hydration nation - ubc lts kits/ubc/hydration nation manual.… · lives and acknowledge the ......

HYDRATION

NATION

A Facilitator’s Guide to Water

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In-class workshops, Hydration Nation

©2002 Let’s Talk Science

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A. Description of Workshop

Grade for Workshop/

Appropriate Age

This activity is designed

for use in Grade 6-9

classrooms or with

children ages 11-15.

Overview of Workshop

Students will join the best hydrological research

team in Canada, to survey a newly discovered island.

They will determine drinking water quality on the

island through testing the chemistry and physical

properties of the main bodies of water and

comparing results to the Canadian drinking water

guidelines. Students will make recommendations on

which water source could be used for drinking and

what should be done with the island.

Overall Objectives

Students will realize the value

of water as a natural

resource.

Students will gain a basic

understanding of the

processes that must be

carried out for analysis of

potable water.

Students will realize human

impact on water resources

and ways to minimize negative

impacts.

Science Topics

Water

Chemistry

Physical

Attributes

of Water

Fluids

Human

Impact

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B. How to Run This Workshop

Physical Requirements

Overhead Projector

6 groups of desks or tables

Materials and Set-up – 2 Stations/Activity for #1, 2 & 3 (written down as

materials for just one station, so you know what is needed per station.

Double the materials for two stations)

See next page Note: For more detail, see Kit List

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Activity #1 – Water

Chemistry

Activity #2 –

Physical Properties

Activity #3 –

Hydrometers

Activity #4 –

Environmental

Crisis

Introduction/

Wrap Up

1A pH Testing of water

samples

2A Erosion and

Deposition

*Cut ruled paper –

2/group

6 Plastic tubs Introduction

*Scotch tape Laminated river activity 50 Stainless steel

(rustproof) round

head nuts (6/32 x ½”)

Buzzer or alarm Map

transparency

2 Types of pH paper cut

in half (1 – 14 and 4.5 –

8.5)

Washable marker 20 Test tubes 6 Oil spill info.

packages: pictures

and cleaning

materials

Story

*Paper towel Erosion/Deposition Task

Card

2 – 250 mL (1 cup)

measuring cups

Overhead

projector

pH Testing of Water

Task Card 2B Turbidity 4 Glass cylinders *Paper towels Questions

Laminated pH scales 3 Secchi disks *Fine grained salt (in

2 containers)

*Cooking oil

(couple

capfuls/container)

*Data Report

(1/group)

3 Wooden spoons

*6 Labelled plastic

bottles (3 water samples,

washing soda (1 c water, 2

tsp washing soda), lemon

juice and distilled or

deionized water)

Sukita River= tap water

Camada Lake= 1/2 tsp

baking soda in 1 L of

distilled water.

Kisula Bog= PC Brand Free

& Clear white grape, low-

cal sparkling water

beverage with aspartame

*3 Water samples-

Sukita- 1Tbsp sand

Camada –1 Tbsp topsoil

Kisula – 1 Tbsp sand, 1

Tbsp topsoil, 1 Tbsp peat

Pre-made solutions:

Kisula- 24 tsp salt + 4

c water

Sukita- 12 tsp salt + 4

c water

Camada- no salt + 4 c

water

*6 Zip-bags with

cleaning materials:

straws, string,

cotton balls,

pipette

Laminated map

with river

activity on back

Ruler 2 Shaking bottles Scissors Wrap Up

Turbidity Task Card 2 – 5 mL (1 tsp)

Measuring spoons

*Oil colouring or

cocoa

Chart (drawn on

chalkboard) 2C Filtration

*Filter materials: filter

paper, cotton balls, sand,

gravel

-screen door fabric,

elastics (in all – one

without filter materials

labelled control)

Real hydrometer

example

1 Pipette

4 Funnels (2 labelled

“Dry”, 2 labelled

“Wet”)

1 Small clear

plastic cup

1B Water Quality

Guidelines

Measuring cup (50 mL) 2 Hydrometer Task

Cards

1 Plastic test

tube Wooden spoon

Lab Report /Instructions

Task Card

Filtration Task Card 1 Bottle for water Food colouring

Canadian Guidelines

Chart

5 Filtration bottles

(clear)

Waste bucket 1 L bottle

*Kisula Bog sample to

filter (recipe above)

*Consumable items

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Timing of Activity

Part of Workshop: Suggested Timing: Cumulative Timing:

General Introduction 5 min. 5 min.

Introduction to Topic 20 min. 25 min.

Explanation of Stations 10 min. 35 min.

Activity #1 20 min. 55 min.



Activity #4 20 min. 115 min. (OPTIONAL)

Wrap-up 15 min. 130 min

C. Introduction to Topic

Objectives of Introduction

Discover prior knowledge of water with questions touching on human use,

measurements, accessibility and properties.

Give students scenario to understand objective of workshop.

Suggested Discussion, Q & A

Today our workshop is going to look very closely at water. To help make the

decision about who will be going on assignment today, the government has decided

to test your present knowledge about water.

Water is everywhere! Can anyone tell me 5 different ways water affects our lives? Survival, Recreation, Cleaning, Power Generation, Growing Food …

Water Trivia game - get into 6 groups; each group gets one question to themselves

to discuss and answer.

DELIVERY HINT: Keep the game going quite quickly. In game

show style, give other groups a chance to agree or disagree.

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Group questions:

1. What % of the human body is water? (a) 25-30%

(b) 40-50%

(c) 60-80%

(d) 90-100%

Answer: c

Our bodies are made up of about 70% water. Water makes up about 75%

of the brain and 83% of blood.

2. How much fresh water in the world is accessible for drinking? (a) 0.001% (1/1000 of a percent)

(b) 2.5%

(c) 10%

(d) 50%

Answer: a

Although about 2.5% of the world’s water is fresh water, the majority of

that is locked up in glaciers and ice.

3. How much of the world's fresh water does Canada have? (a) 10%

(b) 20%

(c) 40%

(d) 60%

Answer: b

4. How much water does a person need each day to stay healthy? (a) 0-0.5L

(b) 1-2L

(c) 3-4L

(d) 5-6L

Answer: b

To make this question visual, you could hold up a 1L or 2L container, to

show the relation. We get the water we need through plain water, juices,

other drinks and even the food we eat.

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5. How much water does the average person use each day? (a) 0-5L

(b) 5-25L

(c) 50-150L

(d) 200-800L

Answer: d

Health Canada says that the average North American uses 650L of water

per day. If you think about all the water we use flushing a toilet (up to

20L, depending on the toilet), or taking a shower at 11-20L per minute, it

becomes easy to see why this is the case.

6. How much water does it take to produce a loaf of bread? (for the whole process from growing the wheat to baking the bread) (a) 2L

(b) 10L

(c) 100L

(d) 600L

Answer: d

Now that we know you can handle it, here is what’s happened.

(Put up map transparency.)

Scenario:

The Canadian satellite, Radarsat, has discovered a new tropical island.

There are currently no people on the island and it has an active and healthy

ecosystem that has never been disturbed.

The best environmental scientists in the world have been assembled to study

the island. The Canadian government has chosen your team of hydrologists (people

who study water) to represent Canada.

You will carry out this assignment by testing and using natural water

resources in a sustainable manner. Your survey will include analysis of three bodies

of water on the island – Camada Lake, Sukita River and Kisula Bog – using three

different quality tests. You will be filling in a data report as you go. At the

completion of your assignment, you will make recommendations about the potability

(drinkability) of water on the island and, with other scientists, on the future use

of the island.

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D. Activities

Objectives of Activity

Understand acids and bases.

Test pH of various samples and the three main water sources.

Analysis of other water quality factors related to the Canadian guidelines

for drinking water.

ACTIVITY #1A and #1B – WATER QUALITY

GUIDELINES AND pH TESTING OF WATER SAMPLES

(15 min. + 5 min. clean up)

Use Lab Report Task Card, Canadian Water Quality

Guidelines Task Card and pH Testing Task Card

DELIVERY HINT: Have stations already set up and explain

the Task Cards before letting them start.

DELIVERY HINT: Use the Activity “Suggested Q & A”

as introduction to stations.

DELIVERY HINT: Hand out the laminated maps and

Data Sheets (Reports) to each group after

introduction to stations.

CHOICE: Activity #4 – The Oil Spill – is meant to be

a surprise. Throw it in after students have

completed 1 or 2 stations, depending on the timing of

your workshop. If you don’t have enough time, you

can omit this activity.

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Suggested Instructions, Q & A

What is pH? Where is the term used? pH is a scale used to measure how acidic substances are. It is used in

chemistry.

Why do we care about the pH of water? The Canadian guideline for the pH of potable (drinkable) water, is 6.5 – 8.5.

Our body can tolerate different levels of acidity – we can drink fruit juices

and pop which have pH between 2.5 and 4.0 - but it is easier on our bodies if

it is in the guideline’s range. We also need to understand pH for the effect it

has on animals and plants, pool water, pipes, etc.

At this station, you are going to determine pH of various samples and then analyze

data from a lab report using the Canadian guidelines for drinking water.

Your first task as a group, is to test a variety of solutions to understand and to

determine the pH of different solutions, including the 3 water samples. You will be

using a strip of pH paper with a range of 1-14 per sample (orange paper). You will

tape these to your data report along the pH scale. Remember to label which paper

tested which solution.

Next, as a group, you will test only the water from the 3 areas on the island again,

using one strip of pH paper with a range of 4.5 - 8.5 for each sample (green paper).

This will give you a more accurate pH measure. Record your groups results by

taping the paper to your data report and writing down the pH value for each water

sample.

REMEMBER you need 6 orange papers and 3 green papers!

After you have determined the pH of your 3 test water samples, use the

CHOICE: If the class seems to know a lot about pH, feel free to

give them the full definition – A measure of hydrogen ions in a

solution. More hydrogen ions means a solution is more acidic.

For facilitator information, an even more complicated definition is

- pH is actually the measure of hydronium ions (H3O+) because H+

reacts with H2O. This definition is quite complex so it is easier

for students to understand hydrogen ions.

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Hydration Nation Lab Report results, along with the Canadian Guidelines for safe

drinking water to analyze the 3 water samples for other important water quality

factors –bacteria, nitrates and fluoride levels.

The guidelines will provide some information about the sources (origins) of these

potential pollutants, their effects on humans, and the acceptable levels of these

factors in drinking water. Be sure to look at the maximum acceptable levels for

each factor!

Rank the water samples in terms of pH, coliform bacteria levels, nitrate levels and

fluoride on the Data Sheet. You might want to consider the effects and

treatments of each factor. For example, a high pH level would be easier to

correct than a high nitrate level. Circle a 1 on the chart if you think that the

sample represents the best level for drinking water, a 2 for the next best, and a 3

for the poorest sample.

Objective of Activity

Look at the effects of watersheds, erosion and deposition on drinking water

quality.

Show methods to clean water.


What is a watershed? An area that collects all the surface and ground water and allows it to drain

to the same point (eventually to a body of water such as a lake or an ocean)

Everyone look at the map on the overhead and find the watershed on the island.

As the water runs down the terrain of the watershed, it collects different

materials and carries them as well. Does anyone know what it’s called when moving water picks up pieces of the land?

ACTIVITY #2– PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER


Use Erosion and Deposition Task Card, Turbidity Task

Card and Filtration Task Card

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Erosion. The opposite of that is deposition - when the water lets things go

and they settle out, usually at slower points in the flow of water.

When erosion occurs, it makes the water more turbid. This means that there is

more material being held in the water, decreasing the water quality for drinking

and many other things. At this station you are going to examine how materials get

into the water and some methods to clean the water, to make it potable.

First, based on the flow speed of the rivers, determine where erosion and

deposition processes are happening and mark that on your sheet. Compare your

sheet to Sukita River on our island and determine where these processes are

happening.

Next, move to the turbidity test where we will be using a Secchi disk. For this

test, you will need to stir up the sample you will be testing and slowly lower the

Secchi disk into the water until you can’t see it anymore. You need to look straight

down at the disk to determine where it disappears. Once it has disappeared, pinch

the string at the surface of the water and pull it up slowly. Measure the length of

string between the disk and your finger and record it on your data report. The

shorter the measurement, the more turbid the water.

Lastly, we know that we will probably have to filter the water on the island in some

way to make it potable. We need to decide, using materials we have found on the

island, how to build a filter that will remove the most debris from the water. Stir

the water and put 50 mL through each filter. Start with the control filter (the

one with only screen) and compare each of the other filter materials to that one.

Observe what happens and decide what order you would put the filter materials in,

to remove the most material possible to create clean drinking water. When you’re

done, pour the filtered water back into the sample water.

DELIVERY HINTS: Have extra Secchi disks ready – they

may break. Wrap sand and gravel in nylon to avoid messes.

Also, you don’t need to change filtration materials between

groups.

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Introduce hydrometers.

Fluid principles- buoyancy and density.


Since we are on an island, surrounded by ocean, what kind of water is all around us? Salt water – 97% of the Earth’s water is salt water.

Can we drink salt water? No – drinking salt water actually dehydrates us. Our body tries to keep the

concentrations of things equal inside and outside of our cells. To keep our

body balanced, cells lose water to try to dilute the additional salts coming in.

This takes water away from other parts of our body that need it.

Your team must determine which water on the island is fresh and which is salty.

You’ll be using an instrument called a hydrometer. It is used to measure density

and we can use this to help us determine how much salt there is in the water.

Show real hydrometer.

What is density? How much “stuff” there is in a certain amount of space (ex. lead vs.

Styrofoam – if we have the same volume of lead and Styrofoam, lead is more

dense because it has more “stuff” in it).

Why would we use an instrument that measures density to help us figure out if there’s salt in the water? Salt will make the water more dense – adding salt to fresh water, puts more

“stuff” in it.

ACTIVITY #3 – HYDROMETERS


Use Hydrometer Calibration Task Card

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Your team’s hydrometers broke on the trip to the island, so you have to make them

from the materials you have. Each group is going to make 2 hydrometers by taking

a test tube and putting 5 round head nuts and a piece of grid paper into it.

To get an accurate reading on our homemade hydrometer, we need to calibrate it. Does anyone know what that means? Create a scale of known values on our unmarked hydrometer

To calibrate it, you are going to test it in a variety of solutions that you make

based on the recipes you are given. This way, we will know how much salt is in the

water and therefore the approximate density of the water. To test the

hydrometer, place it gently in the solution and watch it float. Does anyone know the scientific principle that explains why our hydrometer floats? Buoyancy – an object pushes water out of the way (displaces it) through

gravity. In return the water exerts a lifting force that we call buoyancy.

This works as long as the object has less mass than the water it has pushed out of

the way. If it has more it would sink.

Once the hydrometer is steady, determine where the level of water is compared to

the grid paper and note this on the grid paper on your data sheet. Be careful when

you look at the water level. You will see a curve called a meniscus. Take the lowest

point of the water in the meniscus as your measurement. Repeat this for the

solution you make.

CHOICE: You can use pre-made hydrometers if you

want – add nuts, grid paper and seal with wax.

DELIVERY HINT: Draw the meniscus on the board as you

talk about it (diagram on task card).

DELIVERY HINT: Pre-make the lake, river, and bog solutions

in kit (good for at least 10 workshops).

Kisula Bog - 1.10 g/mL 24 tsp salt + 4 cups of water

Sukita River - 1.05 g/mL 12 tsp salt + 4 cups of water

Camada Lake - 1.0 g/mL no salt + 4 cups of water

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When you’ve calibrated your hydrometer, test the three water samples from the

island. Be sure to record your results.


Introduce an environmental crisis to the program.

Show human impact on ecosystems.

Show different methods of clean-up for oil spills.


Set off alarm or buzzer.

Oh No!! There has been an environmental crisis on the island. A plane had to make

an emergency landing and has landed in the Slippery Slope watershed area. No one

was hurt, but oil is leaking and entering the water system. It is already having a

serious effect on the animals and plants that live in and around the lake, as well as

drinking water quality. You must act immediately to minimize the impact this spill

will have on the environment. Using the materials you have, contain the spill and

clean as much of it as possible. If you would like some hints, look at the

information sheet to see how real oil spills are handled. Remember – contain, then

clean!

(Hand out tubs with water and oil and the materials needed for the activity.)

ACTIVITY #4 – ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS


Use Oil Spill Information Package and Pictures, Oil Tubs,

Incident Report Form, Clean Up Materials

CHOICE: This station can be omitted if you don’t have

enough time. If you use it, it should be added in the middle

of the program, after at least one other station is done and

preferably after two – whatever works in the time you have.

DELIVERY HINT: Debrief immediately after activity.

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How did you contain the oil spill? In real spills, the oil is contained by booms that encircle the spill. This keeps

it from spreading while it is cleaned up.

What worked best to clean the spill? Was it just one way, or a combination? Workers use a combination of materials to clean oil spills. Absorbents are

used to help soak up the oil (like cotton balls) (you can show example of real

absorbent here). Vacuums are used to skim oil off the surface and get into

cracks.

Hopefully this gives you an idea of how badly oil spills can damage an environment

and why it’s important to clean them up right away.

E. Wrap-Up Suggested Q & A

What were your findings at each of the stations on the quality of the three possible fresh water sources? Let’s start with erosion.

Based on what you learned about erosion and deposition, did you notice a pattern as to where these processes occur on the example rivers? on Sukita River? (Put up

river answers transparency, then island map transparency)

Erosion occurs on the outside of a curve and deposition occurs on the inside.

Water tends to pick up speed along the outside of the curves and slingshots to

the next curve, thereby producing the “S”- shape of meandering rivers.

Use the chart below to help tie all findings together. You can use lines beside the

chart for other pHs and a filter picture for the complex filter question.

1 = best quality, 3 = worst quality

DELIVERY HINT: When charting the findings, you may get

some different answers. The difference could just be

judgement of a group on a particular test. Use this as an

opportunity for discussion.

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Water

Sample

Physical

Properties

Hydrometers Water Chemistry

Turbidity Salinity pH Bacteria Nitrates Fluoride

Camada

Lake

2 1 1 3 1 1

Sukita

River

1 2 2 1 2 2

Kisula

Bog

3 3 3 2 3 3

Which sample was the least turbid, and therefore most potable (the greatest Secchi depth is the least turbid). If you had to build a complex filter, what order would you like the materials in? Use picture of filter on board: Need to remove large particles first and smaller

particles last. A complex filter might look like this: Gravel, Cotton, Filter

Paper, Sand

Answers will vary and might bring up some interesting discussion.

What were the results in the salinity tests for our bodies of water? Which would be the best to drink? What were the pHs of the lemon juice, washing soda and deionized water? Lemon Juice: 2-3

Washing Soda: 9-10

Deionized/Distilled Water: 6-7

What were the pHs of our bodies of water? Which would you rather drink? Camada Lade: ~ 8-9

Sukita River: ~ 6 (or whatever the pH is of tap water)

Kisula Bog: ~ 4-5

When considering the water quality guidelines (for bacteria, nitrates, pH and fluoride), which water sample did you decide would be the best source for drinking water?

Looking at our overall findings from all of our stations, can you suggest which water would be the best for drinking? Inconclusive – Camada Lake ranks top for most of the tests, but the bacteria

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count is very high and could be very dangerous. Sukita River seems to be

average in everything. Kisula Bog will most probably be ranked last.

Are there any ways we could suggest to make the water more potable? Filtration, Desalinization, Water Treatment, etc… Have to look at costs and

resources to see if these are viable options.

We have now determined the water quality for this island. What would you recommend the governments do with the island? Should they colonize or leave it as a wildlife reserve? What other scientists would they have to consult to make an informed decision? Biologists, Geologists, Geographers, Planners, etc…

Throughout this workshop we have examined some of the physical and chemical

characteristics of water and its importance in our life and environment. Water is

important because it helps to maintain the Earth’s climate and dilute pollutants in

the environment. Since all living things are made up mostly of water, it is also

essential to all life. There is no life without water –what is the first thing we look for on other planets? Water – if there’s water, there could be life. Water Distribution Demo

We take water for granted and expect that there will always be a ready and

plentiful supply of fresh water as close as our kitchen sink. But let’s consider for a

moment the amount of fresh water that is readily available to us on the Earth.

Let’s say this 1 litre bottle represents all the water that exists on the Earth’s

surface.

(Show the students the bottle filled with coloured water.)

Unfortunately, about 97% of the Earth’s water is too salty to use. This leaves 3%

of the remaining water as fresh water.

[Pour 30 mL of water into a small clear plastic cup (small wine glass)].

Of this 3% fresh water, over ¾ of this is unavailable because it is frozen as

glaciers, the polar icecaps and icebergs.

(Pour 5 mL of the water into a clear plastic test tube.)

This 5 mL of water represents the liquid, fresh water on Earth. Of this liquid

portion, most is found in underground aquifers. In fact, it is estimated that there

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is about 40 times more fresh water in the ground than found in rivers, lakes and

streams.

Actually, most of the fresh water we use comes from surface water in the form of

lakes, rivers and streams.

(Using the pipette, pull out another 3 drops (1 mL) of water.) I have removed about 3 drops from the test tube. One of these drops represents

the water that is in the air and surface soil (squirt 1 drop on floor), and the last 2

drops represent the available, fresh surface water left on Earth (squirt on the

back of your hand).

Does this seem like much water to you? No

What can we do to make sure we always have a good supply of clean drinking water? Conserve water, reduce water consumption, stop pollution.

What station did you like best today? What did you learn today? Did you have fun?

F. Glossary

Acid/Acidic

Having a pH of less than 7.0, such as lemon juice or vinegar. It has high number of

H+ ions.

Acidity

The strength (concentration of hydrogen H+ ions) of an acidic substance; measured

as pH.

DELIVERY HINT: If you want to make this more dramatic,

you can let the last two drops fall into your mouth.

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Acid Rain

Rain with a pH of less than 5.6 which results from atmospheric moisture mixing

with sulphur and nitrogen oxides (SO2 and NOX) emitted from burning fossil fuels

or from volcanic activity; may cause damage to buildings, monuments, car finishes,

crops, forests, wildlife habitats and aquatic life. Most normal rainwater has a pH

of 5.6 to 5.8 – slightly acidic because of the carbon dioxide picked up in the

Earth’s atmosphere by the rain and converted to carbonic acid (H2CO3).

Algal bloom

A heavy growth of algae in and on a body of water; usually results from high

nitrate and phosphate concentrations entering water bodies from fertilizers and

detergents.

Alkalinity

The ability of water to neutralize acids. The sum of all the bases in water.

Base/Basic

Having a pH of greater than 7.0, such as lye or soap. Has high number of OH- ions.

Bioremediation

The use of oil-eating organisms (petrophiles) such as bacteria and fungi to remove

pollutants. These petrophiles need oxygen, oil and nutrients to survive and grow in

numbers. This involves the addition of fertilizing nutrients such as nitrogen and

phosphorus which stimulate the growth of the micro-organisms concerned, thus

promoting the process of bioremediation.

Blue Baby Syndrome

A condition called methemoglobinemia, in which the blood’s capacity for oxygen

transport is reduced, resulting in bluish skin discoloration in infants. Ingestion of

water contaminated with nitrates or certain other substances is a cause.

Booms and skimmers

Booms are used to surround and isolate an oil slick, or to block the passage of a

slick to a vulnerable or sensitive location. Boom types vary from inflatable

neoprene tubes to solid, but buoyant material. Most rise up about a metre above

the water line. Some are designed to sit flush on tidal flats while others are used

in deeper water and have skirts which hang down about a metre below the

waterline.

Skimmers float across the top of the slick contained within the boom and suck or

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scoop the oil into storage tanks on nearby vessels or on the shore.

Buoyancy

Buoyancy is a property of fluids (liquids and gases). When an object is floating in

water it actually pushes water out of the way or displaces it. The water exerts a

lifting force called buoyancy. Buoyancy depends on gravity and without gravity

there is no buoyancy.

Calibrate

Creating a scale of known values on an unmarked device.

Chemical Surfactants

A surfactant is a substance which lowers the surface tension of water. Detergents

widely used in a variety of cleaning and personal care products and to purify water

are surfactants.

Coliforms

Bacteria found in the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals; can also come from

dead, decaying organic matter. It is used as an indicator of fecal contamination in

water.

Corrosion

A chemical reaction between a metal and the gases in the air.

Dehydration

An abnormal loss of body fluids.

Deionized Water

Water from which anions and cations have been removed by an ion exchange

process. Generally, deionized water is considered higher quality than distilled

water and is more economical to produce.

Density

Density is mass divided by volume. Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in

an object or the specific volume of liquid or gas – or how much stuff is in a certain

space.

Deposition

Settling of materials from fluids when they are too heavy, or the when flow of the

fluid slows down.

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Desalination

The process of removing dissolved salts from water. Desalination is a very

expensive process. It costs about $100 million ($US) to set up a desalination

plant. The cost for desalination is $2.70 ($1.70 US) per thousand gallons in the

first year and $3.30 ($2.08 US) per thousand gallons over the life of the plant.

Dispersants

Dispersants (chemical surfactants) act by reducing the surface tension that stops

oil and water from mixing. Small droplets of oil are then formed which helps

promote rapid dilution of the oil by water movements. Creating smaller droplets

increases the oil’s exposure to natural evaporation and bacterial action.

Dispersants are most effective when used within an hour or two of the initial spill.

They are not appropriate for all types of oils and all locations.

Distilled Water

Water which has had salts removed by distillation. It is very pure, but does contain

some dissolved gases.

Distillation

The process of heating a liquid or solid until it sends off a gas or vapour and then

cooling the gas or vapour until it becomes a liquid.

Erosion

Wearing away of land surface by wind or water. Fast water flow will erode the

land around and underneath the water.

Fluoride

A binary compound of fluorine with another element. It is added to some drinking

water to help prevent tooth decay, although it is found naturally in waters.

Groundwater

Water that infiltrates into the Earth and is stored in usable amounts in the soil

and rock below the Earth’s surface.

Hydration

To cause to take up water. Replenishing of body fluids.

Hydrometer

A hydrometer is used for measuring the density of fluids.

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Incrustation

A growth or accumulation of a substance that causes it to form a crust.

Meniscus

In a column of liquid, the surface that is curved. Measurements should be taken at

the lowest point of the liquid in the curve.

Methemoglobinemia

See Blue Baby Syndrome.

Mousse

The thick water and oil emulsion that the wave action of the ocean causes.

Natural Dispersion

Allowing oil spills to disperse by natural means such as wind, sun, current and wave

action.

Nitrates

Term used generically for materials containing this ion group, NO3-, made of

nitrogen and oxygen. Sources include animal wastes and some fertilizers.

Oil Spill

The accidental release of oil into a body of water, as from a tanker, offshore

drilling rig or underwater pipeline, which often presents a hazard to marine life

and the environment.

pH

A measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution; the pH scale ranges

from 0 to 14, where 7 is neutral and values less than 7 are acidic and values

greater than 7 are basic or alkaline; pH is an inverted logarithmic scale so that

every unit decrease in pH means a 10-fold increase in hydrogen ion concentration.

Thus, a pH of 3 is 10 times as acidic as a pH of 4 and 100 times as acidic as a pH of

5.

Potable

To be suitable for drinking. In this case it must meet standards that are set by

Health Canada. For standards, see poster accompanying kit.

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Salinity

Measurement of the dissolved salts in water. It is calculated by determining the

ratio of salts to water, and is expressed in the unit "parts per thousand" or ppt.

Secchi Disk

An instrument designed to measure water clarity. Used in deep bodies of water

such as lakes or ponds.

Surface Water

Precipitation that does not soak into the ground or return to the atmosphere by

evaporation or transpiration. It is stored in streams, lakes, rivers, ponds, wetlands,

oceans and reservoirs.

Tar ball

A lump or blob of solidified tar resulting from an oil spill, natural seepage from the

sea, or other source, that resists biodegradation and often washes up on beaches.

Turbidity

The measure of the amount of suspended particles in a water sample.

Watershed/Drainage Basin

An area that drains all surface run-off and groundwater into a river or stream

system that eventually has the same outlet such as a lake or the ocean.

G. Background Information

Activity #1 Natural rain: The purest rain, without any pollution has a pH of 5.6-5.8. This is

due to the presence of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere. Carbon dioxide dissolves

in raindrops in the sky and reacts with the water forming carbonic acid. The

reaction is:

CO2 + H2O H2CO3

carbon dioxide + water carbonic acid

pH and Bodies of Water:

A pH between 6.7 and 8.6 supports a well-balanced fish population. Most species

can tolerate values lower than 6.7 but only for a limited time. If the pH is not in

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this general range, plants and algae are also affected as it slows down their

nutrient uptake. As a lake ages, the pH typically drops. This can be due to the

decay of organic matter, which releases acids into the water along with the carbon

dioxide, released through respiration of fish and other animals.

Many factors can affect the pH of a lake. If the area has limestone or dolomite

bedrock, it will create a more basic lake or neutralize it if the area experiences

acid rain. Acid spills by industries affect the pH and also smelters and coal-

burning power plants put sulphur dioxide into the air, which creates sulphuric acid

in the atmosphere. Volcanoes can also do this. Sewage usually raises the pH of

water. The decay of sewage by bacteria also produces bases – ammonia, which is a

base, is a by-product of this process.

pH and Drinking water:

The pH of drinking water is normally between 6.5 and 8.5 depending on the source

of the information. In one paper, it stated that there are no specific health

effects on which to base limits for the pH of drinking water. The main purpose of

controlling pH is to produce water in which corrosion and incrustation are

minimized. These processes result from complex interactions between pH and

other parameters such as dissolved solids, dissolved gases, hardness, alkalinity and

temperature. Generally metal corrosion may be significant with a pH of less than

6.5 and incrustation and scaling problems usually occur with a pH above 8.5.

pH of some common substances:

2.2-2.4 Lemons

2.4-3.4 Vinegar

2.5-3.5 Soft Drinks**

3.0-4.0 Oranges

4.0-4.4 Tomatoes

6.3-6.6 Cow’s milk

6.4-6.9 Human saliva (during rest)

6.6-7.6 Human milk

6.5-8.0 Drinking water

7.0-7.3 Human saliva (while eating)

7.3-7.5 Human blood

7.6-8.0 Fresh eggs

7.8-8.3 Seawater

10.5 Milk of Magnesia

10.5-11.9 Household ammonia

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**Neat Fact – Pop contains citric acid, which is also found in oranges. Why is pop

more acidic? Pop contains dissolved CO2 which creates a lot of carbonic acid.

Nitrates:

Nitrogen is present in all proteins and is thus found in all living things. It can exist

as ammonia or NITRATE. In the nitrogen cycle, ammonia is changed to nitrite and

then to nitrates. Nitrogen is a key nutrient for all living things but if it is

excessive, it can cause problems. It can be harmful to wildlife and also to humans

(if there is too much in drinking water). Infants are probably the most susceptible

to its effects as it can cause methemoglobinemia (Blue Baby Syndrome). If the

concentration of nitrogen is high in a water source such as a lake, an algal bloom

could result which in turn, could be detrimental to the ecology of that water

source.

Coliforms:

Coliforms are bacteria that live in plants, soil or in the large intestines of many

animals. Fecal coliforms that are found in animals (including humans) have a

mutualistic relationship with the animal. The animal provides water, food and other

necessities to the bacteria, while the bacteria helps the animal make nutrients like

certain vitamins. 80 – 95% of the coliforms that leave the human body in dry

feces are of the species Escherichia coli, or E. coli. Fecal coliforms are used as

indicators of fecal pollution in the water in populated areas.

Fluoride:

Fluoride is naturally present in water but is increased by human use and waste.

High concentrations can cause spotting on children’s teeth and palatability may be

affected. Most urban drinking water in Canada contains fluoride in small amounts

to help prevent tooth decay.

Activity #2

Watersheds/Drainage Basins

An area that drains all surface run-off and groundwater into a river or stream

system that eventually has the same outlet such as a lake or the ocean. The terms

watersheds and drainage basins are interchangeable. These areas are defined by

divides (usually ridges of some kind), in which water flows in the opposite direction

on the other side. The major watersheds in Canada are illustrated below.

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Adapted from: Statistics Canada Website, http://www.statcan.ca/english/ads/11-

509-XPE/basin.htm April 22, 2002.

Rivers

Running water meanders (the “S” shape often seen in rivers). Straight running

water is the exception, not the rule. It often occurs when the substrate that

surrounds it is difficult to break up or erode, and usually describes mountain rivers

and streams. Meandering rivers (the name is taken from the Menderes River in

Turkey that twists back and forth on itself many times) illustrate the normal

progression of a river and changes the landscape. Erosion and deposition processes

create valleys, flood plains and more.

A meander is defined as a curve in the river (half of the “S” shape). The outside

curve of a meander always has faster running water and therefore erosion occurs

on this side. Often the water will under–cut the river bank creating a “cut bank”.

On the inside curve of a meander, the water tends to slow down and allow materials

to settle out or deposit. This creates a “slip-off slope”.

http://www.statcan.ca/english/ads/11-509-XPE/basin.htm


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Due to these processes, an older river will often cut itself off creating an oxbow

lake. This process is as follows (x=erosion, o=deposition):

Regular Curve becomes Water takes the least Oxbow Lake

Meandering more pronounced. resistant path. created from

River curve that is cut

off.

As the oxbow lake is cut off the processes start again in the main portion of the

river.

Turbidity

Turbidity is measured in NTU or Nephelometeric turbidity units. In North

America the turbidity of surface water ranges from 1NTU to >100NTU.

In Canada we have set goals of 1NTU as the quality of our drinking water. Levels

of up to 5NTU are acceptable if water disinfection and the microbiological quality

of the water is not compromised. In general, if we see a rise in turbidity there is

no corresponding increase in coliform bacteria (used to indicate dangerous

microorganisms). However studies by Health Canada have shown that during

periods of high water turbidity there is an increase in gastrointestinal illnesses.

Those with compromised immune systems are warned to boil their water at these

times.

How do we measure turbidity?

There are a variety of ways that turbidity can be measured. The one most

commonly used for drinking water uses a Nephelometer. This instrument measures

the light scattered at 90◦ to the incident beam. This is compared with a

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reference beam that is measured at 180◦. The ratio of these two readings is

electronically converted to NTU.

In deep water a Secchi disk is usually used. A measurement is taken of the depth

of water in which the Secchi disk just disappears from sight. Despite the

simplicity of this instrument it provides very reliable and repeatable data. The

Secchi depth is usually measured in meters. There is no easy way to convert

between Secchi depth and NTU. In theory these numbers are inversely related.

That is, the larger the Secchi depth the less turbid the water and therefore the

smaller the NTU.

What are the ways we deal with turbidity in our drinking water?

There are actually many ways we deal with turbidity in our drinking water. In large

part the methods are determined by the watershed. Areas of the country that

draw their water from lakes or rivers that are also used for transport or

recreation typically use intensive filtration and disinfection methods. In areas

such as BC, much of the water is drawn from watersheds that are inaccessible to

human activity. Therefore the water is naturally cleaner. During times of high run

off (that tends to cause higher turbidity) certain watersheds are taken off line

and watersheds with less suspended solids are used.

Filtration

Filtration / Water Treatment background info:

Please note that each area has a slightly different system of water treatment. In

some cases it is simply the order steps are taken. In other cases whole steps are

skipped.

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British Columbia

Greater Vancouver Regional District

Currently the GVRD treats water by passing it through large screens to

remove large debris and then chlorinates the water. As the water goes

through the cities’ systems it may go to a secondary treatment plant where

it will be re-chlorinated to deal with any contamination of the pipes or leaks

in the pipes.

The first filtration plant in the GVRD is scheduled to begin construction in

2002 and be completed by 2005. Currently there are three watersheds

serving the area. Capilano, Seymour and Coquitlam watersheds. The ones

most susceptible to increased turbidity are Capilano and Seymour.

For maps of local watersheds and treatment information go to:

www.gvrd.bc.ca

Alberta

Edmonton (and surrounding communities) draw their water from the North

Saskatchewan River

As the water enters the plant it goes through the following stages

1. Screening (to remove large debris)

2. Alum and Powdered Activated Carbon are added to help flocculate and

clean the water.

3. Sedimentation to remove sludge

4. Chlorine and Fluorine are added

5. Filtration of any remaining dissolved solids

6. Ammonia is then added to make the chlorine stable for longer periods of

time.

http://www.walkertoninquiry.com/part2info/commissuepapers/08doyle/2.5.4.edmonton.pdf

Ontario

London draws its water from Lake Huron and Lake Erie

Precise diagrams aren’t available (to our knowledge) but the London system

is run by the same people as Toronto so it is probably very similar.

http://www.city.london.on.ca/WaterSupply/water_welcome.ht

www.walkertoninquiry.com/part2info/commissuepapers/08doyle/2.5.4.toronto.pdf

http://www.gvrd.bc.ca/

http://www.walkertoninquiry.com/part2info/commissuepapers/08doyle/2.5.4.edmonton.pdf

http://www.city.london.on.ca/WaterSupply/water_welcome.ht

http://www.walkertoninquiry.com/part2info/commissuepapers/08doyle/2.5.4.toronto.pdf

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Toronto

All of Toronto’s water comes from Lake Ontario, the 14th largest fresh

water lake in the world.

There are four water treatment plants drawing water. The water intakes

are approximately 1-3 km offshore and up to 10 m below the surface.

Water is then passed through moving screens to remove large debris

As the water enters the plant it goes through 5 stages

1. Coagulation, Flocculation and Sedimentation

Chemicals used in this stage include alum (aluminum sulphate),

polyaluminium chloride and other polyelectrolytes.

2. Filtration

Water flows by gravity through dual media filters. These dual media

filters are made up of sand and anthracite (a coal- like mineral).

3. Disinfection

Chlorine is added in order to kill disease-causing organisms in the raw

and treated water. Sulphur dioxide is then added to remove residual

chlorine in order to bring chlorine levels to acceptable standards for

ammoniation.

4. Fluoridation

Fluoride is then added to the water to raise the level to 1.2mg/L This

is to help combat tooth decay. The fluorine actually replaces the

calcium in the enamel of teeth making them less susceptible to decay.

5. Ammoniation

Ammonia is added at the end of the treatment process and combines

with any residual chlorine in order to stabilize the chlorine so that it

can remain dissolved in the water for longer periods of time.

www.city.toronto.on.ca/water/process.htm

Activity #3

Archimedes' principle

This principle states that a body immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal

to the weight of the displaced fluid. The principle applies to both floating and

submerged bodies and to all fluids, i.e. both liquids and gases. If the body is less

dense than the fluid, it will float or, in the case of a balloon, it will rise. If the

body is denser than the fluid, it will sink.

http://www.city.toronto.on.ca/water/process.htm

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The story behind its name is that in 250 BC, the king of Syracuse (on the island of

Sicily) suspected that his goldsmith had secretly kept some of the gold that was

meant for the royal crown and replaced it with a cheaper metal. The King decided

to ask Archimedes, a Greek mathematician, to determine whether the crown was

made of pure gold.

Archimedes solved the problem by finding that the crown appeared to weigh less in

water than a bar of pure gold with the same mass. He put both the crown and the

gold bar in water and found that there was a greater buoyant force on the crown

(see the description for buoyancy.) In other words, Archimedes realized that the

crown displaced more water than the pure gold bar. He figured out that the

volume of the crown was equal to the volume of the water that it displaced.

Therefore, since the volume of the crown was greater than that of the gold bar he

found out that the crown had a lower density and was not made of pure gold.

According to the legend, Archimedes thought of this idea while taking a bath. He

was so happy that he leapt up and ran through the streets (naked) crying “Eureka”

(I found it).

Buoyancy

Buoyancy is a property of fluids (liquids and gases). When an object or substance

is floating on water, it seems to have less mass than water. What is actually

happening is that the fluid (in this case water) is pushing back in all directions on

the object. The upward part of the force exerted by fluids is called buoyancy. In

other words, when this object goes in the water, it pushes some of the water out

of the way or displaces it. Then the water exerts a lifting force called buoyancy.

In calculating the buoyant force on a body, one must also take into account the

shape and position of the body.

An object in water is buoyed up by a force that is equal to or greater than the

mass of the water it is displacing. An object that is floating in water has LESS

MASS than the quantity of water that it would take to fill up the same amount of

space. If an object has a GREATER MASS than the water that would occupy the

same amount of space, then it sinks. In other words, if the upward buoyant

force on an immersed object is GREATER than the downward force of gravity

(weight of the object), the object will rise.

Buoyancy is dependent on gravity because buoyancy is a result of the weight of

various substances. Without gravity there would be no buoyancy. We say that an

object has positive buoyancy, negative buoyancy or neutral buoyancy according to

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whether it rises, sinks or remains level in the fluid.

Density

In this workshop, we have defined density as weight divided by volume. Strictly

speaking, this definition is incorrect. Density should be defined as mass divided by

volume.

Density = mass

volume

The difference between mass and weight is as follows. Mass is a measure of the

amount of matter in an object or the specific volume of liquid or gas, whereas the

weight of something is a measure of the gravitational pull on it. Therefore, the

mass remains consistent regardless of which planet we are performing this

experiment on!

The density of a pure substance varies little from sample to sample and is often

considered a characteristic property of the substance. Most substances undergo

expansion when heated and therefore have lower densities at higher temperatures.

Many substances, especially gases, can be compressed into a smaller volume by

increasing the pressure acting on them. For these reasons, the temperature and

pressure at which the density of a substance is measured are usually specified.

The density of a gas is often converted mathematically to what it would be at a

standard temperature and pressure. Water is unusual in that it expands, and thus

decreases in density, as it is cooled below 3.98°C (its temperature of maximum

density).

Density often is taken as an indication of how heavy a substance is. Iron is denser

than cork, since a given volume of iron is more massive (and weighs more) than the

same volume of cork.

Neat Fact – the density of humans is ~1 (the same as water) because we are mostly

made of water.

Hydrometer

The hydrometer is a device used to determine the density of a liquid. It usually

consists of a thin glass tube closed at both ends. Unlike the hydrometer used in

this workshop, one end of commercial hydrometers is enlarged into a bulb. The

bulb contains fine lead shot or mercury to cause the instrument to float upright in

a liquid. Most hydrometers have a long, narrow stem, so that a small change in

displaced volume will represent a longer distance on the scale (* This is why our

hydrometers do not show a great difference between the different densities. Our

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hydrometer has a thicker stem.) This increases the sensitivity of the instrument.

It also increases its fragility. Commercial hydrometers are usually calibrated for

ordinary room temperature, which is taken to be 20°C (68°F), or for 4°C (39.2°F).

The scale of the hydrometer tells us the number of times heavier or lighter that

our test liquid is compared to water i.e., the density of the liquid.

The hydrometer works on Archimedes principle, that is, the upthrust on a body

immersed in a fluid (either liquid or gas) equals the weight of the fluid displaced.

According to this principle, the hydrometer will sink until it displaces its own mass.

The scale on the hydrometer measures density or, in other words, the mass of the

volume divided by the volume of the liquid displaced. For example, water has a

volume that is equal to the mass displaced and therefore is 1.0 g/mL. In our

experiment we increased the density by adding salt to our water solution.

Although not done in our experiments, most people that use hydrometers

recognize the fact that fluid density fluctuates with temperature. A separate

thermometer or a combined hydrometer containing its own thermometer is usually

used to determine the temperature of the sample. A temperature chart is then

used to determine the density of the liquid at room temperature. Since our

experiment is done at room temperature we have eliminated the thermometer

section. It is important to note, however, that there might be slight variations in

our measurements between winter and spring/fall workshops.

There are several different types of hydrometers. Some examples include the

alcoholometer that is used to test alcohol. Another type, called a acidimeter, is

used to determine the amount of acid in batteries. The strength of brine in boilers

of ships is tested with a salinometer. The salinometer is also used to test the salt

levels in sea water aquariums. This is the type of hydrometer that we will be using

in our experiment.

Salinity vs. Density

This chart was used to figure out the density of the water with varying amounts of

salt. If you wish to add additional samples you can use this chart to figure out

more density. Dilute the mL of salt with 100 mL of water.

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0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.08 1.1 1.12 1.14 1.16

Density of Solution (g / mL)

NaC

l (m

L /

100 m

L w

ate

r)

Seawater

The majority of liquid water on Earth is found in oceans. Chlorine and sodium

make up the great majority (more than 85%) of the dissolved solids in seawater.

Other solids include sulfate, magnesium, calcium, and potassium. Tidal marshes,

wetlands, and estuaries have varying salinity values depending on the addition of

fresh water.

Salts dissolve in water and they exist as dissociated ions. Salinity is a

measurement of the dissolved salts in water. It is calculated by determining the

ratio of salts to water, and is expressed in the unit "parts per thousand" or ppt.

Therefore, salinity is actually measuring the number of parts of salt per thousand

parts of water (or the number of grams of dissolved salts in 1 kg of seawater). A

salinometer or floating hydrometer is used to determine the chloride

concentration in seawater (see hydrometer description). Open ocean water has a

salinity of about 35 parts per thousand (ppt) or 35 grams of dissolved solids per

1,000 grams of water. There are three main categories of salinity: Fresh water =

0 ppt-0.5 ppt; Brackish water = 0.5 ppt - 30 ppt; Salt water (sea water) = greater

than 30 ppt. Salinity, like temperature, also affects the amount of dissolved

oxygen in the water. At high salinities, most of the space between water molecules

is taken up by molecules of the salt so there is less space available to hold oxygen

molecules.

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Fresh water has very low salinity and certain types of organisms live in fresh water

and land animals, such as humans, depend on fresh water to survive. In coastal

waters, there are many different salinity levels and therefore we can find a

variety of ecosystems and different organisms living in each of these ecosystems

depending on the salinity level. Aquatic organisms are adapted to living in certain

salinity ranges. Organisms that live in high salt concentrations tend to be more

tolerant of a wider range of salinities, while organisms such as minnows and sunfish

that live in fresh water are less tolerant. The concentration of salt in the Dead

Sea is so high, that everything floats.

Activity #4

Oil Spills – Environmental Effects

Oil spills can have serious detrimental effects on the environment. The wave action

of the ocean can mix viscous oil into a thick water-and-oil emulsion called mousse.

The mousse washes ashore and forms tar balls, or tar balls sink to the bottom of

the ocean where they may remain for a long time, slowly releasing hydrocarbons

into the water.

The oil floating on the surface of water often affects seabirds first. Feathers

coated with oil lose their water-proofing and insulating qualities, causing birds to

die of hypothermia or drown. Similarly, sea mammals, such as sea otters, depend on

fur to insulate them from the cold. Oil can reduce the insulating ability of the fur

by 70%, causing otters to freeze to death. They may also be poisoned when they

ingest oil while cleaning their fur or inhaling petroleum fumes.

Oil disrupts every level of the food chain by killing zooplankton (they are killed by

the fact that they are filter feeders - they not only are affected externally by oil,

but internally as they ingest it) that are near the bottom of the food chain. When

small fish and fish fry eat the plankton, they also eat the oil. Larger fish, birds,

bears and humans who eat these fish will ingest oil too. The germination and

growth of marine plants is also obstructed by oil.

Sources of Oil Spills

Spills can happen on land or water when oil is incorrectly handled, there are truck

and railways accidents, tankers or barges collide, the insides of tankers are

washed, bilge oil, and natural oil deposits seep through cracks in the ocean floor.

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The largest contributor to ocean oil contamination (37%) results from urban run-

off and land-based industrial discharge. Natural seepages account for 7% of the

oil in the oceans.

About 14% of the oil in the sea is directly attributed to the world’s oil industry,

where spills have occurred as a result of accidents with tankers or during the

exploration and production phase from rigs and platforms.

One-third (33%) of all oil spillage occurs during the operation of cargo vessels

other than those used by the oil industry. These are vessels that may be involved

in collisions that spill fuel and oil or they may discharge waste oil from ballast

tanks while at sea.

Cleaning up Oil Spills

There are a number of techniques for cleaning an oil spill. The technique varies

depending on the oil type involved, the location of the spill and weather conditions.

In general, in open waters, one or a combination of the following techniques may be

used.

- Leave the oil alone to break down by natural means

- Contain the spill with booms and collect it from the water surface using

skimmer equipment

- Use dispersants to break up the oil and speed its natural biodegradation

- Introduce biological agents (bioremediation) to the spill to hasten

biodegradation

Along a shoreline, oil can also be cleaned in several ways:

- Manual pickup with hand tools and bags

- Tarmat breakup and removal – tarmats, which are thick, asphalt-like coverings

of oil, can be broken with hand tools and then scattered or collected.

- Tilling/raking – oil under the soil surface is exposed by using a rake to turn

over the topsoil. This process helps with natural degradation or bioremediation.

- Spot washing – high-pressure washing tools are used to remove small

accumulations of oil. The runoff water is then collected.

- Bioremediation – the use of bacteria and fungi to remove pollutants.

Major Oil Spills

The Exxon Valdez - The supertanker ran aground in Prince William Sound, Alaska - The worst spill in U.S. history – 40,000 t (11 million gallons) - spread quickly over 900 miles of shoreline

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- weather conditions made it difficult to contain and clean up - workers collected more than 36,000 oiled birds and over 1,000 sea otters - the number killed was several times more than the number found - it may be 20-70 years before the seabird population recovers - cleanup costs exceeded $2 billion dollars - involved more than 10,000 people, several hundred boats and aircraft, and

special equipment

Persian Gulf War – Early 1991 - 2.5 to 4 million barrels of oil were dumped into the Persian Gulf

- oil covered some 600 square miles of sea surface and 300 miles of coastline

- it affected coral reefs, mangrove swamps, beds of sea grass and algae, birds,

sea turtles, fish and marine mammals.

- clean-up action was delayed due to the war

- booms and skimmers were set up to protect some areas

- people from all over the world helped with the cleanup.

H. Suggested Resources/Bibliography Websites

Air & Waste Management Association. Updated May 1, 2000. Oil Spills – A Fact

Sheet. (Online). Available:

http://www.awma.org/resources/education/oilspills.htm [February 26, 2002].

Australian Petroleum Production and Exploration Association Limited. (2002).

Oceans and Oil Spills. (Online). Available:

http://www.appea.com.au/edusite/html/pt/ocean.html [February 26,2002].

Canada. Environment Canada. Updated December 1, 2000. Oil pollution and birds.

(Online). Available:

http://www.cws-scf.ec.gc.ca/hww-fap/oilpl/oil.html [February 14, 2002].

Canada. Environment Canada. The pH Scale. (Online). Available:

http://www.ec.gc/water/en/manage/qual/e_ph.htm [February 14, 2002].

Canada. Environment Canada. Acid Rain and the Facts. (Online). Updated April 3,

2001. Available: http://www.ec.gc.ca/acidrain/acidfact.html [February 14, 2002].

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Canada. Environment Canada. Acid Rain and Water. (Online). Updated. Available:

http://www.ec.gc/ca/acidrain/acidwater.html [February 14, 2002].

Canada. Environment Canada. What is Canada Doing? (Online). Updated April 14,

1999. Available: http://www.ec.gc.ca/acidrain/done-canada.html [February 14,

2002].

Canada. Health Canada. Reprinted 1995. pH. (Online). Available:

http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/waterquality

Enclyclopedia. Com. (2002) (Online). Available:

http://www.encyclopedia.com/articles/06204.html

Ertco Precision. (2002) (Online). Available:

http://www.ertco.com/hydrometers.html

Natural Resources Canada. (2002) (Online). Available:

http://atlas.gc.ca/english/facts/fresh.html

Discovery Channel School. Hydrometer (2002) (Online). Available:

http://www.discoveryschool.com/homeworkshelp/worldbook/atozscience/h/26928

0.html

Richard O’Hourne Middle School. Salinity of water: Measuring the Salinity of

Water. (2002) (Online). Available: http://library.bhbl.neric.org/outlab/salinity.html

SeaWorld Adventures Parks (Busch Gardens). Salty Solutions. (2002) (Online).

Available: www.seaworld.org/Water/salty.html

Statistics Canada. Human Activity and the Environment. (2002) (Online). Available:


Upper Midwest Aerospace Consortium. Environmental Effects of Acid Rain.

(Online). Available: http://www.umac.org/ocp/acid/environmental.htm [February 14,

2002].

http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/waterquality

http://www.encyclopedia.com/articles/06204.html

http://www.ertco.com/hydrometers.html

http://atlas.gc.ca/english/facts/fresh.html

http://www.discoveryschool.com/homeworkshelp/worldbook/atozscience/h/269280.html

http://www.discoveryschool.com/homeworkshelp/worldbook/atozscience/h/269280.html

http://library.bhbl.neric.org/outlab/salinity.html

http://www.seaworld.org/Water/salty.html


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Books

Alexander, Nora L. (2000). “Unit 2: Fluids”. Science and Technology 8.

Scarborough: Nelson Thompson Learning.

Andrews, William. Investigating Aquatic Ecosystems. Toronto

Barker, J. et al. (1988). Discovering Density. “LHS Gems Great exploration in Math

and Science”. Berkley, California: Lawrence Hall of Science, University of California

at Berkley.

Gralla, Preston. (1994) How the Environment Works. Emeryville: Ziff-Davis Press.

Greater Vancouver Regional District. (1993). From Source to Sea.

Vancouver

Greater Vancouver Regional District. Water: A Community Resource.

Vancouver

Kauffman, Judson. (1990) Physical Geology. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.

Olivero, R. et al. (2000) Matter and Material: Fluids and Solids. Science and

Technology Activity Resource. Toronto: GTK Press.

Pipkin, Bernard W. (1994) Geology and the Environment. Minnesota: West

Publishing Company.

Press, Frank et al. (1994) Understanding Earth. New York: W.H. Freeman and

Company.

Snyder, Carl. The Extraordinary Chemistry of Ordinary Things. Toronto: John

Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Water Environment Federation. (1998). Water Sourcebook. Alabama: University of

South Alabama.

Personal Communication

Stairs, Gavin from “Stairs Small Systems” (personal communication)

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Thank You

Matt Clark – Adventures in Science volunteer – helped with hydrometer section.

Copyright Permission

Map of Watersheds in Canada

Statistics Canada information is used with the permission of the Minister of

Industry, as Minister responsible for Statistics Canada. Information on the

availability of the wide range of data from Statistics Canada can be obtained from

Statistics Canada’s Regional Offices, its World Wide Web site at

http://www.statcan.ca, and its toll-free access number 1-800-263-1136.

Oil Spill Pictures

With just a few exceptions, the photos on this website are considered public

information: you are free to copy and use them. The exceptions are a few

photos that are credited to other organizations. We request that you credit us

when you use our photos in your publications (we're the Office of Response and

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