability in potassium

hydroxide solution. This alloy exhibited the best stability and largest exchange current density in comparison to other nickel alloys being tested. (Shan, 2008).

Between 2010 and 2013 however, many further studies were performed related to the electrolysis of water. This particular realm of science has now almost fully matured. Further studies of ionic activators like cobalt and molybdenum in the electrolyte, (Nikolic, 2010) as well as study of cobalt and tungsten activated electrodes (Kaninski, 2011) and nickel molybdenum coated electrodes (Kaninski, 2011) all pointed to individualized 20% plus gains in efficiency. During that same time, high temperature steam electrolysis using the solid oxide systems continued to see successful experimentation in China. (Bo, 20-10) (Zhang, 2013).

Also in 2013, a new type of alkaline electrochemical cell was developed using nickel foam instead of the alloy electrodes or metallic meshes used previously. This foam electrolytic cell was paired with high pressure and high temperature processes to yield a very high efficiency process, stated as 98.7% electrical efficiency at 240 degrees Celsius and 37 bar of pressure. (Allebrod, 2013).

Though more experimentation with alloy variations and higher temperature steam electrolysis used in combination are undoubtedly warranted; it is clear that highly efficient electrolytic processes have currently come of age. The next few years will undoubtedly see the merge of these two research realms and a very highly effective electrolytic process enable very easily cost-effective hydrogen production.

Though a significant amount of steam is released on a daily basis from the Columbia Generating Station, an exact figure for amount of fresh water being and thermal energy being released was not found to be publicly available. Direct tour of the facility by the author has confirmed that six large cooling towers are in active use to dissipate the steam energy. This thermal energy and fresh water can be more effectively used for electrolysis.

Several large storage receptacles will be required to facilitate long-term energy storage, in each plant. Tanks in each plant should be capable of holding a large quantity of liquid water, multiple containers at each plant will be required to hold gaseous hydrogen and oxygen gas for storage in each location. The gasses can be stored in banks of many separate cylinders. Although the water can be stored in any reasonably priced tanks or cistern, it is preferable to maintain the liquid in as clean and pure a state as possible. Using the condensed steam from the nearby Columbia Generating Station will allow for input water to be fairly pure and require less treatment to remove impurities.

Fig 2. Illustrates a grid connected hydrogen oxygen storage facility.

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Fig. 3 The electrolytic process to derive hydrogen and oxygen from water.

Fiberglass reinforced aluminum cylinders could offer the best containment material for all of these substances. This material has been proven to be less susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement than other materials and provides fairly high strength and resilience to impact, while also being less reactive to hydrogen, oxygen and water than many other types of material.

Fuel cells and electrolytic cells may be manufactured from many different materials to meet many diverse specifications. Though they are available for purchase from a handful of manufacturers, it will be most cost efficient to custom build these components on site.

Operational control centers designed into the existing facilities can easily be retrofit for the electrolysis and fuel cell processes. Despite being less complicated to operate than a nuclear facility, many of the industrial control systems and process protections are somewhat similar. Operational training programs should loosely parallel those instituted at the Columbia Generating Station. Many of the same hazards which are regularly practiced and prepared for at that facility must also be prepared for in these new operational environments.

Compressed gas use for energy storage is not a new concept. (Smock, 1985). Compressed gas storage is similar to water storage as a means of creating energy on demand. Just as liquid water can be pumped from one storage container into another to create artificial demand, (should insufficient load be available on the grid to discharge the electrolytic cells when required), compressed gasses can be pumped from one container to another to create demand, or like water can be used to create electromechanical energy to produce electrical current on demand, without reducing the capacity for creation of electricity using fuel cells.

Storing hydrogen in compressed form requires some careful planning, but also offers huge advantages for versatility and multifaceted electrical production. Hydrogen chemisorption can cause embrittlement in many metals and hydrogen gas has a tendency to dissipate rapidly. It can also be quite reactive and even explosive in certain circumstances. But its tendency to dissipate offsets its explosive potential and it is much less dangerous overall to store than fossil fuels and many other chemical gasses.

Should an excess of hydrogen and oxygen be produced such that it becomes difficult to store, additional storage tanks could be acquired and commissioned, or these gasses can be readily sold, as they are both used in many industrial processes.

V. ECONOMIC VIABILITY

The economic viability of hydrogen production and hydrogen energy storage has consistently been the subject of inquiry. But unfortunately many research endeavors have completely missed the mark. Most research has directly coupled hydrogen production to stand-alone solar and wind power projects. A very large amount of investigation has focused on hydrogen as a transportation fuel. These efforts have effectively diluted the public and academic understanding of the viability of hydrogen to the purpose it is best suited to.

A handful of economic analyses are considered herein for perspective. Many, but not all of these considerations have included solar power sources as part of their assessment.

Lodhi’s work in late 1988, “Collection and Storage of Solar Energy,” made a comparison of several potential storage mechanisms for solar power. At the time, this work should have been considered quite comprehensive. His conclusions were that ‘When all factors are taken into consideration, hydrogen… is the most cost effective energy carrier.” (Lodhi, 1989).

Subsequent studies of economic viability in Spain and Egypt found that hydrogen production was both economically viable and strategically advantageous to both these country’s economies, (Contreras, 1999) (Abdallah, 1999). In 2001, Yang lauded the use of hydrogen as a versatile and highly effective storage medium for energy, (Yang, 2001).

In 2003 the return on investment for a photovoltaic driven system with common electrolytic technology, hydrogen storage and fuel cell recombination ability was determined to have a very substantial return on investment beginning around 15 to 16 years. This analysis pointed to the most profitable scenario being a grid connected system. This system was expected to cost some 7.8 million euros and would return 6.6 million euros in profit during sixteenth to twentieth year of operation. Though fifteen years is a considerable time to wait for profitability, it must be noted that the most expensive and least profitable portion of this system was the photovoltaic array. (Vidueira, 2003).

University of Ontario faculty performed an economic analysis related to hydrogen storage in 2011. In it, they analyzed two wind farms near Ontario (at 189 MW and 490 MW capacity respectively). This study is important not simply due to its resulting calculations, but also because they have analyzed data related to the unused capacity of many diverse generation facilities in the Ontario area. Notwithstanding the use of very conservative numbers and a premature capping of the expected lifetime of the overall system at twenty years, they found this type of implementation to be economically viable. As with other investigations, this study also used expensive and inefficient commercially available electrolytic cells. Yet, profitability was conservatively determined to be found in the sixteenth or seventeenth year of operation for installations. (Ozbilen, 2012).

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VI. CONCLUSIONS Energy Northwest has existing facilities which are ideally

suited to renewable power production as well as both short and long term power storage which are currently unused. The sunk costs in these facilities offer a unique opportunity to enhance current operational efficiencies, create resilience in energy supply and to level the electrical supply and demand equations for the entire region.

Energy Northwest has made and maintained clear commitments to renewable energy sources, enhanced operational efficiency and environmental responsibility. The proposed project is an obvious win for all concerned parties on these three commitments, as well as on many other important levels. Waste heat and clean water can be efficiently reclaimed from the Columbia Generating Station for use in the power storage system. These reclaimed resources will be used for electrolytic separation of hydrogen and oxygen. The electrolytic cells used will provide load levelling capacity in the energy grid.

Compressed gasses and excess liquids will be stored on site to be used for electromechanical power conversion to electricity on demand, as well as to provide for artificial load mechanisms for the charge and discharge cycles in the electrolytic cells, if needed. Fuel cells will be used to combine the compressed hydrogen and oxygen at will, to reclaim electrical energy independent of supply cycles. This long term storage capacity is a key differentiator from many other storage mechanisms.

The existing cooling stacks will be maintained as operational for intermittent use. Holding ponds are readily available on-site for excess water storage and the Columbia River is nearby to accept the pure water outputs, in unusual circumstances.

Although there is room for further experimentation to combine high temperature and pressure ‘steam’ electrolysis with the latest developments in electrode alloys, we have already reached the point of viability and profitability for these technologies.

The next step in this project will be to perform a full site analysis in order to build an accurate material cost analysis, environmental impact analysis and to acquire funding. A joint project team can be formed between Energy Northwest staff, the Bonneville Power Administration, Pacific Northwest National Labs and the Department of Energy to perform an in-depth evaluation and create the detailed construction designs.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT This work was performed with the support of the National

Science Foundation, through the Cyber Corps Scholarship for Services Program administered by the University of Washington Center for Information Assurance and Cybersecurity.

Grateful appreciation is extended to Dr. Sam Chung, Endowed Professor of Information Systems and Security, Director of Cyber Physical Systems for the Center for Information Assurance and Cybersecurity, and Dr. Barbara Endicott-Popovsky, Director of the Center for Information Assurance and Cybersecurity and the Academic Director for the Master of Infrastructure Planning and Management program, for their highly valued insights, enduring support and mentorship.

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