IDs and Definitions

• Peterloo• Whigs / Tories• Chartist Movement• Corn Laws – Great Britain• Crimean War• Paris Commune• Pan-Slavism• Dual Monarchy

Questions and Imperatives

• Discuss the various leaders in Europe during the nineteenth century – who, what, where, why.

• Describe the leadership of Russian Tsars in the 19th century.

“Peterloo”• England (post-1815)• though she had been victorious in the wars, she had spent much money and was now

bankrupt• in 1819 there were a lot of poor, desperate people (high prices, inflation,

unemployment)• upper classes started looking over their shoulders as they remembered the French

revolution; became a bit paranoid• there was a peaceful march, political demonstration in St. Peter’s fields in Manchester in

1819; the marchers, a crowd of 60,000 wanted to have their economic distress relieved (had do-able economic ideas

• but the parliament over-reacted and called out the home guard, fearing it was a revolution ( a few were killed, over 400 wounded)

• they then realized they had been mistaken, that it had been peaceful and the demonstrators had a point, but demand for reform fell on deaf ears

• became known as Battle of Peterloo• women had demonstrated along side the men...with the changes in industry, men and

women could do the same jobs

“Peterloo”

Great Britain• parliamentary system: Whigs and Tories • both from aristocracy• country governed by two houses of Parliament - the Lords and Commons

– House of Lords = non-elective upper house– House of Commons = elective lower house

• 1830, alliance of Whigs along with reform-minded liberals defeated the Tories• Whigs introduced an act to amend the representation of the people, passed by

House of Commons, but rejected by House of Lords• surge of protests had the King and Lords give in• the new majority party forced through reform (Reform Bill of 1832)• - voting was extended, but on the basis of property, increasing about

50%• - House of Commons emerged as an important legislative body• - districts were redistributed, new industrial areas gained representation

Chartism• Mass movement, group of radical reformers who called for

parliamentary reform• Chartists wanted universal male suffrage, but defeated in 1839, 1842, 1848• Wanted abolition of property qualifications for parliament• working men and women rioted for rights• adopted domesticity: women defined themselves as wives and mothers and

eventually retreated from activism; wanted to resolve sexual antagonisms among working people & to refute claims that working people were immoral; they tried to create a positive class identity

• tried to convince husbands to turn from their drinking ways and be responsible husbands, fathers, and breadwinners

• “peaceably if we can, forcibly if we must”• boycotted shops of those who did not support chartism • Note: England missed the revolutions of 1848...reforms had already started

Corn Laws• first introduced in Britain in 1804 as landowners (dominated Parliament)

wanted to protect their profits by imposing a tax on imported grain • then the Napoleonic Wars came and it was difficult to import grains• when the wars were ending (and by 1815), farmers feared that an new influx

of imported grain would lower prices• pressured by the farmers, Parliament passed a law which permitted the import

of grains only when the price of British grains reached a certain level• people were angry about this legislation and paying high prices for bread• 1840s, economic life is very difficult

Sir Robert Peel (1788-1850)• Tory Prime Minister in 1834-35 and 1841-46• major reformer• organized the professional police of London• joined with Whigs and a minority of his own party to repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846• allowed free imports of grain, because of threat of famine and rising food prices• corn laws (really grain laws) established in 1815 to protect landowners by imposing

tariffs on imported grains• Repeal of Corn Laws caused much debate in the House of Commons

– many of these men were landowners as well as representatives

– Tory Party split and Peel’s career ended– Corn Laws repealed in 1846, (a reduced tax)

• Peel said he believed in free trade and wanted to avoid a class war

• Chartist movement collapsed after the repeal of the Corn Laws (people had gotten something and were happy)

Queen Victoria (1837-1901)• Head of Parliament in name only• Monarchy to be an example of virtuous behavior

• 1847 - Ten Hours Act– limited the workday for women and young children– passed by Tories as a way to “smooze” the

working class • Ireland

– potato crop failed 1845, 1846, 1848, 1851 ==> famine– high food prices, widespread suffering, social upheaval– G.B., little help too late– nearly 1,000,000 Irish died and same amount emigrated (primarily to US)– a country of workers living in a conquered province (Catholic)

John Stuart Mill• 1806-1873• greatest liberal philosopher of his time• Principles of Political Economy and On Liberty• interested in working class, how they are affected by

political and economic growth• probed the problem of how to protect the rights of

individuals and minorities in the emerging age of mass electoral participation (the tyranny of the majority)

• known as a feminist because he supported women’s suffrage• had a close relationship with Harriet Taylor, a feminist with whom he worked• wrote On the Subjection of Women• 1866-67, female suffrage voted down• ELECTORAL REFORM dominated British political life for decades• middle class liberals wanted a say in government• Reform Bills

Party Leaders• William Gladstone (Whig):• 1866, unsuccessful at bill to widen suffrage• supported Ireland self government and in 1886 and

1893 proposed bills

• Benjamin Disraeli (Tory):• 1867, successful in expanding suffrage (based on rent

payment...richer)• novelist, son of a Jewish stockbroker• felt his party needed to broaden its base to survive

• Expansion of Suffrage continued; women received the right to vote after WWI

Napoleon III

France• Plebiscite held in December 1851• 1852, Louis Napoleon crowned himself Emperor Napoleon III and the Second Republic

became the Second Empire• He introduced a new constitution• Napoleon III did not have the gifts of his Uncle (Napoleon Bonaparte)• he lacked the military expertise and charisma of his uncle and France had changed• no longer ready for revolutions and ideological crusades• had become Bourgeoisfied• wanted to represent the people and work hard for them economically• visions of national unity and social progress• his visions could not be accomplished by political parties with their special interest

groups• Napoleon ruled France as an Autocrat (ruled by edict)• but he had a humanitarian streak, wanted to be loved• more interested in making money than in winning wars (France was no longer pre-

dominant)

France at Home• the legislative body was elected but had no real power• they were just “yes” men• there was no liberal politics, but liberal economics • the middle class was doing just fine• Napoleon was championing their interests• Napoleon wanted to stimulate the economy and win back business classes• encouraged new investment banks and railroad construction• prior to 1860, Napoleon allowed no political opposition, after he relaxed

certain restrictions so not to chance uprisings• Napoleon rebuilt Paris; he widened the boulevards (to deter riots?), new

buildings and gardens• Napoleon hoped that economic progress would reduce social and political

tensions• (What do you thinks about this?)

France Abroad• (1848) Louis napoleon had said that he was going to restore the glory of France ???• Napoleon III couldn’t mobilize an army and no one wanted war anyway but…

– supported Italy against Prussia in the unification of Italy– Italy was now a threat to France since she became a European power – France didn’t get much for their help anyway– there was competition in scrambling for colonies

• Crimean War 1853-56– the western powers of France and Britain wanted to prevent Russia from the

Mediterranean (keep them at the Black Sea)– enormous tolls in casualties (more typhoid than bullets)– the west won and the Treaty of Paris followed in 1856 taking things back to the

status quo of 1853• during the American civil war - tried to elevate a Habsburg duke as president of Mexico - looked like

French colonization– after civil war, America did not look well on this– the duke was later thrown over by the Mexican government and shot

• Napoleon was getting older and sicker– people were tired of authoritarian rule– gave in more– problems in Europe created problems for France

France’s Third Republic• After France’s defeat by the German Confederation (recall German

Unification), a French Republic was proclaimed (1870).• National Assembly chose Adolphe Thiers as their provisional president; he was

sent to negotiate peace with Bismarck• the seat of government was moved from Paris to Versailles (just outside of

Paris) so the government would be less subject to public pressure• Thiers:- a conservative liberal, brilliant, defender of

individual liberty, but hated the unwashed masses; he was from the Bourgeoisie

• made peace with the Germans, did not want problems from the French people

• assumed a neutral position in politics to try to bring people together

Paris Commune

Paris Commune• People of Paris, patriots, continued to fight after the peace• they lived off of rats and zoo animals until starved into submission• these same people of Paris were angry

– government move to Versailles– national elections for new Republic resulted in conservatives and monarchists in the

National Assembly – National Guard no longer being paid and many counted on this income (Guard had

been used to fight the Prussians)• On March 18, 1871, Thiers sent the army into Paris to confiscate 200 cannon, the

Parisians felt this was their property• angry mobs of Parisians drove off the Versailles troops• instead of negotiating, Thiers evacuated the city in preparation to fight the mobs• Paris was left in the hands of various radical factions whose leaders set up elections and

organized the city as self governing• proclaimed themselves the Paris Commune, March 1871 & with it, Civil War• Communards came from a cross section of classes• their moderate demand was that the leaders of the Commune govern Paris with no

interference from the conservative countryside

…Brutral Suppression• Thier’s troops were outnumbered by the Communards’ national guard and so he appealed to

Bismarck to release some French prisoners of war to help him squelch this uprising • by May 21, Thiers had enough troops to strike, sent them in to brutally crush Commune• neither side showed mercy (a bloody week)• Communard extremists set fire to many buildings, the Louvre and Notre Dame were barely saved• about 20K died, 50K Communards were tried and many sent to penal colonies, thousands escaped

into exile• “The brutal suppression of the Commune claimed more lives than any single event in the French

Revolution.” - lasted 72 days• Monarchists formed the majority it the assembly, monarchists from both the Bourbons and

Orleanists and they could not decide together who should rule as a Monarch or an Emperor.• A vote in the Assembly in 1875 legitimately created the Third Republic

Eastern Europe & Pan-Slavism• advocated political union of the Slavic races (19th century)• movement both in Austrian Empire and Russia (those who

considered themselves Slavs, not Russians)• Slavs: Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenes, Serbs, Croates, & Ruthenians under

Austrian rule• Hungarians not perceived as Slavs!• Poles were also considered Slavs, but some lived under Austrian

control and others under Russian control• Slavs wanted to throw off Habsburg rule, and eventually become

nations of their own• leaders were German speaking, center in

Vienna • Austrian Empire ruled by the Habsburgs• made up of German speaking people and Slavs

(with their own languages)

Habsburg Empire• recall Revolutions in 1848 within the

Empire• Emperor Ferdinand I promised reforms,

but with a weakened empire, abdicated in favor of his nephew (about 18 years old at the time), Franz Joseph

• Franz Joseph crowned Emperor, reigning from 1848-1916

• Franz Joseph realized the diversity within the Empire (language, culture, traditions,...)

• he believed a uniform government over all would keep all together

Dual Monarchy• Wars for unification drove Austria out of N. Italy• Franz Joseph wanted to prevent further problems

within Empire – issued new constitutions– But, unsuccessful in attempts to calm the waters

• time for compromise• 1848, Hungary demanded independence from Austrian Empire

– led by the largest population of a people in Hungarys– Magyars forced a compromise - Austro-Hungarian agreement

• Austria and Hungary became two separate nations (1866)• Franz Joseph remained the Emperor of Austria and became the

King of Hungary• domestic policies were decided within the individual states

And the others???• minorities were ruled by Magyars in Hungary (harshly)• Slovenes, Slovaks, and Ruthenians remained under control

of Austria• Poles and Czechs received some special privileges• with these types of separations, the fear of pan-Slavism

was falling away• the compromise was an attempt to buy off the Magyars at

the expense of the other ethnic groups• ethnic clashes got worse within the empire, each seeing

the other getting the better deal at different times • even Hungarians demanded more concessions

The Russian Empire• Tsar Alexander I (1801-1825)– strict authoritarian control

within Russia– early liberal rule in Russia’s

territories: annexed Finland, became King of Poland, but

allowed each to have own laws, could use own languages

– changed and became man with iron hand at home and abroad

Tsar Nicholas I (1825-1855)– similar in actions to Alexander I– repressed all uprisings – the protests did not encourage

him to respond positively to the people, but pushed him further away from liberalism

• Russia remained an agriculturalcountry, not touched by the industrial revolution

• she was still a feudal empire and dependent on serfs

Tsar Alexander II (1855-1881)

• more moderate than previous Tsars• realized his country was behind the times --

his country was not competitive -- even Russian nobles realized that

• Alexander also wanted to prevent revolution - his motives were both practical and humanitarian?

• freed serfs in 1861, became “Tsar Liberator”

Alexander’s Reforms

• # of schools increased• relaxed controls on universities• Instituted secondary education for women• modernized the army• relaxed punishments for some crimes• set up local councils (zemstvos) giving them

responsibility for roads, schools, and welfare institutions -- they had no say in government per se, but took part in civic life

• construction of a railroad system within Russia (trans-Siberian)

Assassination• Alexander offered many reforms in his own country, but was

not willing to grant the Poles a constitution• demonstrations led by religious leaders in Warsaw (1863)

ended with many executions of Poles in the next two years, and many Poles sent to Siberia

• socialist groups began to threaten government with words and deeds

• Alexander moved back to a policy of repression, but decided he would soon have to give in to demands (too late)

• radical Socialist movement, Tsar killed by group (March 1881) called “Will ofthe People,” a secret society formed in

1879 • first woman, Sophia Perovskaia, executed in Russia for

terrorism

Crimean War

• Russia expanding?• Ottoman Empire (“Sick man of Europe”)• Who controlled Holy Lands• Great Britain want free trade (since repeal of

Corn Laws)• Also France and Piedmont

Crimean War

Who is this?

DISCUSSION QUESTION: Which of the “isms” had the strongest

impact on the various classes?