ibn taimīya's al-Ṣūfīyah wa-al-fuqarā

7/28/2019 Ibn Taimya's al-fyah wa-al-Fuqar

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Ibn Taimya's al-fyah wa-al-Fuqar

Author(s): Th. E. HomerinSource: Arabica, T. 32, Fasc. 2 (Jul., 1985), pp. 219-244Published by: BRILLStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4056952 .

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IBN TAIMIYA'S AL-SUFIYAH WA-AL-FUQARA'*

BY

TH. E. HOMERIN

AL-SUFIYAH WA-L-FUQARA's a short epistle written by the famousHanball uristandtheologianTaqi-l-DinAhmadibn Taimiya 611-728A.H./1262-1328A.D.), in whichhe sketchesbrieflyhis viewof Siifism'sorigin and background.In answeringthe initial questionposed, hecarefullydelineatesvarioustypes and gradesof behavioramong theMuslimmysticsand mendicants, lwayswithreference o the traditionallegal categoriesof morallypraiseworthy ctions, excusableones, andthose whicharereprehensible.Ibn Taimlyawas a controversialigureduringhis lifetimenDamascusand Cairo,and he was outspokenagainstany belief or practicewhichseemed to undermine he basic God-man distinction, or he believedthis to be the basic foundation of any significantmoral action in thematerialworld'. Although Ibn Taimiyavigorouslyattacked certainpopularand antinomianpracticesof the Sufiordersand the doctrineofwahdat l-wujfid) hichhe believed,sanctionedandencourageduch tendencies,he was not anti-Stifi s such.Recentarticlesby George Makdisi2 have severely criticizedthe traditionalWesternconceptionsof Hanbalismn generaland of Ibn Taimiya n particular,and Makdisiasserts,as HenriLaousthadearlier3, hat IbnTaimlyawas

* I wish to thank Thomas F. Michel, and especially Dr. Faziur Rahman without whoseencouragement and guidance this study would not have been possible. The translation wonfirst prize in the non-literary genre of the 1982 American Association of Teachers ofArabic Translation Contest1 For further information regarding Ibn Taimlya's biography and basic intellectualpositions see the excellent work by Henri Laoust, Essai sur les doctrinessociales etpolitiquesde Taqi-l-Din Ahmad b. Taimiya, Cairo: Imprimerie de l'Institut Franqaisd'Archeologie

Orientale, 1939, and also his,


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220 TH. E. HOMERIN [2]sympathetic o an experiential,mysticalresponse o the messageof theQur'anand the practiceof Muhammad.FazlurRahman4,JosephBell5and ThomasMichel6haveexamined his dimensionof Ibn Taimiya nmorespecificcontexts,sensitive o its ramificationsor a reconstructionandunderstandingf IbnTaimlya's undamentalworld-view.al-.ufiyah wa-l-fuqara's a keyworkfor such investigations, tatingbriefly and at times, succinctly,Ibn Taimlya'sposition vis-a-vis themystical experienceand Sifi practice.This epistle has the furtheradvantageof being esstechnical hanotherworks,such as his commen-tary on 'Abd al-Qadir al-Jilni's Futuh al-ghayb', and it lacks thepolemical one found in a numberof his workswhichdenounce deasand customshe foundrepugnant8.The translationof this epistlethen,canprovide henon-Arabic eaderwith avaluableprimaryource or thestudy of Ibn Taimiyaand fourteenthcenturyIslamicmysticismandperhaps,encourage urther tudy in theseareasby specialists.Ibn Taimlya's iterarystyle in this workis homiletic,resembling hestyle of the popularpreacher; he authordigressesat times from hissubjectbutalwaysreturns o concludehis thoughtswhichhe presentsna clearandgenerallyogicalfashion.al-Suf-yahwa-l-fuqara's listed byIbnQayyimal-Jauziya sbeingamong heworkswrittenbyhisteacher9,and thetone,style,andideasof theepistleareunmistakablyhoseof IbnTaimlya.This translationhas been basedon the text published n theRiyadeditionof IbnTaimlya's ompleteworks andthenumbersn themarginreferto this edition. I also compared t to the edition of this

4 Fazlur Rahman, Islam, Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, 1968, pp. 132,239-240.5 Joseph Bell, Love Theory in Later Hanbalite Islam, Albany, New York: StateUniversity of New York Press, 1979.6 Thomas Michel, ,n Hamdard Islamicus, 4:2:3-12, and his Ph.D. dissertation, Ibn Taymiyya'sal-Jawdbal-Sahih: A Muslim Theologian'sResponseto Christianity,University of Chicago,1978, especially 1:122-145.See Michel, >10 al-Suifiyahwa-l-fuqara', in Majmi' fatawa Shaykh al-Isiam Ibn Taimiya, Riyad:Maktabat al-Hukuma, 1386, 11:1-24.

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[3] IBN TAIMIYA 221epistle publishedby MuhammadRashid Rida in 192811. A shortcommentarywill followthe translation.

IbnTaymiya 661-728/1262-1328)The Siifis and The Poor (al-SufiJyahwa-l-fuqard')s >TheShaikhal-Islam IbnTaimiyaJ-mayGodsanctifyhisspirit-wasaskedabout the Siufis.Theyare [in]groupsas arethefuqard' ?poor>>,


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222 TH. E. HOMERIN [4]said to be an adjectivedenoting the ahl al-suffa (?>)16his beinga mistake,because f that wereso, one wouldsaysuffi[astheadjective].Also, it is saidto be a relational djectiveo al-saffal-muqaddam ?the front row>>)tanding before God ', this too, being amistake,becausef it wereso, one wouldsay saffi.It is thought o refer oal-safwa ?theelite>>)8 of God'screation, hisbeinga mistake,becauseif it were so, one would say safawi. It is also said to be an adjectivedenotingdescent rom Sawfah bn Bashr bn'Add bnTabikhah,a tribeamongtheArabswho used to livein the immediate icinityof Mecca nancient imes,asceticsbeingascribedo them.Although hisis consistentwith the derivationof the term[sJfi], it is also weak,because hey werenot widely known nor generally recognizedamong the majorityofascetics,and even if asceticscould be traced to them,this relationshipwould havebeenin the time of thecompanions, he followers,andtheirfirstfollowers.Further, hemajorityof those who usedthe adjectiveu7ffwere not acquaintedwith this tribe, and they do not find it acceptablethat he [the Silfi]be ascribedto a tribe existingduring the JThillya,without t [the tribe]existing n the era of Islam9.It is said, beingwell-known,hat it [the termsui-f]s related o woolengarments.The first place the ?wearersof wool>>al-sajftyah)appeared

16 The ahl al-suffah () s the name given to a group ofMuhammad's companions who are said to have lived an ascetical life in his mosque atMadina. For later Muslims, they embodied the ideal of piety and poverty and were themost virtuous of all mankind (see for example, al-Hujwiri, pp. 81-82). As part of the salaf(?forefathers>?),bn Taimiya held them in high esteem. See his, An ahl al-suffah: kam kanIwa-hal kdna bi-Makkah aw bi-Madinah2?, (?Concerning the People of the Bench: Howmany were there, and were they in Mecca or Medina??) in Majmii'fatdwd, 11: 37-71.17 The al-saff) standing before God is to be formed on the Day of Judgment inwhich mankind will be lined up andjudged (Qur'an 18:48and 37:1); the angels will also bein ranks on that day (78:38 and 89:22). The Qur'dn,however, does not mention a row ofthe pious standing before God, and this is a product of popular legend. However, theQur'dndoes say that the pious will occupy


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[5] IBN TAIMIYA 223wasBasra,andthefirstperson o builda cloister orSilifiswas oneof thecompanionsof 'Abd al-Wahid bnZaid,'Abdal-Wahidbeingamongthecompanionsof al-Hasan[al-Basri]20.n Basra,there was an excessi-veness nasceticism,worship, ear,andsuchthings,whichdid notexist nthe inhabitantsof the othermajorcities,andso it has beensaid, (KiffijurisprudencendBasriworship?.Abuial-Shaikh l-Isfahanihas relatedbasedon MuhammadbnS-irin1 whoreportedt, thata groupof peopleprefersgarmentsof wool. Thus he [IbnSirin]said, ((Agroup of peoplepreferswool saying hat theyare mitating heMessiah, on of Mary,andthat 'the fashion of our Prophetis most dear to us'. However,theProphet-God bless himand granthimpeace-used to wearcotton andother[materials]?, r a statement imilar o this.Therefore,most of what is recountedon this issueconcerning xces-siveness, s only about the worshippers mongthe people of Basra, ikethe storyof those who died or swooned whenhearing he Quran,andsimilarthings, like the storyof Zurara bn 'Aufr, the qadi of Basra 2.He recited during the morningprayer,?And when the trumpet issounded[onthejudgmentday]>>Q. 74:8-9),thenfelldown,dead. Andlike the story of AbiiJahiral-'Amathe blind)who when Salihal-Murrirecited[the Qur'dn]o him, died23 Likewise, hereare otherswho aresaid to havediedfrom istening o itsrecitation, ndthereweregroupsofthem[thepeopleof Basra]who would lose consciousnessuponhearingthe Qur'an,but there was no one among the Companions[of theProphet] who had this condition. Thus, when it [this excessiveness]

20 'Abd al-Wahid ibn Zaid (d. 177/794) was a disciple of al-Hasan al-Basri and founderof a settlement for ascetics at Abadan on the Persian Gulf. See Schimmel, p. 31. and also,Abii Nu'aim, 6:155-165.21 Muhammad ibn Sirin (34-110/654-728) was renowned for his interpretations ofdreams and for the reliability of his information regardinghadhths.He was a contemporaryand friend of al-Hasan al-Basri. See: T. Fahd in E.l.2, 3:947-948 and also, Ibn Khallikan,4:181-183, and Abiu Nu'aim, 2:i63-282, who is probably the Abii Shaikh al-Isfahanireferredto, (see n. 15) but I could not find this account in his Hfilyah.22 Zurarah ibn 'Aufa al-Jurashi (or al-Harasi) was a qadi of Basra and alive when

al-Hajjajibn Yusuf became governor there in 76/694. The date of his death is uncertain;Waki' gives 106/725 or 108/727, and Ibn Hajar gives 93/713. See Waki', Akhbaral-qu.dt,Cairo, 1947-50, 1:292-296; Ibn Hajar al-'Asqalani, TahdhTbal-tahdhtb, Beirut, 1968,3:322-23, and Abui Nu'aim, 2:258-260. Salih Ahmad al-'All in his al-Tanzimat al-ijtimn iyah wa-al-iqtisddiyahi al-Basrahfi-l-qarnal-awwalal-Hijri, Baghdad, 1953, p. 298,lists Zurarah as holding the judgeship from 62-65 A.H. See the commentary belowconcerning a possible motive for Ibn Taimiya's use of this particularstory.

23 A similarstory involving al-Murriis also found in al-Hujwiri,p. 396. Salih ibn Bashiral-Q&ri'al-Murrid. 176/793) was a famous reader of the Qur'cin;he was from Basra andlearned hadTth rom Muhammad ibn Slkin (see n. 21). See: Abu Nu'aim, 6:167-177 andalso, Ibn Khallikan, 2:494-495.



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224 TH. E. HOMERIN [6]appeared, groupof theCompanions ndfollowers, uchasAsma'bintAbuiBakr24,Abd Allah ibn al-Zubair25,Muhammad bn Sirin andothers ike them,disapproved.Those who disapprovehave two approaches.Thereare those whosupposethat [excessivestate] to be an affection and a feigning.It ismentionedabout Muhammad bn Sirin that he said,


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[7] IBNTAIMIYA 225On the whole, then, this is frequentamongthose whosetruthfulnesssnot doubted.

But the states(ahwdl)which heCompanions ossessedare mentionedin the Qur'dn, ndthey are: the dreadof hearts, hetearsof theeye,andthe tremblingof the skins,as He-He is mosthigh-has said,The believers are only those who, when God is mentioned, their hearts dread, andwhen His signs (d7pdt) are recited to them, they increasein faith, and those who trustin their Lord. (Q. 8:2)

And He-He is most high-has said,God has sent down the best statement, a uniform book, paired; the skins of thosewho fear their Lord tremble, then their skins and hearts yield to the remembranceof God (Q. 39:23)

God-He is most High-has said,And when the signs of the Merciful are recited to them, they fall down prostrating,crying. (Q.19:58)

And He has said,And, when they hear what has been sent down to the messenger, you will see their9 eyes overflow with tears due to what they recognize of the truth. (Q. 5:83)

12nHehas said,And they fall down on their faces, crying, increasingin humility (Q. 17:109)

At times, their state is censured by those people who have inthemselves hat which sblameworthytselfdue to hardness f heartsandthe rust upon them and crudeness n religion,and yet they too do it[blameothers].And amongthem[who have the states]are those whosuppose hat thisstate of theirs s the mostperfect tate,theculminationand most exalted of them, but both extremes in this matter arereprehensible.Instead,there are three ranks [to those hearing the Qur'an].Oneof them is the state of those unjust to themselves, those who arehard-hearted,not yielding to the audition [of the Qur'ain]nor toremembranceof God],andtheyarecomparableo theJews.God-Heis most High has said,

Judgement Day and hell-fire.Ibn Khallikan, 4:40, counts him among those killed by God'slove. Also see, AbiuNu'aim, 8:297-300, and'Attar, pp. 91-93.



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226 TH. E. HOMERIN [8]Then your hearts were hardened after that, and they are like rocks or harder, forindeed among stones there are [those] from which streams gush forth and there are

[rocks] which are split, and water then comes from them, and indeed there are [rocks]which fall down from fear of God, and God is not unaware of what you do.(Q. 2:76)And He-He is most high-has said,

Is it not time for those who believe to humble their hearts to the remembranceofGod and to what was sent down from the Truth, and they are not like those who weregranted the book previously, then the period was lengthened,but theirhearts becamehardened, and many of them were licentious ones? (Q. 57:16)The[secondrank] s the state of thepiousbelieverwhois too weak tobearwhat suddenly fflictshisheart.So heis theonewho is struckdown,

1o death-struckor swooning, and that is due only to the power of thesuddenseizure al-wdrid)3"and the weaknessof the heartto bear t. Attimes, somethingikethis[state] s foundin onewho is happyor fearful,grief strickenor in love with earthlyaffairs, hat makinghimphysicallyill, insane, or killing him. Among the worshipper of forms (suwar*32 isone whomexcessive ove('ishq)makesphysically ll, drivesmad,or kills,and so likewise with others-and this does not happenexceptto oneseizedby an affliction amr)whichhis carnalsoul (nafs) is too weak torepel,or to one who was overwhelmed y it-just like the causeswhichafflict the body making t sick or killing t.However, f a remissnessdoes not issue from him [the piousbeliever]nora transgression,henthere s no fault n what befallshimnor reasonfor suspicion.He is just like one who heard the Qur'an n the legalmannerandhadnot beenremissby omittingwhat thatrequired f him.Likewise s what afflictsthe heartsfrom what is calledintoxication al-sukr), annihilation al-fand'),and similarthings among the afflictionswhichcause the intellectto vanishwithout the choice of the afflicted.Thatis, if the cause s not [legally] orbidden, hen theintoxicatedone isnot censured, atherhe is excusedbecause he intoxicated s without[thepower of] discrimination.Similarly, hat [state] may ariseby seekingintoxication from wine or hashish, and that is undeniably orbiddenamongMuslims.He who regards ntoxicationderived romthese thingsas permissible,s an unbeliever. t [the state of intoxication]may also

31 al-Hujwiri, p. 385, defines wdridas ?the descent of spiritualmeanings upon the heart.They frequently occur during audition and some novices may be overpowered by it, loseconsciousness and at times die>> p. 407).32 Ibn Taimiya is probably referring here to those people afflicted from gazing onbeautiful faces. See, Joseph Bell, Love Theory n Later HanbaliteIslam, Albany, New York,1979, pp. 125-144.



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[9] IBN TAIMIYA 227arise from the love of forms or an excessive passion ('ishq)for them, as ithas been said,

sukran-isukru hawa wa-sukrumudamahwa-matdifdqatuman bi-hi sukrdnThere are two intoxications: the drunkeness of passion and that ofwine.When is there recovery

for one who has both?33This is blameworthy because its cause is forbidden. At other times itarises due to the audition34of enrapturing voices which cause somethinglike this intoxication, and this is also blameworthy; for man has no rightto listen to that voice among the voices whose audition is not incumbentupon him, and which removes his reason, since the removal of reason isforbidden. So, when an unlawful cause leads to it, it is forbidden. Theemotional or spiritual pleasure produced in that [state]-even though itbe dhrough things connected to the faith-is submergedby the cessationof the intellect occurringalong with it. God has not permittedus to allowour hearts and spirits to enjoy those pleasuresof faith nor otherpleasureswhich necessitate the cessation of our intellects, except for the one whoseintellect has vanished due to a lawful cause or due to an affliction whichunexpectedly befalls him, he having no means to repel it.At times, intoxication arises due to the cause in which the servant hadno doing, like an unintended audition which stirs him up and drives himinto a state of agitation, and such things, and so, he is not to blame inthis. He is excused for what issued from him in the state of the cessationof his intellect, because the Pen [of judgement] is lifted from everyonewhose intellect has vanished for a legitimate reason, as is the case withthe unconscious person, the possessed, and others similar to those two.As for him whose intellect has vanished due to wine, is he legallyresponsible while in the state of the cessation of his intellect? There aretwo well-known opinions about it, and there is a famous controversyconcerning the divorce of one who has this state. This also applies to onewhose intellect has vanished due to marijuana (banj), as is held by the

3 Rashid al-Din Vatvat (d. c. 573/1177) also cites this line without giving its author, inhis al-Haqd'iqal-sihrfidaqa'iq al-shi'r,Tehran, 1308/1930, p. 18. He gives it as an exampleof a line beginning and ending with the same word bearing the same meaning.3 Concerning Ibn Taimiya's views on samd'()ee: his, Su'dl 'an sama'al-sdlihfn, in Majmii'fatawa, 10:587-603, and other recorded opinions in this volume10:603-606.



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228 TH. E. HOMERIN [10]followersof al-Shafi'iandAhmad ibnHanbal].Again,there s said to bea differencebetween it [marijuana] nd wine, because this [wine]isaddictingand this[marijuana]s not. Therefore,he fixedpenalty hadd)is incumbent n this [wine]but not in this [marijuana]. his is textuallyrelatedfromAhmad [ibnHanbal]and the schoolof AbuiHanifa.Amongthem[the ntoxicated rannihilated],s he whoma suddenandstrong seizure(wdrid) overpowers-whetherdue to a humor whichprevails n him, orsomething lse-such that hebecomespossessed.Andamongthemare the intelligentones of the possessedwho are numberedamong the ascetics and are, at times, called ?the despondentones?)(muwalahdin).Oneof the 'ulama'said aboutthem, ?Theyare a grouptowhom God gave their intellectsand states. Then He plundered heirintellectsand removed their]religiousobligationsbecauseof what Heplundered3?.So these are the states to which are linkedunconsciousness, eath,possession, ntoxication,andannihilation-such that one hasno feelingof oneself-and so forth.If theircausesare lawful and theirpossessortruthful,unable o repel hem,then he is praised or whatgoodthingshedoes and the faithhe achieves,beingexcused or whathe is too weaktodo and forwhathas befallenhimwithouthis choice.Theyarebetter hanthosewho did not arriveat theirstation dueto deficiencyn theirfaith,or thehardness f theheartsor similar auseswhich nclude he omissionof what God loves or the doing of what God loathes. But those whoretain heirreason, n spite of thefact thatthey acquiredrom faith thatwhichothersacquired,or similar o it or moreperfect, hey[the former]are more excellentthan they [the latter]are. This is the state of theCompanions-may God be satisfiedwith them-and the state of ourProphet- God blesshimandgivehimpeace.For hewasmade to travelby night into the heaven,and God revealed o him whatHe revealed.Yet, he awokeas he hadspentthenight; his statedid not change.Thus,

13 his state is moreexcellent hanthat of Moses God blesshim and givehim peace-who fell swooning(Q. 7:143) when his Lord manifestedHimself to the mountain. Moses' state is a splendid,exalted, andexcellentstate, but the state of Muhammad-God bless him and givehimpeace is moresplendid,exalted,andexcellent36.

I The Rida ed. (p. 11)reads: wa-'asqat'abwdlahumwa-'abqdmafarada lammasalaba,i.e. ?and He toppled their states and made permanent what He decreed when Heplundered >>.36 The state of the Companions is Ibn Taimiya's thirdrank. Concerningthe importanceof Muhammad's state vis-a-vis that of Moses see the commentary below.



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[ 1] IBN TAIMIYA 229The point is that thesematters,which containan excessin worshipandstates, ssuedfrom Basradue to an intense ear[of God].Certainly,

what s mentionedwithrespect o the fear[of God] possessedby 'Utabaal-Ghulam and 'Ata al-SulaimP7and the like, is somethingextra-ordinary,and there is no doubt that their state is more perfectandexcellent han one who does not havewhat was grantedand bestoweduponthemwithrespect o the fearof God. But hewho fearsGodwithamoderate muqtasid)ear,beingcalledby it to do what God loves andavoid what God loathes, withoet this excessiveness,his state is moreperfectand excellent han theirs, beingthe state of the Companions-may God be satisfiedwiththem.It is related hat'Ataal-Sulaimi-may God be satisfiedwith him-wasseen[ina dream]afterhisdeath,and he wasasked,?Whathas Goddonewithyou??)He said,?lHe aidto me, 'O'Ata!Aren'tyouashamedbeforeMe thatyou were afraidof Meto thisextent?Didn'tit reachyou thatIam readyto pardon,merciful?'? n like fashion is what is told aboutthose like them[the Basrans] oncerning he statesof asceticism,piety,worship,and similar hings, ransmitting, t times,matterswhichdue to[their] xcessbeyond he state of theCompanions mayGodbesatisfiedwith them-and beyond what the Messengerestablishedas custom,necessitate hat people takesides: one party censuresand refutes hem14 [theexcessiveones],and at timesthey haveoverdone t, and one partygoesto extremesabout themand deemsthis path to be amongthe mostperfectand exaltedof paths.

The truth is that they [Basrans]formulated their own opinions(mujtahidz7n)n these acts of worship,just as theirneighborsamongthe Kufans formulated their own opinions on matters of judicialdecision,political authority imara)and similar things.Ra'y (personaljudgement),which containswhat is reprehensibleo the generalpublicdue to deviation from the Sunna, emergedamongthem [Kiifans].Theeliteamongthe legistsandthose with ra'y are dividedconcerning hoseKiifans [as well]: one party censures them, and the are excessive intheircensure,and one partyexaggerates heirmagnificance, nd deems

3 'Utabah al-Ghulam (d. 2nd/8th century) a student of al-Hasan al-Basri and one ofthe early ascetics, is said to have performed miracles; he was also known for his fear ofGod and patience. See, al-Sarraj,Lumd',Nicholson's ed., p. 322; AbulNuWaim,:226-238;al-Hujwlri,p. 180, and'Attar, pp. 62-63. 'Atdal-Sulaimiwas a contemporary of the famousSifi Ibrahim ibn Adhom (d. 165/782). Statements attributed to him point to a preoccupa-tion and obsession with the fear of God and hell-fire. See: al-Sarraj,p. 322; Abu Nu'aim,6:215-226, and'Attar, pp. 96-97.



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230 TH. E. HOMERIN [12]them to be more learned n jurisprudencehanany others.Sometimes,they prefer them over the Companions, just as the ?extremists?)(al-ghulat)concerningthose worshippers,at times prefer them overthe Companions.This is a domain n which the peoplearedivided.That which is proper or a Muslimto know is that the bestspeech sthe speechof God, the best guidance s the geidanceof Muhammad-may God blesshim andgranthimpeace-the best of generationswas thegenerationn whichhe gas raised,and that the most excellentof pathsandroadsto Godis the onewhichheandhiscompanionsollowed.Oneknows,therefore,hatit is incumbentuponbelievershattheyfearGod(yattaqu) commensuratewith their individualdiligenteffort (ijtihMd)and ability (wus'),as God He is most high-has said, ?Fear God asmuch as you can?) Q. 69:16). He [Muhammad]-mayGod bless him15 and givehimpeace-has said,?WhenI give you an orderaccomplish smuch of it as you can38.? He has said,


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[13] IBN TAIMIYA 231Many people, if they discern in a man what they love, they love himabsolutely and ignore his faults. But if they discern in him what they hate,they hate him absolutely and ignore his merits, [abandoning]39 theprotection and state of one who speaks with circumspection. This isamong the doctrines of the innovators, the Kharajites, the Mu'tazilah,and the Murji'ah.

The people of the Sunnaand community assert what the Book, Sunna,and consensus point to, namely that the believer deserves-thanks toGod's promise and His grace-reward for his good deals and punish-ment for his misdeeds. Although there is only the single individual, thereis gathered in him what is rewarded and what is punished, what ispraiseworthy and what is worthy of blame, what is loved and what ishated. And so that's that.

One knows then, that Stufism'splace of origin was Basra, and thatthere were there those who trod the path of worship and asceticism thatthey used independent reasoning(ijtihad)in it, just as there werein Kuifathose who trod the path of jurisprudenceand religious knowledge, usingindependent judgement in it. Yhey [the Basrans] were linked to theoutward manner of dress, it being a wool garment, so that it was said ofone of them, .But their path is not restricted to the woolgarment; they did not require it nor did they make the whole affairdependent on it. Rather, they were [only] referred to by it because it was[their] outward state.

Moreover, in their opinion, Stufismhas truths(haqa'iq) and recognizedstates; they have spoken of its ordinances (hudu7d),ts ways of life andmorals. Like the saying of one of them, .


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232 TH. E. HOMERIN [14]they [the ascetics]strivediligently ijtahadii). He is the righteousmanof the path, just as it is said, ?the righteousones of the 'ulam?'>>nd?the righteousones of the amirs>>. ence,he is morespecificthan theabsolutelyrighteousand one below the perfectlyrighteousone [i.e.]the righteousones among the Companions, he Successorsand theirSuccessors.So, when it is said about those ascetics and worshippersamongthe Basrans hat theyarerighteous,t is as whenit is saidabouttheimamsofjurisprudencemongtheinhabitants f Kiifa,thattheyarealso righteous, achaccordingo thepathuponwhichhe travels,duetothe obedience o God andhis apostle,commensurate ithhis individualdiligenteffort.Theycanbe amongthemostoutstanding f therighteouswithrespect o theirtime,andso amongthemostperfectly ighteousoftheir time. However,the righteousone in the firstgeneration s moreperfect hanthey are.Therigteousare in ranksandtypes.Thus, thereexists for each one ofthema typeof stateanddevotionalactappropriateorhimandwhichhemastersand is supreme n, althoughthereare otherswith othertypes,who arebetterand more excellent hanhe is.Becauseof theindependenteasoningandits controversy,whichhavetakenplaceamongmost of them[theSifis], peoplehavebeenatvarianceconcerningheir[theSufis']path.Thus, one sidecensured he Sifis and

18 Siufism, nd said that they wereinnovatorsand outside of the Sunna.Well-knowntatements n this[issue]have beenrelated rom a groupofthe imams,andgroupsof legistsandtheologianshavefollowedtheminthat. Anothergroupwent to extremesconcerning hem[theSiffis] andclaimed hattheywere hebestof mankindand themostperfectafter heprophets.Both sides in this matterareblameworthy.What is correctis that they [the Siifis] exercisetheir independentjudgment n obedience o God just as otherswho are obedientto Godhavealso done.Amongthem is the foremost al-sabiq)who drawsnear[to God] on the basis of this diligenteffort, and among them is themoderatewhobelongsto the?Peopleof the RightHand>>.mongbothclasses s one whomaystrivediligentlybuterr,andsome whosin,repentandothersdo not. And amongthoseclaimingaffiliationwiththem,arethosewho areunjustto themselves, ebellingagainsttheirLord.Sectsof innovatorsandzindiqs40 aveclaimedaffiliationwiththem,

40 Ibn Taimiya uses the term zindTqo brand a person whose profession of Islam seemsto lack sufficient sincerity and whose >nsults the custom of theprophet Muhammad. See, Louis Massignon in El1.1, 4:1228-1229, and G. Vajda, ?LesZindiqen pays d'Islam audebutde la periodeabbaside?>,Revistadegli Studi Orientali, 1937.



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[15] IBN TAIMIYA 233but in the opinion of the genuine Sutfis, they do not belong. [Take]al-Hallaj4> for example. Most of the shaikhs of the path refused to haveanything to do with him and expelled him from the path, as did al-Junaidibn Muhammad, the master of the sect, and others as shaykh AbuiAbdal-Rahman al-Sulami mentions in the Tabaqatal-S iflyah42,and al-HafizAbuiBakr al-Khatib in the TarikhBaghdad43.

This, then, is the origin of Sifism. Then it branched out after that anddiversified; the Suifis came to be of three types: oSiufis of the TrueRealities>>(al-haqd'iq), ?Funded Sifis>> (al-arzdq)44 and ?Stifis ofConvention>>al-rasm).As for the ,hey arethose who we have described. As for the ?Funded Sutfis>>,hey are thoseto whom religious endowments, like khanqahs,were bequeathed. But it isnot necessary for them to be among the people of true realities, for this isa rare thing, most of the people of true realities not being characterizedby the need for khanqahs45.Rather, three things are incumbent uponthem [this second class]. One of them is lawful, proper conduct so as tocarry out the religious requirements (al-fard'id) and abstain from theforbidden. The second is civility (al-ta'dib) by means of the Sifi rules ofconduct (al-addb)which are generally lawful rules. As for the innovated,conventional rules, one should not pay attention to them. The third[requisite] s that none of them be attached to the dross of this world. So,as for him who hordes wealth or is not endowed with praiseworthyvirtues, and who is unrefined in the legal rules of conduct, or a sinner, heis not entitled to that [privilege of being among these Sufis].

As for the hey are restricted to the name20 (al-nisbah), and so theirconcern is with the dress, the conventional rulesof conduct, and such like. Hence, among the Siufis,they have the statusof one restricted to the attire of the people of learning and those of jihad,and to a certain portion of their sayings and acts, in such a way that theignorant supposes that the truth of the matter is that he belongs to them[the learned], though he does not.

41 al-Husain ibn MansOr al-Hallaj was executed in 309/922 for heresy. For anexhaustivebibliographysee Ch. 15 of Louis Massignon, La Passion de HusaynIbn MansuirHallaj, (Paris, 1975).42 al-Sulami, p. 308.43 al-Khatib al-Baghdid1, 8:112-113ff.44 i.e. those Sufis supported by endowments.4 The Rida edition (p. 24) gives an alternate reading: wa-akbar- ahl- al-haqd'iq layatasaddunabi-lawdzim-al-khawaniq,i.e. >.



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234 TH. E. HOMERIN [16]As for the namefaqir (?poor man?),?mendicant?>),t is found in theBook of God and the Sunna of God's messenger-may God bless him

and give him peace but what is designated by it in the Book and theSunnais the poor as opposed to the wealthy man. As the Prophet-mayGod bless him and give him peace-has said46, ?The Poor and povertyare of [different] types; because of it [poverty] taking alms (zakat) isjustified. Its opposite is wealth which prohibits and forbids the taking ofalms>>.ust as the Prophet-may God bless him.and give him peace- hassaid, ?Alms are not lawful to a wealthy man nor to him capable ofearning.>47The wealth which necessitates the giving of alms is different from this[the property which allows taking alms] in the opinion of the greatmajority of 'ulama'-as with Malik48, al-Shafi'l, and Ahmad [ibnHanbal]-it being the possession of the minimum amount of propertyliable to alms. It is their opinion, contrary to that of AbtuHanifa49, thatgiving alms is sometimes incumbent upon a man, but [under certainconditions] taking alms is also permitted him.God-may He be praised-has mentioned the poor in [a number oflpassages, but God has mentioned the poor deserving alms in one verseand those deservingbooty in [another] verse. Concerning the first He hassaid,

If you make public your alms, then it is a benefit; but if you conceal them and givethem to the poor (fuqard') then that is better for you ... [to His saying] ... to the poor21 emigres (muhajiriin)who are beleaguered for the sake of God, unable to travel on theEarth, the ignorant consider them prosperous because of [their]abstinence. You willrecognize them by their expression; they do not ask people [for alms] withimportunity. (Q. 2:271-273)

And He said concerning the second,That which God gives as booty to His Prophet, from the inhabitants of the towns,... [to His saying] ... [and] to the poor (fuqara'), the emigres who were deprived oftheir homes and property, who seek God's bounty and favor from God, while theygive assistance to God and His messenger; these are the righteous ones.

(Q. 59:7-8)At times, there is among the poor one who is more virtuous than thebest of a great many rich people, and at times, there is among the rich46 This statement is not found in the major hadithcollections.4 This hadfthis found in the Musnad of AbiuDaud, >,# 25.48 Malik ibn Anas (179/795) was the founder of the Maliki school of jurisprudenceandauthor of the earliest surviving Muslim law book. See, J. Schacht, in E.', 3:205-209.49 Abui Hanifa (d. 150/767) was a theologian and legal expert, providing the founda-tions for the later Hanifi school of jurisprudence. See, J. Schacht in E.1.2, 1:123-214.



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[17] IBN TAIMIYA 235one who is more virtuousthan the best of a greatmanyof them [thepoor]. People have differedconcerningwho is better,the patientpoormanorthethankful, ichone. The truth s that the betterof the two is themoreGod-fearingone, andif theyareequalin theirpiety (taqwd), hentheyare equalin rank,as we haveclearlyexplainedn anotherplace50.Certainly, he poor will precedethe rich into paradisewithoutbeingjudged,thenthe richwillbe called to account.But,he whosemeritsareweightier han those of a.poorman,his rank n paradisewillbe higher,althoughhe followed him whenentering;he whose meritsareless thanhis [the poor man's]his rank will be lower.However,since the genre >as predominant mong thepoor, faqr (?poverty>>)ame to be, in the usage of many people, anexpression or thepathof asceticism,which s of thegenresuifism. hus,if it is said, ?There s poverty n this one>>,r?There s no poverty n thisone>>,t does notmean ack of wealth.Rather, t meanswhat s meantby22 the term sz7fi,namelytypes of gnosis, states,moral qualities,rulesofconduct, and similar hings.

People have disputedthis usage; which is better, the faqTror theSufif?One side held to the preferability f the Sufif,as did Abti Hafsal-Suhraward7i5Ind those likehim,andone sideheldto thepreferabilityof the faqTr,as did numerous groups. Sometimesthese [faqTrs]reattached o retreatszawTyds)nd these[$Sffs]o monasterieskhMnqdhs)and similar hings 2. Themajorityof peoplegivepreferenceo the aqar.The truth is that the more preferableof the two is the most God-fearingone and so, if the Stuffs moreGod-fearinghe is the betterone,beingmoreactivein doingwhat God loves andmore abstentious romwhatHe doesnot love.Thus,he is better hanthe aqYr.But, if thefaqTrsmoreactivein doing whatGod loves and moreabstentious rom whatHedoes notlove,then heisbetter.However,f thetwo areequal n doing

50 See Ibn Taimiya's, Fasl kathr tandzu'al-nds, ayyumdafdal: al-faqfr al-sabir aw-al-ghanTal-shdkir? (?People have varied a great deal concerning which is better: a patientpoor man or a thankful rich one??), in Majmuaatdwa, 11:122-133.51 The Majmirfatdwd edition (p. 22) reads Aba JaTfaral-Suhrawardi,while the Ridaversion (p. 25) gives the more desirablereadingof Abi Hafs al-Suhrawardi,referringto thefamous Sifi who died in 632/1234 and author of the very popular Awdrifal-ma'arif. See,Schimmel, pp. 244-245.

52 This seems to be the meaning of this sentence. Ibn Taimiya has already referred toSiifi khdnqdhs; see above: Laoust and others have pointed out that khdnqdhs usuallyhoused Sufis while zdwiyas generally were the residences of ascetics (fuqard'). However,Laoust cites this statement in al-Sufiyah wa-l-fuqard' as evidence of Ibn Taimiya'sambiguity regarding these terms. See: Laoust, Essai, p. 22 and n. 2, p. 22.



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236 TH. E. HOMERIN [18]the desirable, and abstaining from the undesirable,then they are equal inrank.

The ?friends?) awliyd') of God are the pious believers, whether calledfaqTr,$Sifi,legist, scholar, merchant, soldier, artisan, amir, governor, orsomething else. God-He is most high-has said,The friends (awlih'd') of God! There is no fear over them, and they do not grieve.They are those who believe and are God-fearing. (Q. 10:62-63)

In the Sahih of al-Bukhari [it is related] by Abfi Hurairah that theProphet-may God bless him and give him peace-said,

God-He is most high has said, , nd those brought near-? the foremost>>.Thefirst category is those who have drawn near to God by means of therequired religious duties, while the second category is those who havedrawn near to Him by supererogatoryacts after the required ones, beingthose ?who continue to dragnear to Him by supererogatoryacts entil Heloves them>>, s God He is most High-has said. God has mentionedthese two categories in more than one passage of His Book, as He hassaid,

Then We gave the Book as an inheritance to those ghom We chose from amongOur servants. And among them is he who wrongs himself, the moderate one, and theforemost one in good deeds ... (Q. 35:32)And as God-He is most high-has said,

Certainly the righteous are in felicity, on couches, gazing. You will recognize thesplendor of felicity in their faces. They are given pure gine, sealed, to drink; its seal ismusk-and in that let the contenders contend-its blend is from Tasnim, aspringfrom which the near ones drink. (Q. 83:22-28)

53al-Bukhari, 81:38:2. For an analysis of this well-known hadith see, William A.Graham, Divine Wordand Prophetic Wordin Early Islam, Paris, 1977, pp. 173-174.



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[19] IBN TAIMIYA 237Ibn'Abbass4has said,

24 The near ones drink from it [the wine], it being pure, while it is mixed, a blend, forthe Companions of the Right Hand.He He is mosthigh-has said,

There [in Paradise]they are given a cup to drink; its blend is from Zanjabfl.Thereis a spring there called SalsabTI. (Q. 76:17-18)And He-He is most high has said,

And the Companions of the Right Hand; what are the Companions of the RightHand? And the Companions of the Left Hand; what are the Companions of dhe LeftHand: And the Foremost; the Foremost are those brought near. (Q. 56:8-11)And He-He is most high has said,09n But if he is among those brought near, then [he receives at judgment] a breath of life,sweet basil and a garden of felicity. But if he is among the Companions of the RightHand, then [he receives] 'Peace be upon you', from the Companions of the RightHand. (Q. 56:88-91)

Thisis the reply,containing entences n need of an extensivedetailedexpositionwhichthis occasionwas not sufficient or. God knowsbest.Ibn Taimiya's Silfism and al-.Sufyah wa-l-fuqara'

It is clear from al-Sufiyahwa-l-fuqara' nd other works, that IbnTaimlya appreciatedcertain spiritualdimensionsof Islam and theirimportance o Muslimsociety.He believedthat a moral-ethicalmysti-cism could providea stronglydisciplined nterior ife by condemningegoism,pride,andhypocrisy, ndby promoting incerity ndpatience5 .Siufism's


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238 TH. E. HOMERIN [20]affirmation of the love of God is well-known in the speech of their early and theirrecentmasters, just as it is affirmedin the Book and the sunnaand in agreementof thesalaf57 .

However,in al-Suifyahwa-l-fuqard',bn Taimiyais not concernedwith these psychologicalelements; instead, he attempts to outlineS-ufism'sriginsand discussthe behaviorof its practitionerswithintheframework f his ownideas and beliefswhichhe presentsn thisepistle.He implies hat the termst7fiwas usedbeginningn the secondor thirdcenturyA.H., and following an inquiry into the derivationof theadjective,he states that the first to wearthe wool garmentdistinctiveto the Stfifs, were the Basrans.These Muslimswereexcessive n theirworshipof God, but although hey exceeded he boundsof moderationset by the Qur'dn and the Sunna of Muhammad, they were morecommendablethan those who lacked their apprehensionof God'slivingpresence.Suchexcessiveness,however,did not occuramongtheProphet'scompanions, some of whom criticized t as affectationorinnovation.Throughout hiswork, IbnTaimiyaapplies heconductandcustomof Muhammad nd hiscompanions,hesalaf(),s acriterion ojudgelaterpractice,whichhebelievedhaddeclinedn moralpuritywith eachpassinggeneration.He consideredMuhammad ndhiscompanions o be thebest of mankind,holding hehighestrank n pietyand morality; the righteouspeople of their generationwere morerighteousthan any others. However, Ibn Taimiyadid not view theinevitabledeclineas primarilyan opportunity or Satanto successfullydeludeMuslims,as his Hanbalipredecessorbnal-Jauzihadasserted58Rather, the decline was a cause for the interiorweakening of theindividualandso, might ead to swooningand otherexcessivebehavior.Yet, this did not diminishIbn Taimlya'srespectfor the pious of latergenerationsor of his contemporaries, nd he often expresseda realadmiration or a numberof Sfifishaikhs,suchas Ma'riuf l-Karkhi,al-Junaid, and Abui Hafs al-Suhrawardi,whose opinions he quoted.Nevertheless,due to their distance in time from the Prophet and hiscompanions, heyweremoreliable to excessanderrorand so maynotserveas a surestandard or properconduct59.

5 Ibn Taimiya, al-Ihtijaf bi-l-qadar, Cairo: al-Matba'at al-Salaflya, 1974, p. 38.Translation by Michel, ibid., pp. 11-12, n. 24.58 Ibn al-Jawzi, TalbFsblTs,Cairo, 1928, p. 158.Also see Joseph N. Bell, Love Theory nLater Hanbalite Islam, Albany, New York, 1979, pp. 42-46.59 See: Michel,


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[21] IBN TAIMIYA 239Ibn Taimlya's insistence on the pristine state of the salaf waspredicated ponthisuseof theirexample,as well as that of Muhammad,

togetherwith the teachingof the Qur'an, as the infallibleauthoritiesfor true belief and right action. Therefore,when giving examplesofswooningduringauditionof the Qur>an, bn Taimlyarefersto Zuraraibn Awfa as qddiof Baghdd6d, a third or fourthgenerationMuslim,and not to Zurarah bn Awfa6l, a companionof Muhammadaboutwhom the same story is told62.In fact, al-Sarraj ites this story, alongwithothers, n his Luma', as a clearproof that ecstaticstates,resultingeven in death, occurredamong the Companions63,somethingIbnTaimlyaexplicitlydenies.Thepointof contention ies intheirperceptionof religiousexperience. bnTainYiya uotesthe Qur'anto giveaccountsof the states said to belongto thesalaf, thusasserting heirvalidityandexcellence.But otherpsychological ndmystical tatesnot mentionedntheQur'anhe findsambiguous,iableto an interpretationgainstIslam,and due to the loss of consciousnessn them, renderingan individualsusceptibleo demonicpossessionor psychologicaldelusions64.Legallyforbidden causes such as the intentional audition of voices andmelodies65,and the imbibingof wine or hashish66,could also inducesimilarstates of unconsciousness,whethercalledintoxication,passingaway(fana') or something lse, leading o offensivedetestablebehavior,and thisadded o IbnTaimiya'suneasinesswith thesestates.Contrary oal-Sarraj nd al-Hujwiriwho acceptedmomentsof unconsciousness recstasyas occurring o the pious of every age and as manifestations fGod'sgrace,IbnTaimiya udgedthem to be afflictionswhichfrequentlybefall a persontoo weak to bearthem and an obstacle o a correct aithwhichdemandsconsciousnessand reason67.The only acceptableand'

60 See n. 10 to the epistle.61 Ibn 'Abd al-Barrin his Isti'abfi ma'arifat al-ashdb,Cairo, 196-, p. 517 lists Zuraraibn Awfa (in the margin Zurara ibn Abi Awfr) as a companion who died during thecaliphate of 'Uthman (25-35/644-654).62 al-Sarraj, Luma', ed. Nicholson, London, 1963, p. 139, and al-Hujwiri The Kashfal-Ma.hjub, r. Nicholson, p. 396, who gives the name as Zurara ibn Abi Awfra.6 3 Ibid.64 Michel, Ibn Taymiyya'sal-Jawdbal-Sah.h, 1:125-126; 130-133.65 Concerning Ibn Taimiya's attitude toward ?audition>>sama') see his works referredto in n. 72 of the text, and also, Laoust, Essai, p. 248.66 Ibn Taimlya seems to gave held hashish to be more pernicious than wine and its use,therefore, deserving a more severe punishment. However, as this epistle shows, there weredifferent opinions on this matter. See Laoust, Essai, p. 376.67 Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziya elaborates Ibn Taimiya's views of fand', in his Taraqal-hijratainwa-bdbal-sa'ddatain,Cairo, 1358/1939, pp. 334-335 and his Maddrijal-sdlikmn,Rida ed., Cairo, 1131-33/1912-15, 1:84. See Bell, pp. 171-181and especially 173-174.



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240 TH. E. HOMERIN [22]for Ibn Taimlya then, was one which correspondedo the ?stations>>(maqdmat), not states, of fand' and baqd discussed by al-Sarraj 8, al-Kaldbddhi69, l-Qushiyri70,ndotherswho spokeof the passingawayof man'swilland love forall otherthanGod, and hisabidingn the loveof God and His will. This was not a loss of consciousnessor a passiveacceptance f whateverhappens n theworld,but an activeobedience oGod'swill as manifest n the Qur'dn nd the Sunnaof Muhammad ndthe salaf.TheQur'an nd the Sunnabecame he touchstone ortesting hemoralqualitiesof any state, and Ibn Taimlyafrequently eferred o theminal-Sfiyah wa-al-fuqara'o supporthis arguments,as in his defenseofthe superiorityof the conscious,obedient servant over a personwhohad swooned. On this issue,he contrastsMuhammad's ncounterwithrelevationto that of Moses; when God appearedto the mountain,Moses swooned (Q. 7:143), while Muhammad remainedconsciousduringhisnight ourney,hisnormalstateunchanged Q. 53:5-18).SinceMuhammadwas the best of all prophets,his state must have beensuperior o Moses swooning, houghIbn Taimiyaaddsthat this, too, wasa noblestate 1. al-Junaidd. 298/911)had earlieruxtaposed he state ofMoses with that of Muhammadbut withoutcomparisonor appraisal;both states represented he station in whichgnosis-too vast for anyspace, nappropriateorany words-was revealedo theelect mysticsofGod72. This and othersurvivingwritingsof al-Junaid learlyshow hisconcernwiththe mysticalexperience ndits nature,and his attempts oexpressand communicate t to others, to refinethe Stfifs' exicon and

68 al-Sarraj,Luma', pp. 213-214; 225; 341; 347; 388; 427; 433, and R. A. Nicholson,>, ournalof the Royal Asiatic Society, 1913, pp. 55-68.69 al-Kaldbddhi, Doctrine of The Suifts, Tr. A. J. Arberry, Cambridge, England, 1975,pp. 120-132.70 al-Qushairi, Risdla, ed. 'Abd al-Halim Mahmiud and Muhammad ibn al-Sharif,Cairo, no date, 1:228-231.71 Bell, pp. 175-176, discusses Ibn Qayyim's usage of the same proof in his TarTq(pp. 418-19), showing that Ibn Qayyim would not accept the state of unconsciousness orbewilderment as a justifiable mystical state. Further, Bell shows that Ibn Qayyim in hisMaddrij(3:50) attempts to avoid the use of Moses' state as an example, claiming that it wasnot the revelation but the disintegrating mountain which caused Moses to swoon. IbnTaimlya seems to have been more open minded on this point.72 al-Junaid, Kitdbdawd' al-arwdh(?


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[23] IBN TAIMIYA 241therebydeepen heirunderstandingf theexperience nd itsprogression.Rather than polemical or defensivein tone, al-Junaid's etters andepistlesareexperimental nd suggestive.However,Ibn Taimlya'scomparisonof Muhammad'sand Moses'statesand, in fact, the entireal-ufiyah wa-l-fuqara',s characterizedby the need to demarcate he limits of bonafidemysticalexperiences,to codifythose states which could be useful for an activereligious ifein society, avoiding, indeed opposing, the fatalistic and antinomianproclivities cceptedor fosteredby the monistdoctrinesof Ibn al-Arabli(d. 638/1240)and others.This shift in emphasiswas derived n partfrom the changingsocio-historical onditions whichhad resulted n aprevailing nterest n the reformof the Muslimcommunityand of theIslamicsocial order,and Ibn Taimlyaand other reformers,ike IbnQayyimal-Jawziya 691-751/1292-1350)nd Shah WallAllah of Delhi(1113-1176/1702-62),lungto thisastheiressentialgoal and mosturgentneed73 This conscious desire to returnto the pristine Islam of theancestors,andtheinterpretationf Sifism withinthisreformist ontext,separateIbn Taimiyaand latermystically nclinedreformersrom theearly Sufis whose main task was the articulationof the mysticalexperience ndthe individual'smoralandphysiologicalwell-being. bnTaimlya s a partof theSiifi traditionn the sense hathe believedSifismto be the followingof the way of the salafandearly$Sfis 4. Butif IbnTaimlyaand the Hanbalischool preserved hemoral-ethical piritof theearlySuifis,heirpointof viewand emphasiswasquitedifferent,and theterm


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242 TH. E. HOMERIN [24]Ibn Taimiyadid not believethateveryparticular f an individual'sifewascoveredby the Qur'dn ndSunna,andso therewas a needat timesto discover the Divine command. In such situations, Ibn Taimlyarecommended he use of ijtihdd(?individual reasoning>>,diligenteffort>>)o determine he actionconformingmost to God's will. One'sdecision could be based on ilham(?inspiration>?)r dhawq ?spiritualintuition>>)hichmay be stronger han other availablemeanssuch asweak analogies or weak hadiths 7.

If the sdlik has creativelyemployed his efforts to the externalshar'Tndications andsees no clear probability concerning the preferable action, he may feel inspired-along with his goodness of intention and reverent fearof God-to choose one of twoactions as superior(to the other). This kind of inspiration is an indication concerningthe truth. It may be even a stronger indication than weak analogies, weak hadiths,weak literal arguments (zawdhir), and weak istishabs which are employed by manyof those who delve into the principles, differences, and systematizing of fiqh.

The person who strivesdiligently o discoverand implementGod'swill, doing supererogatorycts and succeeding,he iv amongthe Fore-most (al-sdbiq) f God'screation,while the ?Companionsof the RightHand?(ashabal-yamTn)re thosewho, withmoderation, recontenttoactively ulfilltheestablished equirements8. Someerrorwasinevitable,and this has led to divergenceanddisputeconcerning$fifsm's essenceandpractice. bnTaimlyadeclared hatif the Sifi's errorresulted romasincereeffortto ascertain orrectbehavior,he would be pardoned,andheshouldrectify t by recourse o theQur'an ndSunna. f, however, heerrorderivedfrom an individual'sbelief that he had been grantedarevelationwhichannulled heoldorallowed or its suspension,henthatpersonand his transgressionwereclearlycondemned.al-HallaJ ndthezindiqrepresentedor Ibn Taimiya,examplesof suchself-delusion ndpossession,unitingthe most heinousaspectsof unregulatedndividualexperienceandjudgment,with the rejectionof both the doctrinesandlegalcommandsof the prophets79.bnTaimiyawas quickto pointoutthatthereputable iifi haikhshadalwayscondemned uchbehavior,andhe elaboratedon this in anotherwork80:

Michel, ,p. 128. For a discussion of Ibn Taimiya's conception and use of ijtihad see:Laoust, Essai, pp. 226-230.78 Also see: Ibn Taimiya, Sharh kalimat li->Abdl-Qddir, in Majmi' fatdwd, 10:470.' Michel, Ibn Taymiyya's al-Jawab al-Sahih, 1:95-96; 141-145. Also see: Rahman,Islam, pp. 132-133.80 Ibn Taimlya, Sharhkalimdtli-4Abdl-Qddir, in Majmii'fataw&,10:516-517. Michel'stranslation in o


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[25] IBN TAIMIYA 243The upright among the followers of the Path like the majority of the early

shay'khs shuyuikh l-salaf), such as Fudayl ibn 'Iyacd, brdhim ibn Adham, Ma'ariifal-Karkh1, al-Sari al-Saqati, al-Junayd ibn Muhammad and others of the earlyteachers, as well as Shaykh'Abd al-Qadir, Shaykh Hammad, Shaykh Abii'l-Bayanand others of the later masters do not permit the followers of the Path to departfrom the divinely legislated command and prohibition, even were that person to haveflown in the air or walked on water. He must do what is commanded and avoid whatis forbidden until he die. This is the Truth which the Book and sunnahave indicated.

Clearly, then, Ibn Taimiya did not consider mystical experience to bean end in itself; it was redeemable only insofar as it deepened theindividual's knowledge of God's will and its realization in the socialorder8". Against this standard, Ibn Taimiya ranks the Stifis in threegroups; those who have utilized their mystical experiencesand individualreasoning to the greatest extent in obedience to God are the suifiyat al-haqa'iq). Lesser Stfifs concern themselvesprimarily with proper conduct and the fulfillment of the religiousrequirements, the cultivation of civility, and detachment from theworld's refinements.These Stifis of lower status were by far the majority,and they frequently resided in khdnqdhs, hence the name su7fiyat l-arzaq). The third category are the imitators andcharlatans who were Stufis n name and dress only, and he called themsuftyatal-rasm).In the last portion of al-.Sifiyah wa-l-fuqard' Ibn Taimiya turnsbriefly to a discussion of poverty and the poor. He states that the termfaqr (?poverty>>)no longer meant a lack of wealth, but had become asynonym for Stufismdue to the asceticism which had long been a part ofSufifsmand a major root of its origin. Previously, however, the term hadreferred to material need as the Qur'anclearly shows. Ibn Taimiya thenconcludes this epistle and summarizes these thoughts by addressing thequestion: Who is more virtuous, the mendicant (faqhr)or the Sufif?Hisanswer is the same as that given to the earlier question of preferencebetween a patient poor man or a thankful rich one; the most excellentis the one with the most taqwa and so, more active in carrying outGod's commands and obeying His prohibitions. The word taqwdoftentranslated by the term ?piety>> r ?fear of God>>,means to be consciousof the fact that whereas man acts, the limits not to be transgressedby hisactions and the standard of their judgement, belong to God82. These

81 Fazlur Rahman, Prophecyin Islam,p. 101.Also see: Bell, pp. 86-87, 178; and Michel,Ibn Tavmiyya s al-Jawab al-Sah7h,1: 136-141.82 Fazlur Rahman, Major Themesof the Qur'dn,Chicago: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1980,p. 29.



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244 TH. E. HOMERIN [26]guidelines, bn Taimiyabelieved,wereset down in the Qur'anand theSunna.

Wealth or lack of it83, mystical states or their absence,becomeof secondary importance n determininga truly religious man; the((friends?)awliyd')of God-a title frequentlybestowedon Siffis >, . 5.

ibn taimīya's al-Ṣūfīyah wa-al-fuqarā

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