hydrodynamics and physical properties of seawater...
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HYDRODYNAMICS AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SEAWATER IN DARVEL BAY, SABAH.
EJRIA BINTI SALEH
~ PERPUSTAIWd tJNIVERSITI MALA,(S~.!.\. v f'" '~4
THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY
BORNEO MARINE RESEARCH INSTITUTE UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH
2007
JUDUL
IJAZAH
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH
BORANG PENGESAHAN STATUS TESIS@
Hydrodynamics and physical properties of seawater in Darvel Bay, Sabah.
Doktor Falsafah (Oseanografi fizikal)
SESI PENGAJIAN 1998/2007
Saya, EJRIA BINTI SALEH , mengaku membenarkan tesis Doktor Falsafah ini disimpan dia Perpustakaan Universiti Malysia Sabah dengan syarat- syarat kegunaan seperti berikut:
1. Tesis adalah hakmilik Universiti Malaysia Sabah. 2. Perpustakaan Universiti Malaysia Sabah dibenarkan membuat salinan
untuk tujuan pengajian sahaja . 3. Perpustakaan dibenarkan membuat salinan tesis ini sebagai bahan
pertukaran antara institusi pengajian tinggi. 4. TIDAK TERHAD
Alamat Tetap:
226 , Taman Jindo, 88300, Kota Kiabalu Sabah. Email : [email protected]
Tarikh: 080gos 2007
Disahkan oleh :
(TANDATANGAN PUSTAKAWAN)
-
(Penyelia : Prof Dr. Ridzwan Abdul Rahman)
Tarikh: /0 cr;"s ZOOl
CATATAN : @ Tesis dimaksudkan sebagai tesis ijazah Doktor Falsafah secara penyelidikan , atau disertasi bagi pengajian secara penyelidikan
DECLARA TION
I hereby declare that the work in this thesis is my own except for quotations, excerpts, summaries and references that have been duly acknowledged .
II
ttt
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First of all I would like to thank God for His love, care and blessings for completing this
Ph .D thesis successfully. This thesis is the result of my Ph .D research work in Universiti
Malaysia Sabah whereby I have been accompanied and supported by many people. To
those who have helped me get through the last few years, I would like to acknowledge
the time you spent for me, the knowledge you shared with me, and the support you gave
me when I needed it most.
The first person I would like to thank is my main supervisor Prof. Dr. Ridzwan Abdul
Rahman. lowed him my utmost gratitude for having shown me this way of research . He
may not even realised how much I have learned from him . I would like to thank my co
supervisor Dr. Md Azharul Hoque who always kept an eye on the progress of my work
and was always available whenever I needed his advises. I appreciate your serious
dedication throughout the research and thesis writing .
I would like to express sincere appreciation to Prof. Dr. Saleem Mustafa, Director of
Borneo Marine Research Institute, Dr. Shah bud in Saad and Dr. Sitti Raehanah Muhd.
Shaleh, Deputy Director of Borneo Marine Research Institute for their guidance and
advice. I would also like to thank all the other fellow colleagues of Borneo Marine
Research Institute for their friendly advice, continued support and enduring patience.
I felt a deep sense of gratitude for my parents and parents in-law who formed part of my
vision and taught me the good things that really matter in life. I am grateful for my five
brothers and sisters. I am glad to be one of them . I would like to thank you all for having
shared many experiences and thoughts with me throughout these years.
I am very grateful to my husband and two growing sons, for their love and patience
during the period of preparing for the PhD study. My deepest and sincere gratitude to my
husband for inspiring and guiding this humble being . Special thanks to all
governmental/non-governmental departments and agencies who were involved in terms
of providing raw data, boatman and other facilities in the study.
The Author
IV
ABSTRACT
This study covers the hydrodynamic characteristics, wave climate and physical properties of seawater in Darvel Bay, Sabah , Malaysia . Water circulation and current patterns of approximately 17,150 km 2 were studied by generating and simulating the water current in the bay waters using Mike 21 HD module in two monsoons. The numerical simulation for northeast monsoon (NEM) was generated for the period of 03-05 December 2003 and the southwest monsoon (SWM) was generated for the period of 22-23 September 2005. Numerical model consists of bathymetric database set-up, calibration and validation of the models. Water current measurements were conducted by using two holy sock drogues tracking and current meter at the northern part of the study area . Holy sock drogues were deployed at 1 m below the water surface on 29 September 2003 and 03 December 2003 to represent the SWM and the NEM, respectively. Current velocity measurements using Aquadropp Profiler during 03-05 December 2003 was used to calibrate and verify the hydrodynamic simulation . Longterm wave climate in the study area was investigated through the model development using JONSWAP spectral analysis. Wind measurements for 5.25 years from the nearest wind station at Tawau were used for wave hindcasting. Extreme wave events for 20 years return period were calculated. Extensive field measurements were conducted in different monsoons to identify effects of hydrodynamic changes on physical properties of seawater. Temperature, salinity, pH and dissolved oxygen (DO) were measured on 05 March, 28 September and 17 December 1999 using Hydrolab. Seawater parameters were measured down to a depth of 30 m in 16 sampling stations. Vertical and horizontal profiles of measured parameters were discussed. Average current speed during ebb and flood tides from the holey sock drogues during September was 0.11 m/s and 0.12 mIs, respectively. It was reduced to 0.07 m/s during ebb tide and 0.09 m/s during flood tide in December. Both monsoon seasons showed that the holey sock drogues moved towards open sea during ebb tides and opposite direction during flood tides. The current velocity near the sea surface measured by Aquadopp Profile was almost 2 times higher than current velocity near the sea bottom. The range of current velocity during ebb tides was from 0.014 m/s to 0.18 m/s with average direction of 134°. During the flood tides current velocity ranged from of 0.011 m/s to 0.13 m/s during with average current direction of 250°. Currents simulation of 675 m resolution showed that strong current ranging from 0.05 to 0.20 m/s was detected along the northeast coastal area and moved towards Sakar Island before it turned towards Silam and Kunak areas with decreasing speed during the flood tides. Strong current were clearly shown at small passages within the islands in 75 m resolution. Wave hindcasting from the wind data showed strong wave activity from the east direction with maximum wave height of 1.58 m and wave period of 5.59 s, respectively. The impact of wave energy along the Darvel Bay coast is greatest during the SWM period . Seawater temperature is found to be varied at sea surface but slowly decreased towards 30 m of measurement. Salinity in September and December were higher compared to salinity in March. Variations of DO from surface to 30 m depth were found to be small but varied at different stations and months of sampling . Field measurement on pH depicted mostly constant value. Seasonal effects on water parameters in the study area. The findings of this research will be useful for seaweed farming , fisheries activities and coastal infrastructures development and management planning for the entire area of the Darvel Bay.
ABSTRAK
HIOROOINAMIK DAN CIRI-CIRI FIZIKAL AIR LAUT 01 TELUK OARVEL, SABAH
v
Kajian ini merangkumi hidrodinamik, iklim ombak, dan ciri-ciri fizikal air laut di Teluk Darvel, Sa bah, Malaysia. Pergerakan air dan corak arus yang meliputi kira-kira 17, 150km2 dikaji dengan kaedah simulasi numerik menggunakan model perisian hidrodinamik Mike 21 semasa mons un timur laut (NEM) pada 03-05 Disember 2003 dan mons un barat daya (SWM) pada 22-23 September 2005. Model numerik terdiri dari pengisian data asas batimatri, kalibrasi dan validasi model. Arus air diukur menggunakan 2 buah 'holey sock' dan meter arus yang kedua-duanya dipasang di bahagian utara kawasan kajian. 'Holey sock' dihanyutkan 1 m dari permukaan air pada 29 September 2003 dan 03 Disember 2003 bagi mewakili SWM dan NEM. Pengukuran halaju arus dibuat dengan menggunakan meter arus Aquadopp Profiler pada 02-05 Disember 2003. Data-data yang diperolehi dari meter arus digunakan untuk kalibrasi simulasi hidrodinamik. Iklim ombak di kawasan kajian dikenalpasti dengan menggunakan analisa JONSWAP spektral. Data harian angin selama 5.25 tahun yang diperolehi dari Stesen Tawau digunakan untuk mengetahui unjuran ombak. Kejadian ombak lampau untuk jangka masa 20 tahun juga turut dikira. Pengukuran terhadap suhu, saliniti, pH dan oksigen ter/arut (DO) air laut dilapangan pada dua mons un yang berlainan dijalankan untuk mengenal pasti kesan perubahan hidrodinamik terhadap parameter fizikal air laut. Pengukuran dilakukan pada 05 Mac, 28 September dan 17 Disember 1999 dengan menggunakan Hydrolab. Parameter air laut diukur 1 m dar; permukaan sehingga 30 m kedalaman air di 16 stesen kajian. Perbincangan dibuat berdasarkan profit vertikal dan taburan horizontal bagi setiap parameter air yang diukur. Purata halaju arus diukur menggunakan 'holey sock ' pada bulan September adalah 0.011 mls semasa air surut manakala 0.12mls semasa air pasang. Pada bulan Disember, halaju berkurang kepada 0.07 mls semasa air surut dan 0.09 mls semasa air pasang. Kedua-dua monsun menunjukkan air bergerak ke arah laut terbuka semasa surut dan bergerak ke arah bertentangan semasa pasang. Bacaan dari Aquadopp Profile mendapati halaju arus pada bahagian permukaan adalah 2 kali lebih tinggi dari ba/7agian dasar. Julat halaju semasa air surut adalah diantara 0.014 mls -0.18 mls dan bergerak pada purata arah 134°. Semasa air pasang pula julat halaju arus adalah diantara 0.011 mls - 0.13 mls dan bergerak pada purata arah 250°. Simulasi arus pada 675 m resolusi menunjukkan halaju arus semasa air pasang di pesisir pantai bahagian timur laut teluk adalah di antara 0.05 mls hingga 0.20 mls dan bergerak ke arah Pulau Sakar sebelum ke kawasan perairan Silam dan Kunak. Arus deras jelas kelihatan di antara pulau-pulau pada 75 m resolusi. Unjuran ombak adalah kuat dari arah timur dengan ketinggian maksimum 1.58 m dan masa ombak adalah 5.59 s. Kesan tenaga ombak adalah ketara di sepanjang pantai utara Teluk Darvel semasa SWM. Suhu air adalah tidak sekata di bahagian permukaan dan semakin berkurangan sehingga 30 m kedalaman . Saliniti pada bulan September dan Disember adalah lebih tinggi daripada saliniti bulan Mac. Nilai DO tidak menunjukkan perbezaan yang ketara di antara permukaan sehingga kedalaman 30 m bagi setiap stesen dan bulan pensampelan manakala nitai bacaan pH didapati paling konstan diantara parameter air yang diukur. Hasil kajian ini dapat memberi manfaat bagi aktiviti pengkulturan rumpai laut, perikanan dan perancangan pengurusan bagi keseluruhan kawasan Teluk Darvel.
DECLARATION
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
ABSTRACT
ABSTRAK
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
ii
ii i
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES
v
vi
ix
xii
xiii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
LIST OF SYMBOLS xiv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Objectives 6 1.3. Significance of the Study 6
1.3.1 Impacts of Land Use Changes on Marine Ecosystems 6
1.3.2 Distribution and Dispersion of Marine 8 Organisms
1.3.3 Aquaculture and Mariculture Activities 8 1.3.4 Eco-Tourism Activities 9 1.3.5 Fisheries Activities 10
CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL SETTINGS 12 2.1. Geographic Location 12 2.2. Catchment Area 13 2.3. Coastal Geomorphology 16 2.4. Bathymetry 17 2.5. Climate Condition 18
2.5.1 Wind 18 2.5.2 Rainfall 19
CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW 22 3.1 . Coastal Processes 22 3.2 . Seawater Properties 23 3.3. Waves 24 3.4 . Tidal Elevation 26 3.5. Water Circulation 29 3.6. Surface Currents in Sulawesi Sea 30 3.7. Water Current Measurement 32
3.7 .1. Langrangian Method 32 3.7.2. Eulerian Method 34
3.8. Computational Modelling 34 3.8.1. Numerical Models for Coastal Water 35 3.8.2. Implications of Numerical Models 36 3.8.3. MIKE 21 Systems 37
VI
CHAPTER 4: HYDRODYNAMICS CHARACTERISTICS 4.1. Introduction 4.2. Methods
4.2.1 Field Investigation 4.2 .1.1 Measurement of Surface Current
4.2.1 .2 Measurement of Vertical Current
40 40 41 41 41
43
4.2.2 Data Analysis 43
4.3. Hydrodynamic Modelling 44
4.3.1 Model Set-Up for Bathymetry 44 4.3.2 Input Parameters 48 4.3.3 Boundary Conditions 49 4.3.4 Model Calibration and Validation 50
4.4. Results 50 4.4.1 Measurement of Surface current 50 4.4.2 Measurement of Vertical Current 53 4.4.3 Hydrodynamic Modeling 56
4.4.3.1 Hydrodynamics during the 56 Northeast Monsoon
4.4.3.2 Comparison of Measured and 59 Simulated Data
4.4.3.3 Hydrodynamics during the 59 Southwest Monsoon
4.4.3.4 Hydrodynamics at Different 64 Locations During the Southwest Monsoon
4.5. Discussion 66
CHAPTER 5: WIND AND WAVE CLIMATES 68 68 69 69 72 75 75 79 82
5.1. Introduction 5.2. Methods
5.2.1 Wind Data Analysis 5.2.2 Wave Hindcasting
5.3. Results 5.3.1 Wind Climates 5.3.2 Wave Hindcasting
5.4. Discussion
CHAPTER 6: PHYSICAL WATER PROPERTIES 6.1. Introduction 6.2. Methods
6.2.1 Field Measurement 6.2.2 Data Analysis
6.3. Results
84 84 86 86 87 88
6.3.1 Vertical Profiles of Seawater 88 Properties
6.3.1.1 Temperature Profiles 88 6.3.1.2 Salinity Profiles 91 6.3.1.3 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Profiles 93 6.3.1.4 pH Profiles 97
VII
CHAPTER 7:
REFERENCES
APPENDIXES
VIII
6.3.2 Horizontal Distributions of Seawater 97 Properties
6.3.2.1 Temperature Distributions 6.3 .2.2 Salinity Distributions 6.3.2.3 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Distributions 6.3.2.4 pH Distributions
6.4 . Discussion
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 7.1. Conclusions 7.2 . Recommendations for Future Study
97 97 98
98 103
107 107 109
111
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 2.1 : Location of Darvel Bay 13
Figure 2.2: Catchment area of Darvel Bay 15
Figure 2.3: Band 3, 2 and 1 subset image of Landsat ETM on 24 July 2002 21 for Darvel Bay area
Figure 3.1: Surface currents off Darvel Bay during the peak of the SWM in 33 August (A) and the NEM in January (B)
Figure 4.1 : Location of sampling stations 42
Figure 4.2: Holey Sock drogue 42
Figure 4.3: Four dynamically nested model areas of increasing resolution 46 from 675 m, 225 m, 75 m and 25 m grid spacing
Figure 4.4: 675 m resolution regional bathymetry 46
Figure 4.5: 225 m resolution intermediate bathymetry 47
Figure 4.6: 75 m resolution local bathymetry 47
Figure 4.7: 25 m resolution local bathymetry 48
Figure 4.8: Location of holey socks during the field measurement in 51 September (A) and December (B)
Figure 4.9: Velocity of the two holey sock drogues released at 9:00 a.m 52 on 29 September 2003
Figure 4.10: Velocities of the two holey sock drogues released at 9:00 a.m 52 on 03 December 2003
Figure 4.11 : Current plots of 8.41 m and 4.41 m depth between 10:15 p.m 54 on 03 December 2003 to 05 December 2003
Figure 4.12: Current velocity at 2 different layers (4.41 m and 8.41 m from 55 sea bottom) of water column measured by the Aquadopp Profiler
Figure 4.13: Current direction at 2 different layers (4.41 m and 8.41 m from 56 sea bottom) of water column measured by the Aquadopp Profiler
Figure 4.14: Comparison of predicted and simulated tidal level of Lahad 57 Datu between 1-7 December 2003
x
Figure 4.15: Current pattern during flood flow at grid spacing of 225 m 57
Figure 4 .16: Current pattern during flood flow at grid spacing of 75 m 58
Figure 4.17: Current pattern during flood flow at grid spacing of 25 m 58
Figure 4.18: Comparison of measured and simulated current velocity at St 1 60
Figure 4.19: Comparison of measured and simulated current direction at St1 60
Figure 4.20: Current pattern during flood flow at grid spacing of 61 75m
Figure 4.21 : Current pattern during ebb flow at grid spacing of 75 m 62
Figure 4.22 : Current pattern during flood flow at grid spacing of 675m 63
Figure 4.23: Current pattern during ebb flow at grid spacing of 675m 64
Figure 4.24 : Comparison of current velocity at three location points around 65 Darvel Bay
Figure 4.25: Comparison of current direction at three location points around 66 Darvel Bay
Figure 5.1: Study area for wave modeling in Darvel Bay 70
Figure 5.2: Flow chart of Jonswap wave hindcasting method 74
Figure 5.3: Directional distribution of hourly average wind speed 76
Figure 5.4: Wind class frequency distribution 77
Figure 5.5: Maximum and average of wind speed at northeast (NE), East 77 (E) and southeast (SE) directions
Figure 5.6: Comparison of long-term of hourly average wind speed at 78 different directions of interest
Figure 5.7: Local wind generated wave climate corresponding to 20 years 80 return period at the northeast wind direction
Figure 5.8: Local wind generated wave climate corresponding to 20 years 81 return period at the east wind direction
Figure 5.9: Local wind generated wave climate corresponding to 20-years 81 return period at the southeast wind direction
Figure 6.1: Location of seawater properties sampling stations 87
xi
Figure 6.2 : Vertical temperature profiles in March 1999 89
Figure 6.3: Vertica l temperature profiles in September 1999 90
Figure 6.4: Vertical temperature profiles in December 1999 90
Figure 6.5: Vertical salinity profiles in March 1999 91
Figure 6.6: Vertical salinity profiles in September 1999 92
Figure 6.7: Vertical salinity profiles in December 1999 92
Figure 6.8: Vertical DO profiles in March 1999 94
Figure 6.9: Vertical DO profiles in September 1999 94
Figure 6.10: Vertical DO profiles in December 1999 95
Figure 6.11 : Vertical pH profiles in March 1999 95
Figure 6.12: Vertical pH profiles in September 1999 96
Figure 6.13: Vertical pH profiles in December 1999 96
Figure 6.14: Horizontal distributions of temperature in (a) March (b) 99 September and (c) December
Figure 6.15: Horizontal distributions of salinity in (a) March (b) September 100 and (c) December
Figure 6.16: Horizontal distributions of DO in (a) March 101 (b) September and (c) December
Figure 6.17: Horizontal distributions of pH in (a) March (b) September and 102 (c) December
XI I
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 2.1: Geographic data of Lahad Datu and Kunak Districts 14
Table 3.1: Seawater properties for aquaculture water quality 24 management
Table 3.2: Tidal levels around the study area as published in the 27 admiralty chart number MAL 8503 (1998)
Table 3.3: Summary of the physical characteristics and strength of a 31 number of factors in Indonesia and China seas
Table 3.4: List of coastal development projects which required 36 hydraulics studies as outlined in the JPS Guidelines 1/97
Table 4.1: Set-up of bathymetries used for hydrodynamic modelling 48
Table 4.2: List of secondary data sources provided by various 49 departments
Table 4.3: Tidal boundary conditions applied in the hydrodynamic 50 modelling (Admiralty tide tables 1998)
Table 4.4 : Range of current velocity from holey sock drogues during 52 the SWM and NEM
Table 5.1: Maximum hourly-averaged wind speed (in m/s) 75
Table 5.2: Long-term prediction of hourly-averaged wind speed 79
Table 5.3: Wave characteristics for 20 years return period 79
Table 6.1: Average temperature in different months in Darvel Bay 104
Table 6.2: Average salinity in different months in Darvel Bay 104
Table 6.3: Average DO in different months in Darvel Bay 105
Table 6.4: Average pH in different months in Darvel Bay 106
ADCP
CERC
E
eq
ETM
FAO
GIS
GPS
HD
ICZM
JONSWAP
JPS
K1
Kg
M2
MHWS
MHWN
MLWN
MLWS MSL
mth
N
NE
NEM
0 1
RM
S2
Sg
5MB
St
SE
SWM
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler
Coastal Engineering Research Centre
East
Equation
Enhanced Thematic Mapper
Food and Agriculture Organization
Global Information System
Global Positioning System
Hydrodynamic
Integrated Coastal zone Management
Joint North Sea Wave Project
Jabatan Pengairan dan Sal iran
Principal lunar-solar diurnal for diurnal
Kampung
Principal lunar for semi-diurnal
Mean high water spring
Mean high water neap
Mean low water neap
Mean low water spring Mean sea level
Month
North
Northeast
Northeast monsoon
Principal lunar diurnal for diurnal
Ringgit Malaysia
Principal solar for semi-diurnal
Sungai
Sverdrup-Munk-Bretschneider
station
Southeast
Southwest monsoon
X III
XIV
LIST OF SYMBOLS
% Percent
a.m Ante meridiem (before midday)
em Centimetre
ha Hectare
hr Hour
kg Kilogram
km Kilometre
km/hr Kilometre per hour
km 2 Square kilometre
m Metre
m/s Meter per second
m3 Cubic meter
mCD Meter above Chart Datum
mg Milligram
mm Millimetre
mm/mth Millimetre per month
mm/yr Millimetre per year
mt Metric tonne
mth Month 0 Degree
°C Degree Celsius
p.m Post meridiem (past midday)
psu Practical salinity unit
sec Second
Sv Sverdrups (1 Sv= 106 m3 s-' )
yr Year
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Darvel Bay, the largest bay in the east coast of Sabah, is connected to the Pacific Ocean
through Sulawesi Sea. Lahad Datu and Kunak are two important growing towns around
the Bay. Sabah Economic Development Corporation (SEDCO) has announced to
implement a SEDCO Industrial Estate with a cost of RM 13 million surrounding 5 km from
Lahad Datu town centre which covers 40 ha of land. Currently, coastal areas around
Lahad Datu and Silam towns are already threatened by urban construction and
reclamation activities for harbor and road expansion . According to Cem and Assim (1996)
and De Silva et al. (1999b), increasing pressure of coastal development activities and
destruction of marine ecosystems by growing population are the main threat to the
marine ecosystem of Darvel Bay. As part of Malaysian Coastal Zone, coastal
development surrounding the bay is often carried out without any detailed study of the
dynamic processes including coastal erosion , sedimentation and depletion of water
quality (Othman and Lee, 1991). These could worsen coastal processes and coastal
environments after a few years if no action is taken. Understanding of hydrodynamic
processes is the primary importance to other studies in bay ecosystem. Detail and
accurate information of hydrodynamic characteristics generated by tides, winds and
waves patterns are also important for implementing any conservation and management
plan of the area .
Darvel Bay is located within the area of most biological diverse marine
environments in the Indo-Pacific region . About 80 percent of the local communities are
depending on marine resources as a source of livelihood. Related fisheries production
particularly dried prawns and salted fish are it's significant economic activities. Also,
Darvel Bay is categorized as one of the richest shrimp fishing grounds in Sabah (Kan ,
2003). Kunak and Lahad Datu areas are the third and fifth districts respectively in terms
of marine fish landing by Districts in Sabah (Department of Fisheries, 2004).
Most of the coastal fishermen operations are limited to the coastal area and
destructive fishing methods are widely used in the pas such as fish bombings which
contributed to over-fishing and created great adverse impact to the marine life and
coastal ecosystems. Loss or disturbance of the natural coastal ecosystems by the
destructive fishing methods may affect not only the abundance of associated marine
organisms but also its role as a buffer zone and finally leads to serious coastal hydraulic
modification and change of wave patterns (Carter, 1995). Conservation planning of
marine ecosystems and enrichment of any marine organisms program required detail
information of the hydrodynamic and wave energy profile in the Darvel Bay.
According to a spokesman from Cheng Xin Technology Development
Corporation in Taipei , Taiwan , Sabah is one of the best places in the world to undertake
open sea cage fishes farming due to pollution-free sea waters off the Sabah coast
(Borneo Post, 2003). In line with that, Agriculture and Food Industry Minister, Datuk
Abdul Rahim Ismail mentioned that marine area between Semporna and Lahad Datu are
two areas that had been earmarked by the Sabah State Government of 70 ,000 ha as
suitable for fish farming activities and also an area that would be gazetted as the
Aquaculture Industrial Zone (AIZ) (Daily Express, 2003). The state government has
strived to bring various AIZ related projects and encouraged investors to come and
venture in aquaculture-based projects in this area . Aquaculture activities in Darvel Bay
area include mangrove earthen ponds, floating cages, pens and oyster farms in Pulau
Bohayan. The biggest fish pens are located at Pulau Sampir, Kunak. Sheltered locations
in Darvel Bay lead this area to be a potential aquaculture activity. Aquaculture activities
in bays or coastal areas change physico-chemical water properties because nutrient and
organic wastes, in dissolved and particulate forms, stemming from uneaten food and
excreta generally affect the seawater properties. The sustainability of the aquaculture
activities also depended on the water quality and physical water properties, which were
governed by wave energy profiles , water circulation , hydrodynamic characteristics and
water exchange. Monsoonal variations also have substantial effects on seawater
properties. During the northeast monsoon (NEM), heavy rainfall would change the
salinity distribution in the coastal area and high suspended sediment discharges from
rivers would reduce the sunlight penetration in the water column. At present, there are
no detail documented records of physical properties of seawater in Darvel Bay. So as a
first step of planning any aquaculture activities, horizontal and vertical profiles as well as
monsoonal variations of seawater properties of Darvel Bay should be studied.
Darvel bay area was identified as a great potential for the development of local
seaweed industry. During the site survey conducted in 2004, seaweed culture mainly of
Graci/aria sp. was actively carried out in the sea flats in Kunak District and provided
additional livelihood resources for the coastal fishermen. Ibrahim (2002), reported that
Pangi , Madai and Pangkalan villages in Kunak District produced about 53,189.90 kg of
dried seaweed worth RM 78 ,541 .35 in 2000. However, the activity was not permanent
and tends to be seasonal due to seaweed diseases and bad weather (De Silva et a/.,
1999a). The successes of mariculture and aquaculture activities are not only
dependence on seasonal fluctuation of seawater parameters but also on hydrodynamic
changes and long-term wave climate which need to be studied to maximize the
production.
Marine tourism in Sabah has gained popularity over the years and will continue
to be one of the main attractions in boosting the state tourism industry. New Sabah
Times (2003), reported that tourism industry is one of the three priority sectors in the
Halatuju- Sabah's Economic Development Agenda . According to Picher (1996),
magnificent marine life is found around the islands of Darvel Bay to the southeast of
Semporna District while, Picher and Ridzwan , (1996) highlighted tourism activities such
as coastal resort development and sports recreation for yachting, treasure hunts, fishing,
island cruises and diving can be promoted due to fresh air, clear blue water and clean
white sand on most of the islands in Darvel Bay. Gua Madai, Hot Spring Lakes and
Pulau Batik Kulambu in Kunak District are some of the existing natural tourist attractions
in Darvel Bay while Tabin wildlife , Danum valley and Borneo Paradise Resort are
currently recognized as major tourist attractions. Strategic location and good marine
environment have already attracted several companies to invest in new projects based
on eco-tourism. For example, the proposed tourist and recreation centre at Timbadu ,
Lahad Datu which is based on sustainable exploitation of the natural environment and
serves as an educational centre (Panglima Fajar Sdn. Bhd., 1997). The nearshore
processes (such as coastal erosion , deposition etc.) are governed by waves and
hydrodynamics affecting some part of the bay. So a detailed study on hydrodynamics
and long-term wave climate in Darvel Bay will provide useful information for designing
any development projects in the study area.
4
Although the Darvel Bay is an important component of the east coast of Sabah in
terms of both ecosystem and natural capital , the physical coastal processes of the bay
are yet to be documented. There were only a few studies done on Darval Bay, which
were again mostly concerned with the marine biological aspects. Understanding of
hydrodynamics and physical properties of seawater in semi-enclosed waters is the
primary importance to other related studies of the bay ecosystem . As an example, the
water exchange through the inlet of the bay governs the spatio-temporal distribution of
hydro-geomorphologic characteristics and physico-chemical water properties, which are
important for the description of productivity and carrying capacity of the bay. The flow of
water current made some natural flushing to maintain good water circulation and for
mixing of physical properties of seawater, such as the salinity, and temperature. ~o the
knowledge in hydrodynamics and properties of seawater are important for sustainable
management of the bay ecosystem . The Sulawesi Sea, facing the Darvel Bay is
governed by the strong surface wind and corresponding ocean response during the
southwest and northeast monsoon period, for which the monsoonal variations of studied
parameter should also be investigated. The major aim of this work is to study the
hydrodynamic characteristics , wave climate and physical properties of seawater in
Darvel Bay through computational model simulation and field measurement.
5
1.2 Objectives
Motivated by the need to assess the hydrodynamics and physical properties of seawater
governed by the complex interactions of bay profile, wave energy, tidal flow, wave
current interactions in the Darvel Bay, the primary objectives of this research were as
follows:
1. To study the water circulation pattern in Darvel Bay through model
calculation and validation .
2. To calculate long-term extreme wave conditions in Darvel Bay.
3. To study the temporal and spatial distributions of physical properties of
seawater (temperature, salinity, pH and dissolved oxygen).
4 . To investigate the effects on monsoonal variations on hydrodynamic
characteristics, wave climate and physical properties of water.
1. 3 Significances of the Study
1.3.1 Impacts of Land Use Changes on Marine Ecosystems
Land use changes on both catchment and coastal areas of Darvel bay can alter the
pattern of stream flow and disturb its natural equilibrium between lands, estuaries and
coastal lines. Ongoing deforestation for large scale oil palm plantation and urban
development mainly contributed high suspended sediment concentration included
organic loads, nutrients, bacteria and toxic substances into nearshore area of Darvel
Bay. Rivers surrounding the bay (Figure 2.1) were primary transport mechanism of soil
sediment, industrial effluents and sewages into coastal area (Cem and Assim , 1996).
Even though some nutrients and sediment are needed to support aquatic organism's life ,
too much of such pollutants that wash into rivers and ultimately drain into coastal marine
habitats may contribute to eutrophication and change the physico-chemical of properties
of seawater (Kunzmann, 2002). Higher effects of eutrophication occurred in the coral
6
reef areas prevent sunlight penetrated deeper in the water column (Guzman, et al.,
1990). Furthermore , great concentration of chemical residues from the land could go to
food web and may kill most of the aquatic life.
Some streams and rivers that used to flow all year round were now drying up
during dry period while water level of rivers drastically increased during heavy rain . As
an example, on 29 December 2003, Tabanak River, a small river near Lahad Datu was
overflowed and washed away many houses and other properties along the river after
only three hours of continuous rainfall (Chong, 2003). Flash floods or reduced freshwater
discharge would cause change of existing natural processes in the bay along with
economic losses and would increase health risks to local community.
Malaysia has spent thousands of ringgit on the protection and restoration of
marine ecosystems including maintenance of navigation channels , dredging and
dredged material relocation . Most problems were related to sedimentation , accumulation
and transportation of sediments processes and relatively dependent on the movement of
tidal currents, littoral drift and wave climate in that area (Abdullah, 1999). Detailed
studies of waves and hydrodynamics characteristics could provide initial background
data to determine some of the coastal processes including sediment transport and
coastal pollutants distribution in Darvel Bay. These would help to overcome some of the
coastal management strategy problems especially for the Integrated Coastal Zone
Management (leZM), the selection of resources used and management options.
7
1.3.2 Distribution and Dispersion of Marine Organisms
Current patterns and hydrodynamic characteristics play an important role in transport
and mixing processes of properties of seawater (Lasker and Kapela , 1997). Transport
causes water exchange and mixing between different parts of a water body. Also, water
mixing causes mass exchange between layers or water volumes and tends to equilibrate
the physical and chemical characteristics of water mass. Increase of pollutants in the
water column may change the existing seawater properties through the transport and
mixing processes.
The importance of water mixing and hydrodynamic studies increases due to its
role as mechanisms of aquatic organisms metabolism and growth (Timchenko, 1994).
Mixing of sea surface temperature and other seawater parameters can significantly
change survival rates of planktonic organisms, which drift on the water surface and
finally affect the fish availability and abundance (Philander, 1989; Laevastu , 1993; Bond,
1996). Thus, an understanding of hydrodynamic phenomena and detailed information on
seawater properties are important in order to identify distribution of marine organism's
larvae and pollutants dispersion in coastal waters of Darvel Bay.
1.3.3 Aquaculture and Mariculture Activities
The success of fish pens and floating cages in Darvel Bay are dependent on the
abundance of wild fish stock and good marine environment. Fish pen operators basically
need several months to keep the live fish into size required by buyers in Hong Kong and
Taiwan . Within that period , good water quality and appropriate seawater properties are
needed to promote maximum fish growth whereas pens and floating cages need calm
areas both during the NEM and the southwest monsoon (SWM) so that their structures
can last longer.
8
Detailed information on current patterns and water circulation by current and
waves play an important role on growth and productivity of any floating and anchored
plants such as seaweed in tropical areas (Johnstone and Olafsson, 1995; Pettersson,
1995; Alongi , 1997). The study also reported that movement of water was necessary to
distribute nutrients and gases within the plant branches to remove wastes and to
enhance the rate of primary productivity. Aside from that, seaweeds are also affected by
temporal changes in the solar cycle, synchrony of tidal expose, water clarity and
occurrence of the wet and dry seasons (Edinger and Browne, 2000).
Study on current pattern and water circulation of different season is important in
seaweed farming which has the potential as main economic sources for the coastal
communities in Darvel Bay. Sudden weather change such as storm surge may occur
and causes damage to seaweed farming lines and other supporting structures. Failure of
the seaweed farming in this area was related with the seasonal change of wind and
waves which generate current patterns. Assessment of waves and current patterns,
which change throughout the year needed to identify for the safety of the seaweed line
structures and floating cages.
1.3.4 Eco-Tourism Activities
Studies of hydrodynamic characteristics play an important role in any eco-tourism project
dealing with water and related coastal development. It provides basic information for
development facilities planning of chalets and/or hotels such as sewage systems and
coastal protection . Such knowledge can also be used to minimise structures
maintenance cost for coastal structures and to reduce adverse effects to the marine
environment. Hydrodynamic information is also required in eco-tourism's development
9
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