i strength, durability and microstructural...
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i
STRENGTH, DURABILITY AND MICROSTRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF
CONCRETE INCORPORATING WASTE CARPET FIBRE AND
PALM OIL FUEL ASH
HOSSEIN MOHAMMADHOSSEINI
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy (Civil Engineering)
Faculty of Civil Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
MAY 2017
iii
To my lovely parents
Late Haj Mohammadmorad and Hajiyah Nabat
And
My beloved family
Specially my brother Reza, without him none of my successes would be possible
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost I wish to glorify almighty Allah the most gracious the most
merciful for his sustenance, and I wish to express my sincere and profound gratitude
to my main thesis supervisor, Associate Professor Dr. Jamaludin Mohamad Yatim for
his continuing assistance, the encouragement, guidance, critics and understanding
throughout my studies. I do not have enough words to express my thanks to my
supervisor but I pray Allah will continue to give him the strength, wisdom, guidance
and reward him the best of both worlds. Ameen.
I am also very grateful to Associate Professor Dr. A.S.M. Abdul Awal as my
previous supervisor for his support and guidance at the beginning of my study.
The author is greatly indebted to Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for giving me
the opportunity to pursue Ph.D., most especially; School of Graduate Studies (SPS),
Faculty of Civil Engineering (FKA), Department of Structure and Materials for the
support and facilities provided to carry out the experimental work. Deep thanks are
also due to all technical staff in the laboratory of Structure and Materials for their
valuable input and assistance during the research program. Special thanks also go to
the managing director of ENTEX CARPET INDUSTRIES SDN. BHD., Mr. Henry
Yee for providing the waste carpet fibbers to make this research possible.
v
ABSTRACT
Fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) is a conventional concrete mix that contains
cement, coarse and fine aggregates and a dispersion of discontinuous short fibres that
are randomly distributed in the fresh concrete mix. The fibres improve the ductility,
energy absorption and tensile and flexural strengths of concrete mixture. With the
increasing amount of waste generation from various processes, there has been a
growing interest in the utilization of waste in producing building materials to achieve
potential benefits. In the construction industry, the idea of sustainability encourages
the use of waste products to replace raw materials, such as fine and coarse aggregates,
cement and fibrous materials. This leads to sustainable, green and environmentally
friendly construction by reducing the price of the components compared to disposing
of the materials. This research, therefore, focuses on the effects of waste carpet fibre
(WCF) and palm oil fuel ash (POFA) as partial replacements of ordinary Portland
cement (OPC) on the fresh and hardened properties of concrete. Six volume varying
from 0-1.25% of 20-mm-long carpet fibre were used with OPC concrete mixes.
Another six mixes were made that replaced OPC with 20% POFA. The water/binder
(w/b) ratio of 0.47 was kept constant in all mixes. Fresh properties of concrete were
studied with respect to its workability in terms of slump values and Vebe time, unit
weight, air content and heat of hydration. The hardened properties examined are;
mechanical strengths, deformation characteristics and durability properties. Various
techniques, including the use of scanning electronic microscope (SEM), X-ray
diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential thermal
analysis (DTA) were used to study the microstructure of the concrete. A 3-phased
investigation revealed that both carpet fibres and POFA have a potential to be used in
the development of concrete properties. The combination of WCF and POFA
decreased the slump values and increased the Vebe time of fresh concrete. The unit
weight and air content significantly decreased, while the heat of hydration was also
reduced. The inclusion of carpet fibre to either OPC or POFA concrete mixes did not
improve the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity at early ages. At later ages,
however, the compressive strength of the mixtures containing POFA significantly
increased and the obtained values were higher than that mixes with OPC alone. The
positive interaction between carpet fibres and POFA leads to high tensile strength,
flexural strengths and impact resistance, thereby increasing the concrete ductility and
toughness with higher energy absorption and improved crack distribution. The creep
and drying shrinkage were also considerably reduced. The durability and
microstructural characteristics of the respective FRC were significantly improved. The
study showed that the use of waste carpet fibre and palm oil fuel ash in the production
of sustainable green concrete is feasible both technically and environmentally.
vi
ABSTRAK
Konkrit bertetulang gentian (FRC) merupakan bancuhan konkrit konvensional yang mengandungi simen, batu baur kasar, batu baur halus, dan gentian pendek yang terserak secara rawak di dalam bancuhan konkrit basah. Kehadiran gentian meningkatkan kemuluran, tenaga serapan, kekuatan tegangan dan lenturan bancuhan konkrit. Peningkatan jumlah bahan buangan yang berpunca daripada pelbagai proses menjadikannya semakin mendapat perhatian untuk menghasilkan bahan-bahan binaan bagi mencapai potensi kebaikan penggunaan sisa buangan tersebut. Dalam industri pembinaan, idea kelestarian menjadi pemangkin kepada penggunaan sisa bahan buangan sebagai pengganti bahan mentah seperti batu baur halus dan kasar, simen, serta gentian. Hal ini membantu ke arah pembinaan yang lestari, hijau dan mesra alam sekitar dengan pengurangan kos komponen bahan berbanding pelupusan bahan tersebut. Oleh itu, kajian ini tertumpu kepada kesan sisa gentian hamparan (WCF) dan abu terbang kelapa sawit (POFA) sebagai penggantian sebahagian simen Portland biasa (OPC) terhadap konkrit basah dan keras. Enam pecahan isi padu bermula dengan 0-1,25% daripada 20 mm panjang gentian hamparan digunakan dengan bancuhan konkrit OPC. Enam campuran lain pula dibuat menggantikan OPC dengan 20% kandungan POFA. Nisbah air kepada bahan pengikat (w/b) yang dikekalkan secara malar dalam semua bancuhan ialah 0.47. Sifat konkrit basah yang dikaji berkaitan dengan kebolehkerjaan konkrit tersebut ialah melalui nilai ujian runtuhan, ujian masa Vebe, berat unit, kandungan udara dan haba penghidratan. Sifat konkrit keras yang dikaji termasuk kekuatan mekanikal, ciri-ciri ubah bentuk dan sifat ketahanan konkrit keras tersebut. Pelbagai teknik digunakan untuk mengkaji mikrostruktur konkrit termasuk imbasan mikroskop elektronik (SEM), belauan sinar-X (XRD), analisa termogravimetri (TGA) dan analisa terma bezaan (DTA). Kaji selidik 3-fasa menunjukkan bahawa kedua-dua WCF dan POFA berpotensi digunakan dalam penghasilan sifat-sifat konkrit. Campuran WCF dan POFA mengurangkan nilai runtuhan dan meningkatkan masa Vebe konkrit basah. Berat unit dan kandungan udara berkurang dengan ketara manakala haba penghidratan juga dikurangkan. Rangkuman gentian hamparan sama ada terhadap bancuhan konkrit OPC ataupun POFA tidak meningkatkan kekuatan mampatan dan modulus keanjalan pada usia awal.Walau bagaimanapun, ketika konkrit mencapai umur selanjutnya, kekuatan mampatan bancuhan konkrit yang mengandungi POFA meningkat dan nilai yang diperoleh adalah lebih tinggi daripada nilai bancuhan simen OPC semata-mata. Interaksi positif antara gentian hamparan dengan POFA menghasilkan peningkatan kepada kekuatan tegangan yang tinggi, kekuatan lenturan dan rintangan hentaman, sekaligus meningkatkan kemuluran dan ketahanan konkrit serta meningkatkan tenaga serapan dan memperbaiki serakan retak.Nilai rayapan dan pengecutan konkrit yang dikaji turut menurun. Ketahanan dan ciri-ciri mikrostruktur FRC turut mengalami penambahbaikan yang ketara.Kajian ini membuktikan penggunaan sisa gentian hamparan dan abu terbang kelapa sawit dalam pengeluaran konkrit lestari dan hijau boleh dilaksanakan dari segi teknikal dan alam sekitar.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xvi
LIST OF FIGURES xviii
LIST OF ABBREVIATION xxvii
LIST OF SYMBOLS xxix
LIST OF APPENDICES xxxii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 General 1
1.2 Background of the Problem 3
1.3 Statement of the Problem 5
1.4 Aim and Objectives of the Study 6
1.5 Scope of the Study 7
1.6 Significance of Study 8
1.7 Research Approach 9
1.8 Thesis Organization 10
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 12
2.1 Introduction 12
2.2 Fibre Reinforced Concrete (FRC) 13
viii
2.2.1 Concept and Historical Development 13
2.2.2 Characteristics of FRC 15
2.2.3 Advantages and Limitations of FRC 18
2.2.4 Application of FRC in Modern Industries 20
2.3 Performance Criteria of Fibre Reinforced Concrete 22
2.4 Constituent Materials for Fibre Reinforced Concrete 23
2.4.1 Portland Cement 24
2.4.1.1 Physical Properties of Cement 24
2.4.1.2 Chemical Properties of Cement 25
2.4.2 Supplementary Cementing Materials 25
2.4.2.1 Physical Requirements of SCMs 27
2.4.2.2 Chemical Requirements of SCMs 27
2.4.3 Palm Oil Fuel Ash 27
2.4.3.1 Physical Properties of POFA 28
2.4.3.2 Chemical Composition of POFA 29
2.4.3.3 Role of Palm Oil Fuel Ash in FRC 30
2.4.4 Coarse Aggregate 32
2.4.4.1 Physical Properties of Coarse Aggregate 33
2.4.4.2 Grading of Coarse Aggregates 34
2.4.5 Fine Aggregate 35
2.4.5.1 Physical Properties of Fine Aggregates 35
2.4.5.2 Grading of Fine Aggregates 36
2.4.6 Water in FRC 37
2.4.6.1 Physical Quality of Water 37
2.4.6.2 Chemical Quality of Water 37
2.4.7 Superplasticizer 38
2.4.7.1 Physical Properties of SP 38
2.4.7.2 Chemical Structure of SP 39
2.4.7.3 Mechanism of Action of SP 39
2.4.8 Fibres 42
2.4.8.1 Steel Fibres 42
2.4.8.2 Glass Fibres 44
2.4.8.3 Synthetic Fibres 46
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2.4.8.4 Natural Fibres 49
2.4.8.5 Waste Fibres 52
2.4.8.6 Fibre Geometry 52
2.4.8.7 Critical Fibre Volume 53
2.4.8.8 Fibre Distribution and Orientation 54
2.4.8.9 Fibre Performance and Efficiency 56
2.4.9 Waste Carpet Fibre 58
2.4.9.1 Types and Sources of Waste Carpet 59
2.4.9.2 Carpet Fibre Recycling Technology 60
2.5 Mixing Procedure of FRC 63
2.6 Mix Design of FRC 64
2.7 Fresh State Properties of Polypropylene FRC 65
2.7.1 Workability 66
2.7.1.1 Slump 66
2.7.1.2 Vebe Time 67
2.7.2 Unit Weight of FRC 68
2.7.3 Air Content of FRC 68
2.7.4 Influence of Pozzolanic Materials and POFA in
FRC
69
2.7.5 Heat of Hydration 70
2.8 Methods of Curing of FRC 71
2.9 Hardened State Properties of Polypropylene FRC 72
2.9.1 Mechanical Properties of FRC 73
2.9.1.1 Compressive Strength 73
2.9.1.2 Splitting Tensile Strength 74
2.9.1.3 Flexural Strength 76
2.9.1.4 Impact Resistance 76
2.9.1.5 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity 77
2.9.1.6 Modulus of Elasticity 79
2.9.1.7 Drying Shrinkage and Creep 79
2.9.2 Durability Properties of FRC 81
2.9.2.1 Water Absorption and Sorptivity 81
2.9.2.2 Chloride Penetration 82
x
2.9.2.3 Sulphate Attack 84
2.9.2.4 Acid Attack 85
2.9.2.5 Concrete Carbonation 87
2.9.2.6 Performance of FRC at Elevated
Temperatures
88
2.9.3 Microstructural Analysis of FRC 90
2.10 Summary of Research Gap 91
3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 93
3.1 Introduction 93
3.2 Characterization of Constituent Materials- Phase I 97
3.2.1 Ordinary Portland Cement 97
3.2.2 Palm oil Fuel Ash 97
3.2.3 Coarse Aggregate 99
3.2.4 Fine Aggregate 99
3.2.5 Carpet Fibres 100
3.2.6 Normal Tap Water 101
3.2.7 Superplasticizer 101
3.3 Proposed Mix Design and Optimization- Phase II 102
3.4 Fresh and Hardened States Properties of FRC- Phase III 104
3.4.1 Specimen Preparation 104
3.4.2 Testing of Fresh State Properties 105
3.4.2.1 Slump 105
3.4.2.2 Vebe Time 106
3.4.2.3 Determination of Unit Weight and Air
Content of Fresh FRC
107
3.4.2.4 Evaluation of Heat of Hydration 108
3.4.3 Testing of Hardened State Properties of FRC 109
3.4.3.1 Preparation of Test Specimens 109
3.4.3.2 Compressive Strength Test 110
3.4.3.3 Splitting Tensile Strength Test 111
3.4.3.4 Flexural Strength Test 112
3.4.3.5 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test 113
xi
3.4.3.6 Modulus of Elasticity Test 114
3.4.3.7 Impact Resistance Test 115
3.4.3.8 Creep and Drying Shrinkage Tests 117
3.4.3.9 Water Absorption Test 119
3.4.3.10 Sorptivity Test 120
3.4.3.11 Chloride Resistance Test 122
3.4.3.12 Sulphate Resistance Test 123
3.4.3.13 Acid Resistance Test 124
3.4.3.14 Carbonation Depth Test 126
3.4.3.15 Fire Resistance Test 127
3.5 Morphologies and Thermal Analysis of FRC 128
3.5.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy 130
3.5.2 X-ray Diffraction 130
3.5.3 Thermogravimetric Analysis 131
3.6 Instrumentation and Calibration 132
3.6.1 Load Cell and the Calibration 132
3.6.2 Linear Voltage Displacement Transducer (LVDT)
and the Calibration
132
3.6.3 Strain Gauges 134
3.7 Summary 134
4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ON
THE CHARACTERISATION OF MATERIALS AND
TRIAL MIX
135
4.1 General 135
4.2 Characteristics of Ordinary Portland Cement 135
4.2.1 Physical Characteristics of OPC 136
4.2.2 Chemical Composition of OPC 137
4.2.3 Particle size Distribution of OPC 137
4.3 Characteristics of Palm Oil Fuel Ash 138
4.3.1 Physical Characteristics of POFA 138
4.3.2 Chemical Composition of POFA 139
4.3.3 Particle size Distribution of POFA 141
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4.3.4 Morphology and Microstructure of POFA 141
4.4 Characteristics of Waste Carpet Fibre 143
4.4.1 Engineering Properties of Carpet Fibre 143
4.5 Characteristics of Coarse Aggregate 145
4.5.1 Physical Properties of Coarse Aggregate 146
4.5.2 Grading of Coarse Aggregate 147
4.6 Characteristics of Fine Aggregate 148
4.6.1 Physical Properties of Fine Aggregate 148
4.6.2 Grading of Fine Aggregate 149
4.7 Characteristics of Mixing and Curing Water 150
4.8 Trial Mix Results 151
4.8.1 Optimization of Fibre’s Length and POFA Content 152
4.8.1.1 Workability 152
4.8.1.2 Strength Properties 152
4.9 Summary 154
5 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ON
THE PHYSICAL, MECHANICAL AND
MICROSTRUCTURE PROPERTIES OF CARPET
FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE
155
5.1 Introduction 155
5.2 Fresh Properties of Concrete 156
5.2.1 Slump 156
5.2.2 Vebe Time 157
5.2.3 Correlations between Slump Value and Vebe
Time
158
5.2.4 Unit Weight 159
5.2.5 Air Content 160
5.2.6 Heat of Hydration 161
5.3 Mechanical Properties of Concrete 163
5.3.1 Compressive Strength 163
5.3.2 Post Failure Compressive Strength 166
5.3.3 Splitting Tensile Strength 168
xiii
5.3.4 Flexural Strength 170
5.3.5 Impact Resistance 172
5.3.6 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity 177
5.3.7 Modulus of Elasticity 178
5.4 Correlation between Mechanical Properties of Concrete 180
5.4.1 Relationship among Compressive, Tensile and
Flexural Strengths
181
5.4.2 Correlation between Compressive Strength and
Modulus of Elasticity
183
5.4.3 Correlation between Compressive Strength and
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
184
5.4.4 Importance of the Correlations between the
Mechanical Properties
185
5.5 Drying Shrinkage and Creep 185
5.5.1 Effect of Temperature and Humidity on
Shrinkage and Creep
186
5.5.2 Influence of Carpet Fibre and POFA on
Drying Shrinkage of FRC
187
5.5.3 Influence of Carpet Fibre and POFA on Creep of
Concrete
188
5.5.4 Creep Recovery 190
5.6 Microstructural Analysis of Water Cured Concrete 190
5.6.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy 191
5.6.2 X-ray Diffraction 194
5.6 Summary 196
6 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ON
THE DURABILITY PERFORMANCE AND
MICROSTRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF CARPET
FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE
198
6.1 Introduction 198
6.2 Influence of Carpet Fibre and POFA on Permeability 198
6.2.1 Water Absorption 199
xiv
6.2.2 Sorptivity 200
6.3 Effect of Carpet Fibre and POFA on Chloride Penetration 201
6.3.1 Microstructural Analysis 205
6.3.1.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy 205
6.3.1.2 X-ray Diffraction 206
6.4 Resistance to Sulphate Attack 208
6.4.1 Visual Assessment 208
6.4.2 Mass Change 210
6.4.3 Strength Loss 211
6.4.4 Strength Loss Factor 213
6.4.5 Microstructural Analysis 214
6.4.5.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy 214
6.4.5.2 X-ray Diffraction 215
6.5 Resistance to Acid Attack 216
6.5.1 Visual Assessment 217
6.5.2 Mass Loss 218
6.5.3 Strength Loss 220
6.5.4 Strength Loss Factor 222
6.5.5 Microstructural Analysis 223
6.5.5.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy 223
6.5.5.2 X-ray Diffraction 225
6.6 Carbonation of Concrete 226
6.7 Performance Under Elevated Temperature 228
6.7.1 Furnace Temperature Gradient 229
6.7.2 Effect of Temperature and Cooling Regime on the
Mass Loss of Concrete
229
6.7.3 Influence of Temperature and Cooling Regime on
the Spalling and Surface colour of Concrete
232
6.7.4 Influence of Temperature and Cooling Regime on
the Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity of Concrete
234
6.7.5 Residual Compressive Strength of Concrete 236
6.7.6 Relationship between the Residual Compressive
Strength and Residual UPV Values of Air- and
xv
REFERENCES 263
Appendices A-B 295-297
Water-Cooling Regime 239
6.7.7 Microstructural Analysis 242
6.7.7.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy 242
6.7.7.2 Thermogravimetric Analysis and
Differential Thermal Analysis
245
6.7.7.3 X-ray Diffraction 248
6.8 Summary 250
7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 252
7.1 General 252
7.2 Conclusions 252
7.2.1 Characterization of Constituent Materials 251
7.2.2 Trial Mix and Optimization 253
7.2.3 Concrete Mix Design 253
7.2.4 Fresh State Properties 254
7.2.5 Mechanical and Deformation Properties 255
7.2.6 Durability Performance 256
7.2.7 Microstructure 258
7.3 Research Contribution 260
7.4 Recommendations 261
xvi
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE
PAGE
2.1 Performance criteria for polypropylene fibre reinforced
concrete (Beaudoin 1990; Bentur & Mindess 2007)
23
2.2 Approximate chemical composition limits of OPC (Neville
& Brooks 2010)
25
2.3 Typical chemical composition of POFA 30
2.4 Physical properties of selected fibres (Bentur & Mindess
2007)
51
3.1 Mix proportions of trial mixes 103
3.2 Mix proportions of concrete mixtures 103
3.3 Classification of the quality of concrete on the basis of
UPV (Shetty 2005)
113
4.1 Physical properties of OPC 136
4.2 Chemical compositions of OPC 137
4.3 Physical properties of POFA 139
4.4 Chemical compositions of POFA 140
4.5 Properties of waste carpet and typical virgin PP fibres 143
4.6 Physical properties of coarse aggregates 146
4.7 Physical properties of coarse aggregates 149
4.8 Quality of tap water used for mixing and curing of concrete 150
4.9 Trial mix and optimization test results 151
5.1 Characteristics of heat of hydration of OPC and POFA
concrete mixes
162
5.2 Post-failure compressive strength of concrete mixtures 166
5.3 Impact resistance of concrete mixtures at first crack and at
failure
173
xvii
6.1 Rate of chloride penetration into different concrete
mixtures (mm/day)
204
6.2 Physical characteristics of typical concrete specimens
exposed to sulphate solution
209
xviii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE
PAGE
1.1 The waste hierarchy 8
2.1 Crack pattern in reinforced concrete (RC) and fibre
reinforced concrete (FRC) members subjected to tension
(Mehta & Monteiro 2006)
16
2.2 Structures of short and long fibres controlling the crack
propagation (Brandt 2008)
16
2.3 Distribution of long and short fibres in controlling micro-
cracks and its influence on the stress-crack opening curve
(Mehta & Monteiro 2006)
17
2.4 Characterization of the tensile and flexural behaviour of
fibres reinforced concrete (FRC) and high performance
fibres reinforced concrete (HPFRC) in the (a) hardening
and (b) softening portions (Brandt 2008)
17
2.5 Comparison of cracks (a) without and (b) with fibre
reinforced (Mehta & Monteiro 2006)
19
2.6 Typical applications of FRC (a) Industrial flooring, (b)
Sewer tunnels, (c) Precast concrete units and (d) Concrete
pavements
22
2.7 SEM image of (a) raw POFA before grinding and (b)
after grinding (Amer et al. 2014)
29
2.8 (a) Dispersed OPC and (b) micro-filing behaviour of
POFA particles
31
2.9 SEM images of a) concrete without POFA content, b)
with 20% POFA content (Ranjbar et al. 2016)
32
xix
2.10 (a) Chemical structure of typical SP and (b) physical
structure of SP and cement-SP interface (Mehta &
Monteiro 2006)
39
2.11 Effect of superplasticizer in breaking up the cement flocs
(Newman & Choo 2003)
40
2.12 Electrostatic dispersion of cement grains by a
superplasticizing admixture (Newman & Choo 2003)
41
2.13 Steric stabilization dispersion of cement grains by a
superplasticizing admixture (Newman & Choo 2003)
41
2.14 Examples of deformed steel fibres (Brandt 2008) 44
2.15 Typical AR-glass fibres used in concrete 45
2.16 Typical forms of synthetic fibres used in concrete 46
2.17 Typical natural fibres used in concrete composites 50
2.18 Orientation disturbed by the wall effect (Boulekbache et
al. 2010)
55
2.19 Fibre distribution through a section (a) well-orientated
and (b) badly-orientated fibres (Banyhussan et al. 2016)
56
2.20 Stress–position profiles when fibre length (l) (a) is equal
to the critical length (lc) (b) is greater than the critical
length, and (c) is less than the critical length for a fibre
reinforced composite that is subjected to a tensile stress
equal to the fibre tensile strength (σf*) (Callister &
Rethwisch 2007)
57
2.21 Carpet waste management hierarchy (Sotayo et al. 2015) 58
2.22 Typical structure of carpet: (a) cut-pile (b) level-loop
(Sotayo et al. 2015)
59
2.23 Typical pre-and post-consumer waste carpet fibres
(Sotayo et al. 2015)
60
2.24 Typical post-consumers carpet recycling loop (Bird
2013)
62
2.25 Typical mixing procedure for FRC mixtures (Qian &
Stroeven 2000)
63
xx
3.1 Diagrammatic representation of the experimental
program
94
3.2 Palm oil solid wastes 98
3.3 Flow chart of the production process of POFA 99
3.4 (a) Generation of carpet waste (b) Back yarn and (c) Face
yarn waste fibres
100
3.5 Flowchart for processing of carpet fibres 101
3.6 Drum mixer for FRC 104
3.7 Workability measurement (a) slum test and (b) Vebe time
test
106
3.8 (a) Air content testing instrument and (b) measuring the
unit weight
108
3.9 Test setup for the measurement of heat of hydration: (a)
insulated pack, (b) concrete cylinder, (c) type K
thermocouple and (d) data logger
109
3.10 (a) Weighting of specimen before testing and (b)
compressive strength test set up
110
3.11 (a) Weighting of specimen before testing and (b) splitting
tensile strength test set up
111
3.12 Arrangement of loading of test specimen for flexural
strength test
112
3.13 Ultrasonic pulse velocity testing machine 113
3.14 Operational procedure for modulus of elasticity test (a)
capping and fixing strain gauges (b) monitoring the
deformation of specimens (c) loaded specimen before
failure and (d) loaded specimen after failure
114
3.15 Operational procedure for impact resistance test (a)
cutting the cylinder (b) concrete disks to be tested (c)
impact resistance test apparatus (d) steel ball and concrete
disk specimen
116
3.16 Creep and drying shrinkage tests set up 118
3.17 Demec meter used for creep and shrinkage measurement 119
xxi
3.18 Test set-up for the measurement of sorptivity: (a)
humidity control, (b) sealable container, (c) specimen
stand on supports and (d) mass measurement
121
3.19 Schematic of the soptivity test procedure (ASTM C1585-
13)
121
3.20 Operational procedure for chloride penetration test: (a)
sodium chloride, (b) silver nitrate solution, (c) specimens
immersed and (d) penetration depth
123
3.21 Operational procedure for sulphate and acid resistance
tests: (a) specimens immersed in sulphate and acid
solutions, (b) magnesium sulphate and (c) sulphuric acid
126
3.22 Operational procedure for carbonation tests 127
3.23 Concrete specimens in an electrically controlled furnace 128
3.24 SEM instrument and typical samples used 130
3.25 (a) Siemens Diffractometer instrument and (b) typical
sample used
131
3.26 TGA and TDA Thermogravimetry analyzer 132
4.1 Particle size distribution of OPC and POFA 141
4.2 SEM image of POFA 142
4.3 X-ray diffraction pattern of POFA 142
4.4 (a) Fabricated carpet fibres and (b) typical virgin PP
fibres (Yap et al. 2013)
143
4.5 Tensile strength test of typical waste carpet fibres 144
4.6 Typical Load-Extension curve of waste carpet fibres 144
4.7 SEM image of polypropylene waste carpet fibre 145
4.8 Particle size distributions of the fine and coarse
aggregates
148
5.1 Effects of carpet fibres on the slump of OPC and POFA
concretes
157
5.2 Balling effect of fibres on fresh concrete with a) 0.25%,
b) 0.5% and c) 1.0% carpet fibres
157
5.3 Effects of carpet fibres on the Vebe time of OPC and
POFA concrete
158
xxii
5.4 Relationship between slump value and Vebe time of OPC
and POFA concrete
159
5.5 Effects of carpet fibres on fresh density of OPC and
POFA concrete
160
5.6 Effects of carpet fibres on air content of fresh OPC and
POFA concrete
161
5.7 Development of temperature in OPC and POFA concrete
mixes
162
5.8 Compressive strength of carpet fibre reinforced (a) OPC
and (b) POFA concrete mixtures
164
5.9 Failure mode of concrete specimens with and without
carpet fibres under compression load
165
5.10 Variation of PFCS in OPC and POFA concrete
containing carpet fibres
167
5.11 Tensile strength of carpet fibre reinforced (a) OPC and
(b) POFA concrete mixtures
169
5.12 Failure mode of concrete specimens without and with
carpet fibres under tensile load
169
5.13 Flexural strength of carpet fibre reinforced (a) OPC and
(b) POFA concrete mixtures
171
5.14 Failure mode of concrete specimens without and with
carpet fibres under flexure load
172
5.15 Impact resistance of carpet fibre reinforced concrete
mixtures at first crack and at failure
174
5.16 Impact energy of carpet fibre reinforced concrete
mixtures at first crack and at failure
175
5.17 Variation of (N2 - N1) with fibre content 176
5.18 (a) Specimens before impact test, (b) Fracture pattern
after drop weight test, (c) 0.25% fibre, (d) 1.25% fibre
and (e) Distributed carpet fibres
177
5.19 Effects of carpet fibres on UPV values of (a) OPC and (b)
POFA concrete mixtures
178
xxiii
5.20 Effects of carpet fibres on MOE values of OPC and
POFA concrete mixtures at ages of (a) 28-day and (b) 91-
day
179
5.21 Pattern of failure in concrete with and without fibres for
MOE testing
180
5.22 Relationships among (a) compressive-tensile and (b)
compressive-flexural strengths
182
5.23 Relationships between tensile-flexural strengths of
concrete mixtures
183
5.24 Relationships between compressive strength and
modulus of elasticity of concrete mixtures
184
5.25 Relationships between compressive strength and
ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete mixtures
185
5.26 Temperature and relative humidity of testing
environment
186
5.27 Effects of carpet fibre content on drying shrinkage of (a)
OPC and (b) POFA concrete mixtures
188
5.28 Effects of carpet fibres on creep strain of OPC and POFA
concrete mixtures
189
5.29 Creep recovery of OPC and POFA concrete containing
carpet fibres
190
5.30 SEM of water cured OPC (B1) and POFA (B7) concrete
mixtures at (a) 91and (b) 365 days
192
5.31 SEM of (a) the fracture surface, (b) bridging action and
(c) fibre-matrix interface of concrete containing 0.5%
carpet fibres at 91 days of curing period
193
5.32 SEM of the fibre-cement interfacial transition zone at the
age of 365 days
194
5.33 XRD of (a) OPC and (b) 20% POFA paste at 91 days
water curing
195
5.34 XRD of (a) OPC and (b) 20% POFA paste at 365 days
water curing
196
xxiv
6.1 Water absorption versus fibre volume fraction of OPC
and POFA concrete
199
6.2 Water absorption versus square root of time for (a) OPC
and (b) POFA content mixtures at different fibre volume
fractions
201
6.3 Chloride penetration depth versus time for (a) OPC and
(b) POFA concrete containing carpet fibres at different
volume fractions
202
6.4 Split faces of the concrete specimen for B1, B3, B7 and
B9, which were treated with AgNO3 upon 90 days of
exposure to sodium chloride solution
203
6.5 SEM of (a) OPC (B1) and (b) POFA (B7) concrete
mixtures after 90 days exposure to chloride
206
6.6 SEM of concrete containing carpet fibres after 90 days
exposure to chloride
206
6.7 XRD patterns of (a) OPC and (b) POFA specimens after
90 days exposed to chloride solution
207
6.8 Cube specimens after 365 days of immersion in sulphate
solution
209
6.9 Effects of carpet fibre on the mass change of OPC and
POFA concrete specimens exposed to sulphate solution
210
6.10 Strength losses between companion and test specimen in
sulphate solution of (a) OPC and (b) POFA concrete
mixtures
212
6.11 Failure mode of cube specimens immersed in sulphate
solution
212
6.12 Strength loss of OPC and POFA concrete mixtures
containing carpet fibres exposed to sulphate
213
6.13 SEM Images of OPC and POFA mixtures showing the
formation of crystalline products after exposure to
sulphate
214
6.14 SEM images showing the crack patterns around the fibres
after exposure to sulphate
215
xxv
6.15 XRD plots displaying various crystalline products in (a)
OPC and (b) POFA concrete specimens exposed to
sulphate
216
6.16 Concrete cube specimen after 365 days exposure in 5%
H2SO4 solution
218
6.17 Effects of carpet fibre on the mass change of OPC and
POFA concrete cube specimens exposed to acid
219
6.18 Strength losses between companion and test specimen in
acid solution of (a) OPC and (b) POFA concrete mixtures
221
6.19 Failure mode of cube specimens immersed in acid
solution
222
6.20 Strength loss of OPC and POFA concrete mixtures
containing carpet fibres exposed to acid
222
6.21 SEM Images of OPC and POFA mixtures showing the
formation of crystalline products after exposure to acid
224
6.22 SEM images of the crack patterns around the fibres after
exposure to acid
224
6.23 Weak fibre-cement interfacial transition zone after
exposure to acid
224
6.24 XRD for (a) OPC and (b) POFA specimens after 365 days
of exposure to sulphuric acid
225
6.25 Effects of carpet fibre content on the carbonation depth
of (a) OPC and (b) POFA concrete
227
6.26 Split faces of carbonated concrete specimen for B1, B3,
B7 and B9, which were treated with phenolphthalein
228
6.27 Time-temperature curve of the electrically controlled
furnace and compared with standard curves
229
6.28 Mass loss of different concrete mixtures 231
6.29 Regression for the mass loss of the (a) OPC and (b) POFA
concrete mixtures
232
6.30 Surface texture of the concrete specimens exposed to
high temperatures
233
xxvi
6.31 Variation in UPV values of the concrete mixtures
exposed to high temperatures (a) air-cooled and (b)
water-cooled regimes
235
6.32 Residual compressive strength of the concrete mixtures 237
6.33 Failure modes of the concrete specimens at different
temperatures
238
6.34 Correlation amongst the residual UPV and compressive
strength of the air-cooled regime
240
6.35 Correlation amongst the residual UPV and compressive
strength of the water-cooled regime
241
6.36 SEM micrographs for plain OPC (B1) and POFA (B7)
concrete specimens at (a) 27 oC; (b) 200 oC; and (c) 800
oC temperatures
243
6.37 SEM micrographs of the bonding interface between
carpet fibres and matrix as well as melted fibres at (a) 27
oC; (b) 200 oC; and (c) 800 oC temperatures
244
6.38 (a) DTA and (b) TGA results for unheated concrete
mixtures
245
6.39 (a) DTA and (b) TGA results for the concrete mixtures
after 200 oC thermal treatment
246
6.40 (a) DTA and (b) TGA results for the concrete mixtures
after 800 oC thermal treatment
248
6.41 XRD patterns of (a) OPC and (b) POFA specimens after
being exposed to temperature of 200 oC
249
6.42 XRD patterns of (a) OPC and (b) POFA specimens after
being exposed to temperature of 800 oC
250
xxvii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ACI - American Concrete Institute
ASTM - American Standards for Testing of Materials
BS EN - British Standard
CRT - Constant-Rate of Traverse
CS - Compressive Strength
DTA - Differential Thermal Analysis
FA - Fly Ash
FRC - Fibre Reinforced Concrete
GGBS - Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
GFRC - Glass Fibre Reinforced Concrete
IS - Indian Standard
LOI - Loss on Ignition
LVDT - Linear Voltage Displacement Transducer
MOE - Modulus of Elasticity
OPC - Ordinary Portland Cement
PAN - Polyacrylonitrile
PC - Plain Concrete
PFCS - Post Failure Compressive Strength
POFA - Palm Oil Fuel Ash
PP - Polypropylene
PPM - Parts Per Million
RC - Reinforced Concrete
RHA - Rice Husk Ash
RILEM - International Union of Laboratories and Experts in
Construction Materials, Systems, and Structures
SCM - Supplementary Cementing Materials
SEM - Scanning Electron Microscopy
xxviii
SF - Silica Fume
SP - Superplasticiser
SSD - Saturated Surface Dry
TGA - Thermogravimetry Analysis
UPV - Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
w/b - Water/Binder
w/c - Water/Cement
WCF - Waste Carpet Fibre
XRD - X-ray Diffraction
xxix
LIST OF SYMBOLS
3CaO.Al2O3.
3CaSO4.32H2O
- Ettringite
a - The exposed area of the specimen, in mm2
A1 - Apparent air content of the sample (%)
Ac - The cross sectional area of the specimen (mm2)
AgNO3 - Silver nitrate
Al - Alumina
Al2O3 - Aluminium oxide
B - Binder
C - Carbon
C2S - Dicalcium silicate
C3Al - Tricalcium aluminate
C3S - Tricalcium silicate
Ca - Calcium
Ca(OH)2 - Calcium hydroxide
CaO - Calcium oxide
C-A-S-H - Calcium alumina silicate hydrate
CaSO4.2HO2 - Gypsum
Cl - Chloride
CO2 - Carbon dioxide
C-S-H - Calcium silicate hydrate
ρ - Measured density (kg/m3)
d1 , d2 - Lateral dimension of the specimen (mm)
df - Diameter of fibre
Ɛ(to) - Average total measured strain at any time to
Ɛc(t) - Creep strain at any time to
xxx
Ɛe - Average instantaneous elastic strain recorded after
loading
Ɛsh(to) - Average strain at any time to (determined on unloaded
specimen)
F - The maximum load at failure (N)
fc - Compressive Strength (MPa)
Fca - The average compressive strength of the specimen
after immersion in sulphate or acid solutions (MPa)
fcf - Flexural strength (MPa)
fct - Splitting tensile strength (MPa)
Fcw - The average compressive strength of companion
specimen cured in water (MPa)
Fe - Iron
Fe2O3 - Iron oxide
𝑔 - Acceleration due to gravity
H1 - Water level reading at the required pressure (1.4 kPa)
H2 - Water level reading at zero pressure after release of
pressure
H2O - Water
H2SO4 - Sulphuric acid
l - Distance between the lower roller (mm)
I - The absorption
K - Potassium
K2O - Alkalis
L - Length of the specimen (mm)
lc - Critical length of fibre (mm)
lf - Length of fibre (mm)
m - The mass of the hammer (kg)
M - Coefficient of comparator meter
Mc - Mass of the measure filled with concrete (kg)
Md - Oven-dry mass of the specimen in air (kg)
Mg - Magnesium
MgO - Magnesium oxide
xxxi
MgSO4 - Magnesium sulphate
Mm - Mass of the measure (kg)
Ms - Saturated surface dry mass of the specimen in air (kg)
mt - The change in specimen mass in grams, at the time t
NaCl - Sodium chloride
SiO2 - Silicon dioxide
SLF - Strength loss factor (%)
SO3 - Sulphur trioxide
t - The time that hammer need drop (0.3053 Sec)
U - The impact energy of the hammer for each blow in kN
mm
V - The velocity of the hammer
Vcr - Critical fibre volume fraction
Vm - Volume of the measure (m3)
W - The weight of the hammer
Wa - Water absorption (mass %)
τ - Shear strength of matrix
𝞼 * f - Ultimate tensile strength of fibre
𝞼 mu - Ultimate strength of concrete matrix
𝞼’fu - Stress on the fibre at first crack
𝞼fu - Ultimate strength of fibre
xxxii
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE
PAGE
A Concrete Mix Design 295
B Carpet Fibres Content Calculations 297
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Through industrialization and technological developments in various fields,
huge amount and different sorts of solid waste materials have been generated by the
industrial, mining, agricultural and domestic actions. Therefore, solid waste
management has become one of the main ecological concerns in all around the world.
With the increasing attentiveness about the environment, lack of landfill area and
because of its high cost, utilization of by-products and waste materials has become an
attractive alternative to disposal. Recycling of the non-biodegradable wastes is very
difficult. Utilization of natural sources, large quantity production of industrial waste
and environmental contamination need gaining new and applicable solutions for a
sustainable development. Over the decades there has been a rising affirmation on the
use of by-products and waste materials in construction industry. In the construction,
the idea of sustainability allowed the use of waste products to replace raw materials,
such as fine and coarse aggregates, cement and fibrous materials. Use of these waste
materials not only aids in getting them applied in concrete, and other construction
materials, it helps in decreasing the cost of the concrete producing, but also has many
indirect advantages such as decrease in landfill area, saving in energy, and defending
the environment from possible pollution effects. Further, utilization of these waste
materials may develop the physical and mechanical, durability and microstructural
properties of concrete, which are challenging to achieve by the use of only raw
materials (Putman & Amirkhanian 2004; Batayneh et al. 2007; Meddah & Bencheikh
2009; Kanadasan & Abdul Razak 2015; Gu & Ozbakkaloglu 2016).
2
A main challenge facing the construction industries is to execute projects in
compatibility with the environment by adopting the concept of sustainable
development. This involves the use of high performance and eco-friendly materials
produced at a reasonable quality and cost. Current researches on many waste materials
such as supplementary cementing materials (SCMs), plastics and textiles, aggregates
and a host of others have shown that the addition of such waste materials in concrete
has the potential to enhance the physical, mechanical and durability of concrete as well
as a reduction in the cost of construction (Chandra 1997; Siddique et al. 2008; Thomas
& Gupta 2013). The challenges are more a consequence of the facts that Portland
cement is not particularly eco-friendly and lack of landfill space for waste materials.
One could then decrease these challenges to the succeeding simple formula: use as
much concrete, but with as low Portland cement as possible, and waste materials as
much as possible, this means to substitute as much raw material as possible by waste
and SCMs, particularly those that are by-products of industrial processes, and to use
waste materials instead of natural resources.
Synthetic fibres are industrialized mainly to supply the high demand for textile
and carpet products. Polypropylene and nylon are the most synthetic fibres used in
these industries. In waste streams, carpets are classified as textiles, and generated
either from post-consumer or pre-consumer (industries). The approximate amount of
the industrial waste carpet fibres generated in Malaysia is estimated as 30 to 50 tons
annually, reported by Malaysian carpet industries. The benefits of using such recycled
fibres include generally lower cost to process than virgin fibres, light in weight, good
acid and alkali resistance and non-absorbent of water (Wang et al. 1994; Wang et al.
2000; Schmidt & Cies 2008; Ghosni et al. 2013). The pozzolanic materials are used
all over the world for their technical, economic and ecological benefits. One of the
latest inclusion in the ash family is palm oil fuel ash (POFA), obtained on burning
palm oil husk and palm kernel shell as fuel in palm oil mills (Tay 1990; Awal & Hussin
1997; Tangchirapat et al. 2007). Malaysia is the second largest producer of oil palm
and palm oil products in the world. In 2007, about 3 million tons of POFA have been
produced in Malaysia, and this production rate is likely to rise due to increase the
plantation of palm oil trees (Ismail et al. 2011; Al-Mulali et al. 2015; Ranjbar et al.
2016).
3
Weighing up the cleaner production, waste materials from various sources need
to be propounded as potentially valuable materials. Among them are the industrial
waste carpet fibre and POFA, the disposal and landfilling of which have detrimental
effects on the environment due to their long disintegration period. One of the
reasonable approaches to minimize the adverse effects is the utilization of waste
materials as useful resources in other industries, like green building construction. To
date, only a few studies have been carried out on the development of concrete
composites from carpet waste (Vilkner et al. 2004; Zhou & Xiang 2011). Such
developments would create a stable pathway for carpet waste and provide new
materials for structural applications. However, research work on the utilization of
carpet waste and POFA, as partial replacement of cement in concrete, has not been
investigated earlier.
1.2 Background of the Problem
Concrete is the most important construction material and its consumption is
increasing all around the globe. In addition to the normal applications, higher ductility
and energy absorption capacity are often required in different fields like industrial
building floors, highway paving, bridge decks, etc. Nevertheless, conventional
concrete possesses very slight tensile strength, limited ductility, low resistance to
cracking, and little energy absorption. Internal micro-cracks are inherently exist in the
concrete specimens and its low tensile strength is owing to the propagation of such
micro-cracks, ultimately leading to brittle fracture of the concrete. Therefore,
enhancing the toughness of concrete and decreasing the size and possibility of
weaknesses would lead to better concrete performance.
Previously, efforts have been made to impart enhancement in tensile properties
of concrete by way of adding a small fraction (0.5-2%) of short fibres to the concrete
mixture throughout mixing process (Zollo 1997; Brandt 2008; Yahaghi et al. 2016).
In such situations fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) has been shown to perform its
functions satisfactorily. Fibre reinforced concrete can be defined as a composite
material containing of mixtures of cement, coarse and fine aggregates, and a dispersion
4
of discontinuous short fibres that are randomly distributed in the fresh concrete mix.
There are various types of fibres, no matter polymeric or metallic, generally utilized
in concrete mixture for their benefits. Among others, the most common types fibre
used in fibre reinforced concrete are glass fibres, steel fibres, synthetic fibres such as
nylon and polypropylene (PP), natural fibres and fibres from pre- and post-consumer
wastes. Fibres in general and polypropylene fibres, in particular, have gained
popularity recently for use to improve the properties of concrete (Brandt 2008).
In brittle materials like plain concrete without any fibre, micro-cracks develop
even before applying load, mainly due to drying shrinkage or any other cause of
volume change. While loading, the cracks propagate and open up, and owing to the
effect of stress concentration and formation of additional cracks in places of minor
defects. The development of such micro-cracks along the concrete members, is the
main reason of inelastic deformation in concrete (Hsie et al. 2008). It has been
recognized that the addition of polypropylene fibre in concrete mixture is potential in
bridging the cracks, load transfer, and improving micro-cracks dispersal system
(Aldahdooh et al. 2014). Moreover, the fibres would act as crack arrester and would
significantly enhance the properties of concrete not only under compression, tensile,
and flexure (Yap et al. 2013), but also under impact blows (Nili & Afroughsabet 2010)
and plastic shrinkage cracking (Zhang et al. 2011).
One of the fundamental solutions towards attaining enhanced concrete
properties in terms of strength, durability and microstructures is the combined use of
polypropylene fibre and pozzolanic materials in concrete. Polypropylene fibre is
presented in the mixture to reduce brittleness of the matrix thus reducing the
susceptibility to cracking of a concrete (Karahan & Atis 2011). As most of the
problems related to the durability properties such as permeability, chloride penetration,
carbonation, and acid and sulphate attacks start from concrete cracking, a substantial
solution that decreases the brittleness of concrete is required and foremost efficient.
Fibre reinforced cementitious composites, addresses the brittleness of concrete. This
ductile material containing pozzolanic materials, exhibits an excellent ductility under
mechanical loading as well as durability under sever environmental exposure (Mo et
al. 2015). There are many ways to improve the durability of concrete structures.
Among all, providing a dense microstructure of concrete specimens through well-
5
graded particle size distribution to decrease passage of corrosive into the concrete,
increase the compressive strength and improve the durability properties of concrete by
the addition of admixtures are the most applicable. However, these approaches do not
enhance the brittleness behaviour of concrete (Yap et al. 2014; Mo et al. 2014).
Other than mechanical properties, aspects of durability and microstructural
analysis are greatly considered in assessing the behaviour and potential use of any new
waste material in concrete. Therefore, a great deal of research is necessary to study in-
depth the utilization of these materials on a large scale to develop adequate
performance data that will permit changes to construction specifications.
1.3 Statement of the Problem
There is no doubt that cleaner and more efficient management of various forms
of waste generation is receiving more attention in order to maintain sustainability in
green construction. The utilization of waste materials is one of the fundamental issues
of waste management strategies in many parts of the world. The advantages of
recycling include reducing environmental pollution, reducing landfilling and disposal
of wastes and preserving natural resources. Concrete is typically characterized as
brittle materials, with a low tensile strength and energy absorption capacity.
Consequently, using fibre reinforced concrete in fields where ductility and durability
are the main considerations is an alternative solution. Therefore, consumption of
cheaper and viable materials in concrete instead of raw materials is necessary. Since a
low volume fraction of short fibres has been suggested for the development of the
strength and durability properties of concrete, it paves the way to use waste carpet
fibres to get more details on properties of concrete containing this fibre.
During the past decades, many research works on the utilization of waste ashes
as supplementary cementing materials in concrete have been carried out. One of the
latest inclusion in the ash family is palm oil fuel ash which played an enormous role
in this regards. The influence of carpet fibres and POFA on the physical, mechanical,
durability and microstructure properties of concrete is not common in the existing
6
studies of literature. Taking into account the availability and the possible fibrous
behaviour of waste polypropylene carpet fibres and pozzolanic nature of the POFA,
research works on the utilization of the materials have been initiated to investigate the
followings;
The influence of carpet fibre and POFA on the fresh state properties of
concrete.
The combined effect of carpet fibre and POFA on the mechanical,
durability and microstructure properties of concrete.
1.4 Aim and Objectives of Study
The aim of the study is to develop the fibre reinforced concrete (FRC)
incorporating industrial waste carpet fibre and palm oil fuel ash (POFA). In view of
the benefits obtained by the utilization of carpet fibre and POFA, the specific
objectives are as follows:
i. To investigate the physical and chemical characteristics of waste carpet
fibres and POFA and optimization of fibre’ length and POFA content.
ii. To propose a mix design guidelines for the proportioning of waste
carpet fibre and POFA for the FRC.
iii. To determine the fresh state, strength and deformation characteristics
of fibre reinforced concrete incorporating waste carpet fibres and
POFA.
iv. To analyse the durability properties of fibre reinforced concrete
incorporating waste carpet fibres and POFA.
v. To evaluate the microstructural characterization and the factors
influencing the performance of waste carpet fibre and POFA in FRC.
7
1.5 Scope of the Study
The research would be experimental in nature and focuses primarily on the
development of a fibre reinforced concrete incorporating waste carpet fibres at volume
fractions of 0%, 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75%, 1.0% and 1.25%, and POFA at replacement
levels of 10-30% of ordinary Portland cement (OPC). Carpet fibre was used as an
addition while POFA was used as supplementary cementing material. Therefore, an
essential number of intensive investigations and analysis were performed as mentioned
below. The study emphasize physical and mechanical, durability and microstructure
properties of concrete, which is believed to be within the limits set by the objectives.
The first phase deals with characterisation of constituent materials and testing
of the properties of carpet fibre and POFA. These comprise; density, melting point,
tensile strength, water absorption and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of the
carpet fibres. It also deals with the determination of the physical properties and
chemical compositions of OPC and POFA by X-ray fluorecence (XRF) and also
determination of the morphological and microscopic structure of POFA by SEM and
energy dispersive X-ray diffraction (XRD).
The second phase deals with mix design and proportioning of the constituent
materials for concrete, and also optimisation process. These contain optimum length
of the fibre, optimum POFA content.
The third phase deals with the investigation of fresh and hardened states,
durability and microstructure properties of concrete containing carpet fibre and POFA.
These contain the slump, VeBe time, fresh density, air content and heat of hydration
from fresh concrete and, compressive, splitting tensile and flexural strengths,
ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), modulus of elasticity, impact resistance, creep and
drying shrinkage, water absorption, sorptivity, chloride resistance, sulphate resistance,
acid resistance, carbonation depth and fire resistance from hardened concrete. The
fourth phase deals with the investegation of microstructural properties such as
scanning electron microscopy (SEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential
thermal analysis (DTA) and X-ray diffractometry (XRD).
8
1.6 Significance of Study
Large amounts of waste materials cannot be eliminated. Nevertheless, the
environmental defects can be reduced by providing more sustainable usage of these
waste materials. This is known as the ’’Waste Hierarchy’’. Its goal is to decrease,
recycle, or reuse waste, the latter being the desired option of waste disposal. Figure 1.1
displays a drawing of the waste hierarchy. This study is limited to industrial waste
carpet fibre and palm oil fuel ash.
Since discontinues short fibres has been proposed for the development of the
concrete performance, the use of carpet fibres will result in a reduction of the amount
of waste generated from industry and also enhanced the brittleness properties of
concrete. Suitably used, POFA can significantly develop the mechanical, deformation
and durability properties of concrete which will be decrease the pressure on the
industrial and domestic consumption of Portland cement. As both carpet fibre and
POFA are industrial waste materials requiring minimal spending, their use will
considerably decrease the overall cost of construction, thereby justifying the name of
“Green Concrete Composite”. Consequently, the mixture of carpet fibre and POFA to
production of concrete composite will open up new research opportunities.
Figure 1.1 The waste hierarchy
y
9
1.7 Research Approach
1. Perform a comprehensive literature review on the utilization of waste materials
such as waste textile, fibres and pozzolanic ashes in concrete and other related
construction activities.
2. Select the waste carpet fibres, POFA, cement, aggregates and other required
materials based on their characteristics.
3. Study of various test procedure standards such as BS EN, ASTM, ACI and
RILEM for performing tests on concrete containing waste carpet fibres and
POFA.
4. Conducting a primary study and trial mixes to verify and control the proposed
mix ratios before beginning the full scale experiment.
5. Carry out a series of tests for optimization of fibre’s length and POFA content
to use in full scale experiment.
6. Develop an appropriate schedule of experimental programs with test to
investigate the combined effect of waste carpet fibre and POFA on concrete
composites and compare its performance with that of without any POFA and
fibres.
7. Conduct corresponding studies to comprehend the combined effect of carpet
fibre and POFA on physical, mechanical, deformation and durability properties
of concrete.
8. Inspect and compare microstructure analysis of concrete containing carpet fibre
and POFA with that of without any fibres and POFA.
9. Analysis of experimental results and discussions on the findings.
10. Draw conclusions and make available recommendations on the application of
waste carpet fibre and palm oil fuel ash as a new fibrous and supplementary
cementing materials for construction.
10
11. Propose fields of further study of waste carpet fibre and POFA applications in
concrete industry along with mix design guidelines.
1.8 Thesis Organization
Chapter 1: Provides a general appraisal and an overview of the problem
background to support the problem statements. In addition, the chapter also highlights
the aim and objectives, scope and limitation of the research. The significance of study
and the research approach were clearly spelt out.
Chapter 2: Deals with the critical review of the related and relevant literatures.
Chapter 3: This chapter describes a comprehensive breakdown of the
consecutive sequence of the methodology that is occupied for successful achievement
of the research from the design stage of the experimental work to its rational
conclusions.
Chapter 4: This chapter emphases on the characterization of the constituent
materials, comprising the physical properties and chemical compositions of OPC and
POFA, and characteristics of waste carpet fibre. The chapter also deals with the mix
design of the concrete containing carpet fibre and POFA, and the optimization of the
fibre’s length and POFA content in terms of workability and strength properties.
Chapter 5: This chapter reveals the physical and mechanical properties of
concrete containing carpet fibres and POFA. These include workability in terms of
slump and Vebe, fresh density, air content, setting time and heat of hydration for the
fresh concrete. It also presents the results obtained and discussion made on the
evaluation of mechanical and deformation properties of hardened concrete. Tests
falling in this category comprise, compressive strength, post failure compressive
strength, tensile and flexural strengths, ultrasonic pulse velocity, modulus of elasticity,
impact resistance, drying shrinkage and creep. Moreover, the related microstructure
analysis of concrete specimens cured in water for different curing period are also
present in this chapter.
11
Chapter 6: This chapter deals with the results and discussion arising from
durability tests conducted on concrete containing carpet fibre and palm oil fuel ash.
Durability aspects performed in this chapter are; permeability (water absorption and
sorptivity), chloride penetration, sulphate attack, acid attack, carbonation and fire
endurance. The durability properties of concrete mixture are also support with
microstructure analysis in terms of scanning electron micrograph (SEM),
Thermogravimetry analysis (TGA) and X-ray diffraction (XRD), in order to deep
understanding the performance of concrete in different environmental conditions.
Chapter 7: The chapter concludes this dissertation by stating the achievements
and findings of the study and the contribution of the research to the existing
knowledge. Recommendations are also made for further study in related fields to
enhance the quality of concrete using waste materials such as carpet fibre and palm oil
fuel ash.
263
REFERENCES
Abdullah, K., Hussin, M.W., Zakaria, F., Muhamad, R. & Hamid, Z.A., 2006. POFA: A
potential partial cement replacement material in aerated concrete. In Proceedings of
the 6th Asia-Pacific structural engineering and construction conference (APSEC
2006), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, pp. 5-6.
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