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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GEOMATICS AND GEOSCIENCES

Volume 4, No 1, 2013

© Copyright by the authors - Licensee IPA- Under Creative Commons license 3.0

Research article ISSN 0976 – 4380

Submitted on June 2013 published on August 2013 164

Identification of geomorphic signatures of active tectonics in the West

Lidder Watershed, Kashmir Himalayas: Using Remote Sensing and GIS Bhat F. A. 1, Bhat I. M. 1, Hamid Sana2, Mohd Iqbal3, Akhtar R. Mir1

1- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Kashmir.

2- Department of Geology & Geophysics, IIT, Kharagpur

3-.Department of Geography, Jamia Milia Islamia University.

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Different geomorphic indices like Hypsometric Integral (Hi), Basin Elongation Ratio (Eb),

Drainage Basin Asymmetry (AF), Longitudinal River Profile, Transverse profile, Stream

Gradient Index (SL), for the west Lidder watershed which lies to the South east of the Kashmir

valley together with development of knick zones and unpaired terraces as interpreted from the

satellite imagery and digital elevation model (DEM) and extensive field work suggest the area

to be tectonically active. Use of geographic information (GIS) in calculation of geomorphic

indices was instrumental and helped in the identification of a fault in the watershed which could

be traced for several kilometers across the river Lidder.

Keywords: Geomorphic Indicies, Active Tectonics, DEM, Knick Zones, Lidder Basin.

1. Introduction

Geomorphic indices are useful tools in evaluating tectonic activity in any area. Tectonics plays

a very important role in the morphological evolution of any drainage basin and is well

reflected by structural, fluvial and morphotectonic parameters. Analysis of active tectonics

depends upon the use of geomorphic indices, which are sensitive to rock resistance,

climatic changes and tectonic processes resulting into landscape evolution. The information

about tectonic history of an area can be retrieved by quantification of different

morphotectonic indices, after obtaining the necessary information from topographic maps,

aerial photographs and satellite data (Keller, 1986). An integrated multi-disciplinary

approach using geomorphological, structural and neo-tectonism is very useful in evaluation

of active tectonics (Wells et al., 1988). Remote sensing plays a significant role in providing

spatial information needed for computation of these indices. The image interpretation

techniques are less time consuming than the conventional ground surveys, which if

coupled with limited field checks yield valuable information. Systematic observation and

analysis of remotely sensed data helps in quick identification and delineation of landforms,

structural features and drainage characteristics. Significant improvement in resolution of

satellite data and advancement in computing resources has enabled the investigators to

carry out quantitative and more precise analysis of geo-spatial data. Many workers have

carried out morphotectonic analysis using remote sensing and GIS techniques. Cuong and

Zuchiewicz (2001) studied the morphotectonic properties of Lo River fault near Tam Do in

North Vietnam. Raj et al. (2003) applied morphotectonic analysis to substantiate the field

observation on active tectonics. Verrios et al. (2004) carried out morphotectonic analysis in

Eliki fault zone to correlate active tectonics and erosional processes using topographic maps

and aerial photographs. Jain and Verma (2006) using remote sensing and GIS integrated

geomorphology, slope, vegetation index and morphotectonic information to assess

Identification of geomorphic signatures of active tectonics in the West Lidder Watershed, Kashmir

Himalayas: Using Remote Sensing and GIS

Bhat F. A.

International Journal of Geomatics and Geosciences

Volume 4 Issue 1, 2013 165

neotectonic potential in Bundi-Indergarh sector of Rajasthan. In the present study an attempt

has been made to evaluate the geomorphic indicators of active tectonics in West Lidder

watershed through remote sensing and GIS approach.

2. Study area

The present study aims study the tectonic geomorphology of the west Lidder catchment of the

Lidder watershed. The West Lidder is the western part of the Lidder valley, western himalayas,

that occupies the south eastern part of the Kashmir Himalaya .The study area (Figure 1) lies

between 3400’N - 34015’N latitude and 750 07’10”E - 750 23’20”Elongitude. The area is

covered in the Survey of India toposheet Nos. 43 N/4 and 43 N/8 and has a catchment area of

410 Km2. The altitude of the study area varies from2210 to 5425meters above mean sea level.

The West Lidder drains a large area in upper reaches of the valley. The West Lidder flows for

a maximum length of about 35Km before its merges with the East Lidder at famous tourist spot

Pahalgam. The study area reveals a variegated topography due to the combined action of

glaciers and rivers. The study area is characterized by sub- Mediterranean type of climate with

nearly 70 per cent of its annual precipitation concentrated in winter and spring months (Meher-

1971).

Figure 1: Study area

2.1 Geology and Geomorphology of West Lidder

Geomorphology is the study of the nature, origin and evolution of the landscape, focusing on

physical, chemical and biological processes that produce or modify landforms. Landforms, the

collection of which constitutes the landscape, includes mountains, plateaus, hills, alluvial fans,

canyons, gorges, terraces, slopes, sand dunes, gullies, moraines, river bars etc. Landform

development depends on the underlying geological structure of the earth. In geomorphology,

structure is broadly defined to include rock and soil types, nature and abundance of fractures in

the rocks and faults and folds. The development Landforms depends on the nature of surficial

and geological processes, including weathering (physical and chemical), fluvial (streams and

rivers), glacial, eolian (wind), mass wasting (including slope failures, landslides, mudflow and

earth flow), tectonic (plate motion, faulting, folding, tilting, uplift and subsidence and volcanic



Bhat F. A.



(Keller and Pinter-2002). The landscape of the Lidder Valley is polygenetic in nature,

composed of elements produced by glacial, fluvio-glacial and structural agents. However the

more prominent processes of landform development are glacial and fluvial. Based on the

geomorphic / surfacial processes, the West Lidder landforms are mainly grouped into two

1. Glacial geomorphological features

2. Fluvial geomorphological features.

Glacial geomorphic landforms are produced by the glacial and fluvio-glacial processes. These

landforms are intimately related to the total mass budget of the glacier system. Glacier produces

landforms by glacial erosion, transportation or deposition that vary at different sites of the study

area due to variation in altitude, lithology of glacial bed, thickened of ice and its fluctuation in

mass balance. The glacial erosion features present in the study area are the striations on the

limestones (Plate-Ia), whaleback, Roche Moutonnees and glaciated valleys (U-shaped valleys).

The more important of the glacial transportation features are the erratic boulders andtures

pebbles. The geomorphological features of glacial deposition are the Moraines (Plate-Ib).

.

Plate I: Geomorphological features in the study area

Fluvial geomorphological landforms are produced by fluvial process. The long stretch of the

West Lidder from the source at Kolahoi Glacier to its merger with the East Lidder at Nunwun

is constituted a fluvio-glacial landscape. The fluvial landforms present in the study area are

mainly gorges and terraces. The gorge at Kalwan known as Kalwan gorge carved through the

thick formations of volcanics, limestones and calcareous sandstones is about 3-4 Km long, 100-

150mts deepp. This gorge is the fluvial erosion feature. Another fluvial feature is the terrace.

The study area is mostly characterized by the depositional terraces. The terraces are found

between Mundlun and Aru along the West Lidder and are also found at Nunwun. The terraces

found in the study area and in the surroundings are mostly unpaired (Kaul. M. N., 1994).

In addition to above morphological landforms present in the study area there are also presence

of mass-wasting (land sliding) between Nunwun to Aru along Pahalgam-Aru road (Plate-IIa).

The sliding material commonly found is the mixture of boulders, gravels, clay and silt overlying

on the inclined limestone beds (Plate-IIb).

.



Bhat F. A.



Plate II: Geomorphological features in the study area

The rough terrain, inclined limestone bedding, deep gorges, unpaired terraces, land sliding and

a general youthful topography are indicative of tectonic disturbances. According to Keller

(1986) the more pristine or fresh appearing the landform is, the younger the tectonic is assumed

to be.

The lithological formations of the West Lidder area range from Devonian to Triassic with

Recent formations along the rivers and glaciers of the Lidder valley. The pioneer work on the

geology of the study area was contributed by Middlemiss in 1910, besides Gupta classified the

stratigraphic sequence of rocks of the area on the basis of the fossils. The lithological map of

the study area is shown in figure 2.

Figure 2: Lithological map of the study area.

The detailed grouping of the rock sequences has been made on the basis of the principal rocks

with reference to the specific rocks formations produced by Middlemiss and others. Each group

has a distinctive depositional environment in the evolution of the Lidder valley basin in which

these rocks were deposited and their relative competence for erosion. The geological succession

and Rock formation of the West lidder valley (after Middlemiss, 1910 and Gupta, 1973) is

shown in table



Bhat F. A.



Table 1: Lithological succession of the study area valley (after Middlemiss, 1910 and Gupta,

1973)

Rock Group Rock Formation Lithological

characteristics

Age

Glacial and Fluvial

Alluvium

Recent alluvium

Older alluvium

Recent

Pleistocene

Limestone Group Lidderwat-Zaijpal

formation

Limestone & Slate

Shale & thinly bedded

limestone

U-Triassic

L-Triassic

Sandstone-Shale

Group

Zewan Formation Calcareous sandstone,

Fossiliferous Shale,

Limestone

L-Triassic

Classic volcanic Panjal Volcanic Basalt and Andesite Permocarboniferous

Outer Volcanic

Group

Agglomeratic Slate

Fenestella Shale

Slate & Quartzite

Shales& Quartzite

U-Carboniferous

M-Carboniferous

OrthoQuartzite-

Carbonate Group

Syrigothyris

Limestone

Muth-Quartzite

Limestone

Quartzite & Sandstone

L-Carboniferous

Devonian

3. Methodology

The present study was carried out in order to find the active tectonics of the west Lidder

catchment of the lidder watershed. The main objective of the study was fulfilled by computing

the geomorphic indices by using remote sensing and GIS techniques. The study used ASTER

and Landsat data and GIS interpretive techniques to analyze and calculate these indices. The

inputs employed into the study were extracted from 1:50,000-scaled base maps and ASTER

digital elevation models using Arc-GIS 9.3. Using these materials and methods the following

geomorphic indices: River sourse elevation[Zo (m)], River mouth Elevation [Zn (m)], total

Length of the river [ L (Km)], Sub-watershed area (km2), Hypsometric Integral (Hi), Basin

Elongation Ratio (Eb), Drainage Basin Asymmetry (AF), Longitudinal River Profile,

Transverse profile, Stream Gradient Index (SL), were calculated to access the tectonic

geomorphology of the study area.

4. Results and discussion

Morphotectonic analysis by the use of geomorphic indices serves as a tool of recognition in

regions with active tectonic deformation. Landforms in active deformation area are created

from interaction of tectonic and surfacial processes. One of the most important landforms in

ground is rivers that are very sensitive to tectonic movements especially uplift and tilting. Thus

based on analysis of the rivers and related drainage networks by the use of geomorphic indices

one is able to attain valuable information about tectonic history of the area (Toudeshki and

Arian, 2011). Morphotectonic analysis by the use of geomorphic indices has been developed

as basic reconnaissance tools to identify areas experiencing rapid tectonic deformation (Bull

and McFadden, 1977; Keller and Pinter, 1996). It is impossible to quantify the tectonic impact

on any drainage sub-watershed by any single geomorphic parameter. However, a group of

parameters with their assessment relative to one another allows one to address the issue

successfully and identify particular characteristics of a drainage sub-watershed, its vulnerability

to tectonic deformation and level of tectonic activity (Keller, 1986; Keller and Pinter, 1996;



Bhat F. A.



Demoulin, 1998). Various several geomorphic indices computed (Table 2) for the West Lidder

sub-watershed are described and interpreted below.

Table 2: Geomorphic indices of the West Lidder drainage sub-watershed.

4.1 Hypsometric Integral (Hi)

Area elevation analysis or hypsometry is a powerful tool for differentiating tectonically active

regions from inactive ones. The hypsometric integral (Hi) is a quantitative measure of the

degree of dissection of a drainage basin at regional or local scale and can be calculated using

the equation 1 (Pike and Wilson, 1972):

Hi = (hmean – hmin) / (hmax – hmin) (1)

Where Hi is the hypsometric integral, and hmax, hmin and hmean are the maximum, the minimum,

and the mean elevation respectively. The values of Hypsometric integral are important elements

in the analysis of landscape and can be easily obtained from topographic maps or by using

Digital Elevation Models (DEM) (Pike and Wilson, 1972). High values of hypsometric integral

indicate that most of the topography is high relative to the mean, such as smooth upland surface

cut by deeply incised streams. Intermediate to low value of the integral reflect exposure of the

terrain to extensive and long term erosion, associated with more evenly dissected drainage

basins. It can therefore be expected that younger stages of basin development are associated

with higher values of hypsometric integral and the older basins will have lower values and

could be expected towards their maturity. The elevation map of the study area is shown in figure

3.

The calculated hypsometric integral value for the West Lidder sub-watershed is 0.51 (Table 2),

which is on the higher side indicating that the area is in youthful stage, high topography and

incised streams thus suggesting that the area is tectonically active.

S No. Geomorphic Indices Value Remarks

1. Sub-watershed area (km2) 410 Total area of the sub-watershed

2. Length (Km) L

28 The maximum sub-watershed length

3. Zo (m)

5425 River source elevation

4. Zn (m) 2150 River mouth elevation

5. Relief Ratio

3275 Elevation difference between Zo–Zn

6. Drainage basin asymmetry (AF)

63 It shows nature of tilt of the sub-

watershed

7. Basin elongation ratio (Re)

0.21 It reflects that sub-watershed is elongate

8. Hypsometric integral (Hi) 0.51 It identifies youthful landscape.

10. longitudinal River profile ---- ----

11. Transverse river profile ---- ----



Bhat F. A.



Figure 3: Elevation map of the study area.

4.2 Basin Elongation Ratio (Eb)

The elongation ratio is a representation of the shape of a river basin. Schumm (1956) defined

the basin elongation ratio as the ratio of diameter of a circle having the same area as the basin

to the maximum length of the basin. Equation 2 can be used to calculate the basin elongation

ratio (Schumm, 1956).

Eb =�(��/.��)�/�

�� (2)

Where Ab is the diameter of a circle of the same area as the drainage watershed and Lb is basin

length measured from its mouth to most distant point on the watershed limit. According to

Strahler (1964), Eb, over a wide variety of climatic and geological types, usually ranges from

0.6 for an elongate, tectonically active basin to 1.0 for tectonically quiescent, oval to circular

basins. Based on these general criteria, he classified drainage basins as; Circular (Eb> 0.9), oval

(0.8- 0.9), less elongate (0.7-0.8), and elongated (<0.7). Basin elongation ratio < 0.5 is

characteristic of tectonically active basins, values ranging from 0.5 to 0.75 reflect slightly active

basins, and values > 0.75 reflect inactive basin settings (Cuong and Zuchiewicz, 2001).

The calculated Basin Elongation Ratio Eb value of the West Lidder sub-watershed is 0.21

(Table 2), showing that the basin is highly elongate which in turn, suggests that the study area

is tectonically active.

4.3 Drainage Basin Asymmetry (AF)

The West Lidder channel has developed several unpaired terraces (Koul, 1994). To verify

whether these terraces owe their tilt to tilt block tectonics, basin asymmetry factor was

employed. The drainage basin asymmetry factor was developed to detect tectonic tilting of

small scale drainage basins as well as larger areas. This factor allows determination of general

tilt of the basin landscape irrespective of the whether the tilt is local or regional (Hare and

Gardener, 1985). Drainage basin asymmetry can be calculated using equation 3 (Gardener, et

al., 1987).

AF = (Ar/ At) 100 3



Bhat F. A.



Where AF is asymmetry factor, Ar is drainage area on the downstream right of the main

drainage line and At is the total drainage area.

When the AF is greater than 50; the main channel has shifted towards the downstream left side

of the drainage basin and if AF is less than 50; the channel has shifted towards the downstream

right side of the drainage basin (Hare and Gardener, 1985).

Following Strahler’s (1957) stream ordering scheme, the AF for the West Lidder sub-watershed

was extracted for the West Lidder of 6th order and a value of 63 was obtained (Table 2). The

drainage basin asymmetry of the study area is shown the figure 4. The calculated value of AF

is 63 which indicate that the West Lidder has shifted downstream left of the West Lidder

drainage sub-watershed giving rise to unpaired terraces and suggesting the tectonic activity in

the area. The observations were also reported by Koul (1994).

.

Figure 4: Drainage basin asymmetry of the study area

4.4 Longitudinal River Profile

A longitudinal river profile is a plot of a river or stream length with respect to river or stream

elevation above mean sea level. It represents channel gradient of the river from its source to

mouth. Hovius (2000) observed that the longitudinal river profiles have the following

characteristic features

1. They decrease in gradient monotonically

2. They are concave- up with occasional local convexities, and

3. Except for nick points they have smooth curve over length scales of kilometers.

Longitudinal profiles of alluvial channels and many bedrock channels or mixed bedrock-

alluvial channels typically are concave-up, a shape equated with equilibrium profile, where

driving force is equivalent to resisting force (Mackin, 1948).However, when a river passes

through zones of active tectonics (subsidence or upliftment), its profile shows the effects of

deformation. Therefore, longitudinal profile and its corresponding concavity and steepness are

used to characterize tectonics and base level fall.

The longitudinal profile of West Lidder is shown in figure 5. The longitudinal profile deviates

from a simple concave-up form. The most marked feature of the profile is the convex-up



Bhat F. A.



segment or knick zone developed between 2400 – 2800m contour values. Within this section

i.e. between 2400-2800m elevations above mean sea level the bed rock lithology is

homogeneous suggesting that lithology has no active role in developing the knick zone. The

other and only explanation to this phenomenon is the influence of tectonics on the west Lidder

sub-watershed.

Figure 5: Longitudinal profile of West Lidder.

4.5 Transverse profile

The longitudinal and transverse profiles play different roles in determining sub-watershed

topography, and the overall longitudinal slope exerts a major influence on the mean sub-

watershed slope. The discontinuity of the longitudinal and transverse profiles, however, tends

to occur at the same location, which may reflect the occurrence of knick zones and their

influences on the development of valley-side slopes. The transverse profile of the river gives

an indication of valley incision versus valley width which in turn suggests the tectonic activity

in the area. Figure 6 shows the transverse profile of west lidder at different place. It is clear

from the profiles that the west lidder stream has not been uniform in its valley development;

rather there are certain deep gorges which indicate prominent downcutting one such example

is the Kalwan gorge figure (6f). The deep gorges in the rivers may arise due to many reasons

such as alternating occurrences of hard and soft rocks along the river bed or recent subsidence

or upliftment of the basin due to tectonic activity. The Kalwan gorge may be the result of recent

tectonic as the lithology is homogeneous throughout the gorge.

Figure 6: Transverse Profile of West Lidder at different locations

4.6 Stream Gradient Index (SL)



Bhat F. A.



Stream gradient index (SL) reflects relationship among stream power, rock resistance and

tectonics (Hack, 1973). SL is a useful parameter to evaluate if change in stream slope is due to

rock resistance or tectonic deformation in particular, if it has a vertical component (Keller and

Pinter, 2002). The stream gradient index can be calculated by using equation 4, Hack (1973)

as follows:

SL = (∆H/∆L)*L 4

Where SL is the stream gradient index, ∆H/∆L is the local gradient of the stream reach where

the index is computed, ∆H is the drop in the elevation and ∆L is the length of the reach and L

is the total length of the of the channel from the water divide to the center of the reach measured

along the channel. The SL values are high in areas where rocks are particularly resistant or

where active tectonics has resulted in vertical deformation at the earth’s surface. Therefore,

high SL indices in rocks of low to uniform resistance are a possible indicator of active tectonics

(Keller, 1986).

SL values for the West Lidder stream increases from 480m over the mouth to 1650m over the

knick zone (figure 7) where the profile shows deviation from the general concave- up form.

The SL value then again decreases and shows the normal gradient. The higher value at the knick

zone may be due to the tectonic deformation as the basin in the stretch is composed of

homogeneous lithology.

Figure 7: Stream gradient index (SL) of the West Lidde

The figure No.8 shows the superimposition of drainage map on the lithology map of the study

area. From figure it is clear that formation of the knick zone near the Lidderwat is not controlled

by the lithology as the lithology is same in this area. Also due to the presence of a collinear

drainage lines on the opposite sides of the West Lidder is suggestive of the tectonic control on

the knick zone. This further suggests that the Kalwan gorge is formed due to deformation

caused by the recent tectonic activity in the area.



Bhat F. A.



Figure 8: Superimposed drainage map on the lithology map of the study area.

5. Conclusion

An attempt has been made to utilize ASTER data and interpretation techniques of GIS to

calculate the geomorphic indices for west Lidder watershed in the Western Himalayas. The

analysis carried out by GIS and remote sensing methods was instrumental in calculating the

geomorphic indices of the drainage basin digitally and precisely. Together and individually

each of the morphotectonic parameters calculated for the study area indicate the area is

tectonically active. The development of unpaired terraces and associated prominent nick zone

and stream incision shows the likely presence of active faults in the area. Field investigations

revealed a fault which could be traced for several kilometers across the river near Lidewat. The

fault is named as Liderwat fault after the name of the place. This fault require futher

investigations as it has future potential for slip and producing earthquake.

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