Hygiene as a science. Prophylactic

direction of medicine. Methods of hygienic

researches. Hygienic role of climate and

weather, peculiarities of their influence to

the health of people.

Hygiene is a science about preservation and strengthening of public and individual health by realization of preventive actions. There are two ways to improve health of people: -Protection and improvement of an environment;- Preservation and increasing of resistibility of an organism.

The experience of modern medicine tests that :the professional competence of a doctor is formed

by two kinds of medical knowledge and two basic methods of medical activity. The first kind of knowledge is prophylaxis of illnesses, preservation and im provement of population health. The second trend is treatment of diseases. The knowledge of hygiene allows a doctor of any specialty (therapeutist, pediatrician, surgeon, stomatologist) to implement correctly preventive measures, to increase health of population.

Among many diseases the following are allocated, first of all:

Occupational diseases and poisonings caused by pathogenic influence of conditions and factors of work;

Illnesses connected with irrational nutrition (avitaminosis, obesity, etc.), with the use of substandard food (food poisonings, infections, etc.);

Diseases connected with the use of drinking water, not adequate to hygienic requirements on chemical and bacterial structure;

(Con)

Illnesses arising from influence of radionuclides due to wrong organization of work with radioactive substances or pollution of the environment with them;

The diseases of children and teenagers (underweight, disorders of locomotive system, etc.), caused by unfavorable conditions of training and education

(to be continued)

con

Illnesses of respiratory tract as a result of intensive pollution of atmospheric air;

Infectious and parasite illnesses, occurring and spreading due to sanitary conditions of the environment;

Illnesses connected with influence of unfavorable hygienic conditions of dwelling.

Beside that there is a large group of ecologically caused diseases – allergy, malignant tumors, genetic and reproductive disorders, etc.

The main sections of Hygiene:

Communal (municipal) HygieneHygiene of NutritionOccupational HygieneMilitary HygieneHygiene of Children and AdolescentsPsychohygienePersonal HygieneHygiene of Medical institutions

Etymology of the word “Hygiene”:

Hygiene is a branch of medicine, which studies the influence of factors of the environment, living and working conditions on the population's health, creates hygienic norms and rules to preserve health, to increase working capacity and life span.

Sanitation

Sanitation is a practical appliance of hygiene in our life. Sanitary-Epidemiolo- gical Station is a service (governmental institution) which controls if hygienic norms are in use in our daily activity.

Etymology

The word "Hygiene" comes from the Greek word "Hygieinos", it means carrying health. According to Greek mythology God of medicine

History

Aesculapius had two daughters. The elder

daughter was named Panacea. She initiated the therapeutic trend in medicine. The junior daughter was called Hygeia. She promoted prophylactic trend of medicine. The ancients honored Hygeia as Goddess of health. The well-known English scientist E.A. Park speaking of hygiene said: "The main task of this science consists in making the human development the most perfective one, but a decay of his life the slowest one and his death the most remote one".

Nykolay I. Pyrogov said:

“I believe in Hygiene. The future of medicine belongs to prophylaxis, it’s a real progress of medical science.”

Therapeutic medicine is a science about etiology, pathogenesis, diagnostic and treatment of diseases. Hygiene is a science about health of healthy people. Because of this, there are two types of doctors: attending doctors (therapeutists, surgeons, neurologists, obstetricians etc.) and doctors-hygienists, i.e. doctors who are engaged in prophylaxis.

obstetrics [ ] (functioning as sing.) the branch of medicine concerned with childbirth and the treatment of women before and after childbirth

sanatorium [ ] or sanitarium , -riums or -ria [] 1) an institution for the medical care and recuperation of persons who are chronically ill 2) a health resort 3) a room in a boarding school where sick pupils may be treated in isolation • Etymology: from New Latin, from Latin sānāre to heal

There are also two kinds of medical establishments:

therapeutic ones (polyclinics, hospitals, clinics, therapeutic dispensaries) and prophylactic ones (sanitary-epidemiologic stations, sanatoriums and preventoriums, prophylactic dispensaries).

Kinds of prophylaxis are:

Primary prophylaxisSecondary prophylaxisTertiary prophylaxis

Primary prophylaxis

Is carried out individually among healthy people. Its aim is to prevent the disease. This is the highest form of prophylaxis. It includes hygienic and special measures.

Hygienic measures

mean a healthy way of living and carrying out prophylactic inoculations (specific prophylaxis).

Special measures

are carried out by doctors, who are experts in their own field, with the purpose of prevention of some kinds of disease.

Secondary prophylaxis

is carried out among persons, who are falling ill, on the individual base. Its aim is to prevent the relapses, complications and transition from acute state to chronic form of disease.

N.B. An acute disease is easier to treat than a chronic one.

The categories of chronic disease are:

1) illnesses without symptoms

2) chronic illnesses, which are growing progressively worse

3) invalidating chronic illnesses

4) incurable hereditary diseases

Water as a factor of health. Hygienic significance

of water. Requirements toquality of drinking water. Hygiene of water supply. Methods of water

quality improvement.

Main functions of water

Physiological:

- for assimilation, dissimilation, resorption, elimination, and thermoregulation;

- solvent for nutritious substances;

- as plastic material;Sanitary; Household;

Main functions of water (con)

Industrial, agriculturalHealth-improving; Recreational

Physiological significance of water

Fatty tissue consists of 30% of water. White matter of brain and liver contains

70% of water,skin about 72%, muscles - 76%. About 79% of water is in heart and 83% in

kidneys. Grey matter of brain contains 86% of water and eyes - 90%.

Physiological significance of water

Blood and lymph are water solutions of complex chemical compound.

The human body consists of 65 - 70% of water on an average.

Kinds of water supply

Decentralized or local; Centralized or water pipe (hot and cold

running water, tap water)

Water hygienic requirements

Water should have perfect organoleptic and physical qualities;

Water should have optimal chemical composition;Water should not decrease biological value of food;Water should not be hard; Water should not include radiological and toxic

substances (no higher than maximum concentration limit);

Water should not include pathogenic germs.

Water transmitted diseases

1. Bacterial infectious diseases (cholera, typhoid, salmonellosis, dysentery, paratyphoid, brucellosis, plague, leptospirosis, etc.);

2. Viral diseases (viral hepatitis, poliomyelitis, enterovirus diseases);

3. Protozoan diseases (balantidiasis, amebic dysentery);

4. Helminthiasises (ascaridiasis, diphyllobothriasis, schistosomiasis, etc.);

5. Diseases due to water chemical composition

Diseases due to water chemical composition:

As a result of high water hardness (urolithiasis, nephrolithiasis, podagra) or low water hardness (cardio-vascular diseases, osteoporosis);

As a result of high quantity of nitrogenated compounds (hydro-nitrate (well-water) methemoglobinemia);

biogeochemical endemia (caries, fluorosis, endemic goitre, molybdenic arthritis, Kashin-Bek disease (strontium endemic osteoarthritis), boric enteritis);

Presence of toxic chemical substances ("ungulate disease" (As), lead poisoning (Pb pipes), Minomata disease (Hg), Cd poisoning)

Zones of sanitary maintenance

The zone of sanitary maintenance of water supply source is specific territory concerned with waterworks intake

1. Clozed zone - includes area of water source and main waterworks intakes. This zone is enclosed and supervised

2. Restricted zone includes area of water source up and down stream (some kilometers)

3. Observational zone (tens km)

Vinnytsya National Medical University Hygiene and Ecology Department

ТOPIC OF THE LECTURE:NUTRITION AS A FACTOR OF

HEALTH. SCIENTIFIC FOUNDATIONS OF RATIONAL NUTRITION. HYGIENIC

SIGNIFICANCE OF SEPARATE COMPONENTS OF NUTRITION. HYGIENIC

FOUNDATIONS OF ALIMENTARY DISEASES

& FOOD POISONINGS PREVENTION. Lecturer – Krystyna Zaytseva,PhD,

Assistant Professor of Hygiene & Ecology Department

Outline of the lecture:1. Scientific bases of balanced nutrition /Теrminological review/

1.1. Concept of Adequate Nutrition

1.2. Concept of Balanced Nutrition

1.3. Concept of Rational Nutrition

1.4. Biomedical Significance of Food (Functions of food)

1.5. The basic kinds of nutrition

1.6. Biological action of food

1.7. Classification of Nutritive Substances (The basic kinds of food substances)

1.8. Classification of the Food Products (Aliments) by origin

2. Hygienic significance of separate components of nutrition

2.1. Biomedical Value of Proteins. Diseases due to Protein Insufficiency & Excess

2.2. Biomedical value of Fats. Diseases due to Fat Insufficiency & Excess

2.3. Biomedical value of Carbohydrates. Diseases due to Carbohydrate Insufficiency & Excess.

2.4. Biomedical value of Minerals. Classification of Minerals.

2.5. Biomedical value of Vitamins. Classification of Vitamins.

3. Sanitary-and-Hygienic Expertise of Food Products (Aliments)

4. Hygienic foundations of Alimentary Diseases Prevention and Food Poisonings Prevention.

4.1 Classification of Alimentary Diseases & Food Poisonings

4.2. The basic directions of Alimentary Diseases & Food Poisonings Preventions

Labor and health. Occupational Hygiene and Occupational Physiology. Classifica-tion of harmful factors of the working process and industrial environment. Hygienic characteristic of physical, chemical and biological factors of industrial environment.

LECTURE 4

of prophylactic medicine that studies conditions and character of the work, their influence on the health and functional state of the human; it develops scientific basis of hygienic regulation of factors of working environment and production.

Hygiene of labour - is a branch

Physical factorsChemical factorsBiological factorsNot correct organisation of work (too

intensive work, absence of breaks in work …)

Bad sanitary conditions of work (bad ventilation, bad lighting, absence of toilet, absence of hot and cold water)

Classification of harmful occupational factors:

microclimate (temperature, humidity, air movement, temperature radiation)

nonionizing radiation (electrostatic field, permanent magnetic field, electric and magnetic fields of industrial frequency (50 hertz), ionizing radiation

Physical factors:

industrial noise, ultrasound, infrasoundvibration (local, general)lighting (natural; artificial – insufficient,

direct and reflected shine, fluctuation of lighting).

Physical factors:

substances of chemical origin,substances of biological character that

were obtained due to chemical synthesis, substances that should be controlled due

to chemical analysis.

Chemical factors:

micro-organisms - producers, viruses, and spores, pathogens.

Biological factors

protozoan [] , -zoa [] or -zoans 1) Also called: protozoon [] -zoa any of various minute unicellular organisms formerly regarded as invertebrates of the phylum Protozoa but now usually classified in certain phyla of protoctists. Protozoans include flagellates, ciliates, sporozoans, amoebas, and foraminifers also protozoic 2) of or relating to protozoans

(maximum permissible concentration, maximum permissible level, etc): are the levels of harmful working factors which cannot cause diseases or disturbance in health, which can be indicated by modern research methods, during the work or remote life periods of the present and subsequent generations. The norms are measured for daily work (except days off) during 8 hours, but not more than 40 per week.

Hygienic norms of working conditions

The Hygienic CLASSIFICATION OF WORK ACCORDING THE HARMFULNESS AND DANGER OF FACTORS OF WORKING ENVIRONMENT, PRODUCTIVE HARDNESS AND TENSION

The act of Ministry of Health of Ukraine №528 on 27.12.2001 introduced

List of the main occupational diseases

Psycho-emotional factors (psycho-emotional stress at working place)

Work with mentally ill people

Psychoneuroses, depression, neuroasthenia

Psychoneuroses, traumas.

Prevention (prophylaxis) of the occupational pathology is the system of state, medical and public measures aimed at improvement and preservation of the workers’ health at industrial or agricultural enterprises.

Primary (initial) prophylaxis includes prevention of diseases, influence on the factors that cause illness and risk factors that stimulate it.

Repeated (secondary) prophylaxis aims at prevention of development and aggravation of the disease, elimination of negative influence of the environmental factors and systematic treatment of the patient.

Kinds of prophylaxis

includes medico–prophylactic technologies aimed at removing negative consequences of the disease (relapses, complications, temporary and permanent disability, death). Also this kind of prophylaxis contemplates improvement of patients’ life quality (prosthetics, removing of pain syndrome

Tertiary prophylaxis

The workers of all professions who are under 21 years old.

The workers of all professions who work being influenced by harmful substances and negative working factors.

The workers of all professions who work underground.

The workers of all professions who work at hydrometeorological stations, communication services located in polar, mountainous, arid (desert) regions or other back or uninhabited lands, in difficult climatic conditions.

The list of professions that require medical examinations of the workers:

The workers of all professions who work at high altitude.

The workers who work at electrical installations with the voltage more than 1000 V.

The workers of all professions who work in the forestry and timber enterprises.

Machine operators who deal with the devices under pressure.

The list of professions that require medical examinations of the workers:

Boiler plant workers Workers who deal with explosive

substances or who work at highly explosive or fire-hazardous enterprises

Work with machinery Work connected with means of transport.

The list of professions that requires medical examination of the workers:

Pediatric hygiene

Pediatric hygiene – is the main prophylactic science that researches the influence of factors of environment, academic (studying) and upbrining conditions on children’s health.

An object under study is children’s organism from the birth to the end of period of growth.

Pediatric hygiene (cont.)

Birth-rate, natural increase of population are very important indices of health of population.

The child is not a little adult and has many morphological and physiological peculiarities.

The organism of children and teenagers is characterized by 2 processes: growth and development.

Growth & development

Growth is a quantitative characteristic of children, whereas development is a qualitative one. These processes are interdependent one with the other.

Diseases of schoolchildren

As a result of studying stress, exacerbation of chronic illness; diseases of ears, throat, and nose, acute illness of upper respiratory organs are typical for pupils. From 50 % up to 90 % of pupils have dental caries.

 Morbidity rate per 1000 population of corresponding age

Morbidity of schoolchildren

Hypodynamia of children and irrational nutrition results in extra-weight of children and teenagers. Children of our generation are sitting all the way in schools (5-7 lessons) and spending 2-4 hours preparing their homework, let alone 3-5 hours watching TV. That is why physical activity and rational nutrition are very significant factors for prophylaxis of extra-weight.

Physiometric method

Vital volume of lungs is measured by means of water or air spirometers (lung tester). The child takes his maximum breath and exhales slowly in the mouthpiece of spirometer, exhalation through the nose is to be eliminated. After 2-3 measurements the largest result is taken into account. Muscular force of hands and trunk is determined by dynamometers.

Somatoscopic method

Skeleton is subdivided into thin (narrow shoulders and thorax, hands an feet of small size) stocky (broad skeleton, wide shoulders and hands is evaluate more than an average one), and middle (intermediate between thin and stocky. Forms of the thorax are divided into cylindrical, conical, plane.

Somatoscopic method

The posture it’s a natural pose of freely standing man (or child). Posture can be correct or incorrect. Incorrect posture might be lordotic, kyphotic, straightened,

round shouldered.

Kinds of posture

Lordotic posture is characterized by extremely expressed lower back lordosis and decrease of cervical flexure. In case of lordotic posture head and shoulders a: throw: back while abdomen - forward. When the posture is round - shoulders the cervical flexure is extremely expressed and lumbar flexure is smoothed. Shoulders dropped, abdomen - forward. In kyphotic posture both flexures (cervical and lumbar flexures) are extremely expressed and at straightened posture they are smoothed.

How to assess physical development?

Method of "Sigmal deviations". Estimation of physical development children and teenagers by means of "Sigmal deviations" method is carried оn separately height, weight and other indices. First the material is reviewed and classified by age, sex, nationality, health condition, etc.

Method of " Regression scale"

Method of " Regression scale" by stature. This method takes into account correlation between stature, weight and circumference of thorax i.e. it allows to get combined estimation of physical development according totality of signs and their interdependence.

Complex method of estimation of physical development

This method is based on the method of "Regression scale" and takes into account number of teeth, level of sexual development, annual additions in stature, and others.

In accordance with this method of physical development estimation, all children and teenagers are divided into 3 groups.

Groups of physical development

The first group includes children whose biological age corresponds to their passport age. The second group includes all children whose biological age overtakes passport one. Children whose biological age is below passport one are classifyed as the third group of physical development.

Methods of hygienic estimation of functional readiness of children for education at school.

Express-evaluation (screening test) of functional readiness of children for education at school (test by Kern-Eraesek)

The deep (profound) psychophysiological study of the higher nervous activity of the child.

Test by Kern-Erasek consists of three tasks:

- Drawing a man;

- Copying a short phrase of 3-4 words;

- Copying a group of dots.

Test by Kern-Erasek

In the first task the child should draw a man without any instructions; in the second task he should copy a short phrase from the sample, e.g. “ He ate the soup”, “She drank milk”; in the third – the child looks at the sample for 1 minute and then tries to remember the number and location of dots and copy them into his paper.

The criteria of general estimation:

Up to 5 points – high functional readiness of children for education at school;

6-10 points – medium functional readiness of children for education at school;

More than 11 points – low functional readiness of children for education at school.

Vinnytsya National Pirogov Memorial Medical UniversityHygiene and Ecology Department

ТOPIC OF THE LECTURE: Hospital Hygiene. Modern problems of hospital

construction. Nosocomial Infections Prevention. Occupational Hygiene of

different profile physicians.Lecturer – Krystyna Zaytseva, PhD,

Assistant Professor of Hygiene & Ecology Department

Outline of the lecture:1. Hospital Hygiene as a Section of Hygiene. The basic concepts of Hospital Hygiene.

1.1. Contents (Set of basic forms/documents/) of Hospital Construction Project

1.2. The basic variants of Conclusion on the results of Hospital Construction Project Sanitary Expertise

1.3. Basic systems of hospital construction

1.4. Hygienic requirements to the land plot for hospital building

1.5. Functional Zones of hospital land plot

1.6. Hygienic principles of internal planning of hospital buildings

1.7. Planning of department wards. The basic types of hospital wards.

1.8. Air Cleanness Sanitary Criteria in a hospital ward

1.9. Rational bed dislocation in the hospital ward

2. Nosocomial Infections Prevention.

2.1. Concept of Nosocomial Infection.

2.2. Concept of Sanitary-Antepidemic Regimen. Groups of Measures of Sanitary-Antepidemic Regimen at the hospital.

2.3. Disinfection. Classification of Disinfection.

3. Occupational Hygiene of different profile physicians (Occupational Hygiene of Therapist, Surgeon, Dentist, Infectionist, etc.)

Vinnytsya National Pirogov Memorial Medical UniversityHygiene and Ecology Department

ТOPIC OF THE LECTURE: HYGIENIC FOUNDATIONS OF HEALTHY LIFESTYLE.

ACTUAL PROBLEMS OF PERSONAL HYGIENE. MODERN PROBLEMS OF

PSYCHOHYGIENE AND MENTAL HEALTH PROMOTION. HYGIENIC FOUNDATIONS

OF BIORHYTHMOLOGY.Lecturer – Krystyna Zaytseva, PhD, Assistant

Professor of Hygiene & Ecology Department

Outline of the lecture:1. Hygienic foundations of healthy lifestyle.

1.1. ‘Health’ & ‘Lifestyle’ as 2 basic characteristics of human organism condition. Definitions.

1.2. Concept of Wellness

1.3. Lifestyle significance for health & wellness

1.4. Lifestyle conception by acad. Lisitsin (Russia)

1.5. State-of-art definitions for lifestyle

2. Actual problems of Personal Hygiene.

2.1. The main types of lifestyle errors

3. Modern Problems of Psychohygiene and Mental Health Promotion.

3.1. Definition of Psychohygiene (Mental Hygiene)

3.2. Basic tasks of Psychohygiene

3.3. Concept of Mental Health

3.4. Psychohygienic principles of Mental Health Promotion

3.5. Definition of Psychophysiology

3.6. Main socially significant psychophysiological functions

3.7. Main professionally significant psychophysiological functions

4. Hygienic foundations of Biorhythmology.

4.1. Definition of Chronohygiene

4.2. Definition of Biorhythm. Human types by biorhythmological structure of organism

4.3. Desynchronization as a ‘Civilization Disease’. Differential Diagnosis between Desynchronization & Fatigue

Vinnytsya National Pirogov Memorial Medical UniversityHygiene and Ecology Department

ТOPIC OF THE LECTURE: Radiation Hygiene. Hygienic problems of

environment pollution with radionuclides. Hygienic aspects of Antirad Protection at

medical treatment facilities.Lecturer – Krystyna Zaytseva, PhD, Assistant

Professor of Hygiene & Ecology Department

Outline of the lecture:1. Radiation Hygiene

1.1. Radiation Hygiene as a branch of hygiene /brief intro/

1.2. Foundations of Theory of Radioactivity /Basic concepts review/

2. Hygienic problems of environment pollution with radionuclides

2.1. Qualitative and Quantitative Characteristics for Radionuclides (connected to radioactive pollution of environment and health impact)

2.2. Qualitative and Quantitative Characteristics for different kinds of Ionizing Radiation (connected to radioactive pollution of environment and health impact)

2.3. Radiobiological Effects

3. Hygienic aspects of Antirad Protection at the medical treatment facilities

3.1. The basic directions of Antirad Protection

3.2 .Radiation Control Devices

3.3. Radiation Safety Standards in Ukraine

Vinnytsya National Pirogov Memorial Medical UniversityHygiene and Ecology Department

ТOPIC OF THE LECTURE: HYGIENIC CHARACTERISTIC OF CLIMATE AND WEATHER IN COUNTRIES WITH HOT

CLIMATE AND TROPICAL BELT COUNTRIES. QUESTIONS OF MUNICIPAL HYGIENE,

URBAN PLANNING AND WATER SUPPLY IN TROPICAL CLIMATE. HYGIENIC PROBLEMS

OF RATIONAL NUTRITION IN COUNTRIES WITH HOT CLIMATE AND TROPICAL BELT

COUNTRIES. WHO PREVENTIVE PROGRAMS.Lecturer – Krystyna Zaytseva, PhD, Assistant Professor

of Hygiene & Ecology Department

Outline of the lecture:1. Hygienic characteristic of climate and weather in countries with hot climate and Tropical Belt Countries (Brief Intro).1.1. Tropics as geographic concept (Definition). Geography of Tropical Zone.

1.2. Medico-geographical aspect of characteristic of Tropics

1.3. The basic types of tropical climate

2. Influence of hot climate on the person organism2.1. Medical Climatology & Medical Geography as the Sciences Allied to Climatology

2.2. Peculiarities of air temperature in tropical belt. Standard, Health Impact.

2.3. Peculiarities of air humidity in tropical belt. Health Impact. Standard, Health Impact.

2.4. Heat stroke (condition, pathogenesis, disease clinical pattern)

3. Questions of Municipal Hygiene, urban planning and water supply in tropical climate. 3.1. 3 basic types of wells in tropical countries /recommended by WHO/

3.2. Problems of the occupied places planning in tropical countries. Recommended medical and sanitary support of occupied places in tropical countries /by WHO/. 3.3. Basic types of toilettes for tropical contries / recommended by WHO/.

3.4. Problems of Labor Hygiene in conditions of tropics (day regimen, wear, footwear )

4. Hygienic problems of rational nutrition in Tropical Belt Countries.4.1.Classification of Tropical Diseases with Alimentary Way of transmission (by WHO)

5. WHO preventive programs.

5.1. Brief history, aims & structure of WHO. ‘The Millennium Development Goals’.

Urbanization and population health.

Hygienic significance of accommodation

Different forms of urbanization can be classified depending on the style of architecture and planning methods as well as historic growth of areas.

In cities of the developed world urbanization traditionally exhibited a concentration of human activities and settlements around the downtown area, the so-called in-migration. In-migration refers to migration from former colonies and similar places.

Recent developments, such as inner-city redevelopment schemes, mean that new arrivals in cities no longer necessarily settle in the centre. In some developed regions, the reverse effect, originally called counter urbanisation has occurred, with cities losing population to rural areas, and is particularly common for richer families.

inner city: a) the parts of a city in or near its centre, esp when they are associated with poverty, unemployment, substandard housing, etc b) (as modifier) inner-city schools inner city район трущоб ("город в городе") Бедный район, обычно в центральной части ...

Private car circulation has been restricted in some cities in South America and Europe in attempts to reduce harmful levels of air pollution. Worldwide, more than 1 000 million urban residents are exposed to health-threatening levels of air pollution (Schwele 1995).

Urbanisation is most rapid in Third World countries, where the world's largest cities occur. Mexico City, the world's largest city, has a population of more than 18 million, estimated to grow to over 26 million people by the year 2000.

Unplanned rapid urbanisation has been identified as a health hazard in southern Africa, leading to conditions that spread serious diseases. These diseases stem from environmental problems such as contaminated water, poor sanitation, smoke-polluted indoor air and exposure to mosquitoes, along with other examples of crowded living conditions.

Environment pollution

Chemicals used in both primary sectors are major factors in causing and worsening tuberculosis, bronchitis, heart disease, cancer and asthma. Increased exposure to chemical health risks in urban areas is particularly harmful to children and pregnant women.

Air pollution

The quality of air is also affected by the industrialisation that occurs with urbanisation. Air pollution levels are neither monitored nor controlled in most cities in Africa, but while air pollution is still low compared with other areas,

‘The main sources of air pollution are found in urban areas and major developments such as mines and industries. Burning of fuelwood, fires, exhaust fumes from vehicles and the use of coal in factories cause air pollution,

Urban demand for water in Latin America is likely to rise fivefold during the next four decades (WRI, UNEP and UNDP 1994).

In Western Europe (EEA 1998) and North America (WRI, UNEP, UNDP and WB 1996), in contrast with most other regions, there is a move out of large cities into suburbs and smaller urban centres.

Conclusion

Recent trends in urbanization reflect economic and political changes. Within the context of the structural changes in the world economy, some regions and cities have proved more flexible than nations in adapting to changing economic conditions.

Thank you!

accommodation [] 1) lodging or board and lodging 2) adjustment, as of differences or to new circumstances; adaptation, settlement, or reconciliation 3) something fulfilling a need, want, etc.; convenience or facility 4) physiology the automatic or voluntary adjustment of the shape of the lens of the eye for far or near vision 5) willingness to help or oblige 6) commerce a loan, usually made as an act of favour by a bank before formal credit arrangements are agreed