hu_promoting the social inclusion of roma

www.peer-review-social-inclusion.eu

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Content Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 3 1. Description of national situation ............................................................................................ 4 2. Assessment of existing policy and governance framework .............................................. 13 3. Structural Funds .................................................................................................................... 26 4. Role of civil society organisations and international organisations ................................. 27 5. Recommendations ................................................................................................................. 27 Selected bibliography ................................................................................................................ 29 Annex .......................................................................................................................................... 30

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Summary

Hungary is has a considerable but not homogeneous Roma population (6%). Birth rates are far higher among the Roma population, but so is mortality, their average life expectancy at birth is 10 years shorter. There is significant and increasing regional concentration of the Roma in Hungary (NE, SW). Lots of Roma live in the most disadvantaged small rural settlements, often in segregated colonies. The proportion of colony-dwelling Roma is approximately one-fifth to one-quarter of the estimated number of Roma people in Hungary. Unemployment and inactivity and thus poverty especially affect the Roma population. 80% of Roma adults only have primary education. Only 42% of Roma children go to nursery school. Only 0.3% of the Gypsy population holds a university or college degree. The education system magnifies the disadvantage of uneducated parents. Only 40% of adult Roma men are employed and 10% out of this live on temporary (casual jobs or public works), often illegal work, and the employment situation is even significantly worse in case of Roma women. Ethnic discrimination is prevalent in all spheres of life, esp. on the labour market, in education (segregated schools, classes), health services. The general public is often prejudiced, the media coverage of the Roma reflects dominantly a negative picture and the right-wing anti-Roma party Jobbik has seats in parliament and its views significant support.

The issue of Roma integration is on the agenda of the government and has been a priority of the Hungarian EU presidency. The new FIDESZ government (taking office in 2010) established a new ministerial unit with considerable resources for promoting the integration of disadvantaged (among them Roma) people. The most recent and quantified targets both regarding reducing poverty and handling the situation of the Roma are set out in the National Reform Programme submitted in April 2011. Reducing regional disparities and improving the situation of the Roma are declared to be horizontal principles of the final NRP. On May 20th 2011 the government and the National Roma Self-government (ORÖ) signed a framework agreement creating a common decision making mechanism, highlighting that the ORÖ would participate in all decisions regarding improving the employment end education of the Roma. The legitimacy of ORÖ however is questionable and should be strengthened, together with stakeholder involvement more generally. The responsibilities are fragmented, a number of ministries are involved.

The proposed (and existing) policies and programmes, IF IMPLEMENTED, could substantially improve the present situation of the poor and also the Roma. All the good examples cited in this paper cannot be considered exemplary in every respect. Whether state-run or managed by NGOs, funding for the programmes promoting integration is volatile and unpredictable and their impact is rarely measured or evaluated. Even successful organisations work in precarious and unpredictable financial circumstances, which constrain capacity building. Due to the problems with the definition of the target group, in most cases, ministries and organisations managing programmes have no idea concerning how much of the budget of their programmes has been invested in helping the Roma. ESF funding comprises a very significant part of funding.

The key challenges that need to be met are well reflected in the national goals and policies that affect all the priority areas of the Roma Decade, with the exception of the issue of public transport. The emphasis should be put on the successful implementation of proposed measures. As the problem is very complex, coherent and complex intervention and long-term political commitment is required to handle it. It should be indispensable to properly monitor projects and assess their impact and then use this information. The local characteristics should be taken into account and in very deprived areas community building and empowerment are the first steps to be taken. Geographic targeting for the improvement and enhanced accessibility of employment,

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social and health services would be necessary with additional financing. NGO innovations in employment, education, housing and health should be mainstreamed and supported in the long run, with stable and possibly increasing funds. As to the better use of EU funds, more flexibility may enhance the realisation of programme goals. For such issues, due to the complexity of the problems, only very complex programmes can contribute to the solution, which realise objectives in different spheres of life, and can run for longer periods of time (at least 5-8 years), continuously.

1. Description of national situation 1.1. Roma population There is a considerable Roma population living in Hungary as Hungarian citizens, although they are not registered as minority. According to Census 2001 200,000 persons claimed themselves to be Roma, that is 2% of the total population, which most probably seriously underestimated the number, but studies estimated the size of the Roma population to be 520-650 thousand, in 2004,1 with a continuously increasing trend. According to the estimations of Hablicsek, the Roma population would be around 660,000 in 20112. Contrary to the general public opinion, the Hungarian Roma is not a homogenous population either. The Roma population is divided into at least 3 main distinct linguistic groups: “Hungarian Roma [magyar cigányok], who speak Hungarian, identify themselves as Hungarian or Musician Roma, and are sometimes called Romungro (70% of the Roma population); Vlach Roma [oláh cigányok], who speak two languages, Hungarian and Romani (Lovari and Kalderash dialects), and who identify themselves as Roma or Rom (20%); and Beás people [beások], who speak two languages, Hungarian and Beás (dialects based on an archaic form of Romanian), and who identify themselves as Beás (10%)”3, but others identify at least 6 groups. Approximately 87% speak Hungarian as their mother tongue, but this group is further divided according to their (past) occupation or livelihood (musician, basket weavers, adobe makers etc.). By 2003 the percentage of Beás native speakers fell to 4.6%, while 8% speak different Romani dialects as a first language (Lovari, Kalderashi). Language groups are further divided by kinship, craft, income and locality. Attitudes to majority norms and integration vary by subgroup4 and there is also a hierarchy and conflicts between the various groups.5 Birth rates are far higher among the Roma population, but so is mortality, which means that the share of under-15-year-olds among the Roma population is more than double the national average: 16.8% of Hungary’s total population but 37% of Roma are aged under 15, while the ratio

1 Kemény I.–Janky B. - Lengyel G. (2004): A magyarországi cigányság 1971–2003. Budapest: Gondolat.

http://www.mtaki.hu/kiadvanyok/kemeny_janky_lengyel_moi_ciganysag_main.html. Further referece: Kemény et al 2004,

2 Hablicsek, L.: Népességünk következő évtizedei – különös tekintettel a területi különbségekre. In: Demográfia, 2007. 50. évf. 4. szám 392–429, www.demografia.hu/letoltes/kiadvanyok/Demografia/2007.../Hablicsek.pdf

3 Kemény I. – Janky B.: Roma population of Hungary 1971-2003. IN: Kemény, I (ed.) 2005: Roma of Hungary New York, http://www.mtaki.hu/kiadvanyok/isvtan_kemeny_ed_roma_of_hungary_main.html p. 100. and .Szuhay P. The self definition of Roma ethnic groups and their perceptions of other Roma groups. In: Kemény, I (ed.) 2005: Roma of Hungary New York, http://www.mtaki.hu/kiadvanyok/isvtan_kemeny_ed_roma_of_hungary_main.html p. 237. Percentages int he quotation are provided by the author of the present report.

4 Szuhay 2005 ibid, Kemény et al 2004 ibid. 5 Szuhay 2005.

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of people aged over 60 is five times higher than among the Roma population: 20.2% of Hungary’s total population but just 3.9% of Roma are aged over 60.6 (See Annex Chart 1) The fertility rate of the Roma population is higher than the national average, but is decreasing. There are significant differences based on the level of education, that is, fertility rates decrease with the increase in the level of education. “For the population as a whole, 7.5% of married women in Hungary have no children, one-quarter have one child, 48% have two children, and one-fifth have three or more children. Among the Roma population, 6% of married women have no children, 10% have one child, 23% have two children, and 60% have three or more children.”7 Regarding legal marital status, there is no significant difference between Roma and non-Roma males. In many Roma communities, long-term relationships are regarded as proper marriages even when they are not officially recognised as such. Roma are younger than average on their first marriage, but the ratio of those who remain single is no lower than it is among other groups in society. Roma living in the western half of Hungary tend to get married later than do those living to the east of the River Danube. The share of early marriages among Roma is particularly high in the Northern region. In 2003, the average number of persons per Roma household was significantly higher than the national average. According to the 2001 data, the number of persons per 100 households was 257 in Hungary. Among Roma households, however, the figure was 464. The high number is linked to the financial position of Roma. Often several families share a household. The number of persons per household is no higher in rural areas than it is in the provincial urban centres or in Budapest. Slight regional differences are, however, apparent: households are smaller in the western part of the country than in the east. 8 1.2 The geographic distribution of Roma There is significant and increasing regional concentration of the Roma in Hungary. Between 1971, 1993 and 2003 the regional share of the total Roma population increased significantly in the Northern region, (counties of Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén, Heves and Nógrád), approximately one third of the Roma live in this region amounting to 13-16% of the counties’ population. The numbers of Roma increased but the regional shares declined (20%) in the Eastern region (counties of Szabolcs-Szatmár, Hajdú-Bihar and Békés), in the Great Plain region (counties of Bács-Kiskun Csongrád and Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok), in the Budapest agglomeration (Budapest, and the counties of Fejér, Pest and Komárom) and in Southern Transdanubia (counties of Baranya, Somogy, Tolna, Veszprém and Zala). But the number of Roma and the regional share also increased in Western Transdanubia (counties of Győr- Moson-Sopron and Vas). It should be noted that 3 of the 7 Hungarian NUTS 2 regions (Northern Hungary, Northern Great Plain, Southern Great Plain) are among the 10 least developed of the 254 regions of the EU EU-25, and all this in the eastern part of the country.

Chart 2 in Annex demonstrates the overlap between the high share of Roma population and the most disadvantaged micro-regions of the country. Although the proportion of Roma living in towns

6 Kemény I. – Janky B.: Roma population of Hungary 1971-2003. IN: Kemény, I (ed.) 2005: Roma of Hungary New

York, http://www.mtaki.hu/kiadvanyok/isvtan_kemeny_ed_roma_of_hungary_main.html p. 82-83. 7 Kemény-Janky ibid p. 85.-91. 8 Kemény-Janky ibid p. 95.

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and cities has increased considerably in comparison to the 1970's, the majority still lives in villages. In 2003 49.7% of the total Roma population, lived in provincial urban areas. Lots of Roma live in the most disadvantaged small rural settlements, often in segregated colonies, in houses with no conveniences. (Charts 2-4) A certain part of suburbanisation, namely the escape of the poor from cities to villages outside agglomerations so as to escape increasing financial burdens of housing costs (e.g. paying utility bills, most markedly in flats with distant central heating) affects the Roma in high extent9. Segregation is getting stronger, in 1993 over 60%; in 2003 over 70% of the Roma lived in Roma neighbourhood. The increasing concentration of the Roma minority in the rural areas intensifies the motivation of non-Roma residents to move out of their villages. These processes of segregation often affect several adjacent villages simultaneously; the problem has assumed regional dimensions (chart 2). 1.3 The poverty and social exclusion situation of Roma

- Relative income poverty and deprivation Unemployment and inactivity and thus poverty especially affect the Roma population. Latest income data indicates that 70% of the Roma are poor.10 The economic activity status of the household and the educational level of the head of household are the most important independent determinants of poverty in present day Hungary. Ethnicity, age, household composition, the type of settlement, territorial segregation all have very significant, and often mutually reinforcing effects on poverty. The unemployment or inactivity of the head of household, together with age, type of settlement and ethnicity (being Roma) play an increased role in the poverty risk of the household than 2 years before. Those living in villages are among the poor with a 6 times higher chance in 2009 as compared to a double chance in 2007.11 In 2009 poverty was the highest among single-parent families (31%), “other households with kids” (23%), among not old, single households (18%), with the highest (6-7%) increase in the first two groups. Differences between settlement types increased even further during the preceding 2 years’ period: the smaller the settlement one lives in, the higher is the risk of poverty. While only 2% of those living in the capital city of Budapest are poor, 20% of those living in villages. Poverty among the Roma increased dramatically.12

9 Ladányi János, Szelényi Iván (2010) Szuburbanizáció és gettósodás. (Suburbanisation and ghettoisation) In:

Kovalcsik Katalin (szerk): Tanulmányok a cigányság társadalmi helyzete és kultúrája köréből. BTE–IFA–MKM, Budapest. pp 185–206. Ladányi János, Virág Tünde (2009) A szociális és etnikai alapú lakóhelyi szegregáció változó formái Magyarországon a piacgazdaság átmeneti időszakában. (Changing forms of social and ethnic residential segregation in Hungary in the transitional period of market economy) Kritika 2009. július–augusztus, http://www.kritikaonline.hu/kritika_09julius-aug_ladanyi.html Ladányi János-Szelényi Iván, 2004: A kirekesztettség változó formái. (Changing forms of exclusion). Napvilág Kiadó. Budapest. Csanádi G., Csizmady A. (2002): Szuburbanizáció és társadalom. (Suburbanisation and society) Tér és Társadalom, XVI. évf. 3. sz.

10 Tóth István György: Jövedelemeloszlás a konszolidációs csomagok és a válságok közepette Magyarországon In: Társadalmi Riport 2010. Eds: Kolozsi Tamás – Tóth István György. Budapest, 2010. pp.17-34. Please note that due to the small sample size this data cannot be considered as representative.

11 Gábos András – Szivós Péter (2010): Jövedelmi szegénység és anyagi depriváció Magyarországon (Income poverty and material deprivation in Hungary) In: Társadalmi Riport 2010. Eds: Kolosi Tamás – Tóth István György. Budapest. pp.58-81. P. 71.

12 Gábos-Szívós ibid: 68-69.

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Before the transition, old people were most affected by poverty in Hungary. Since the transition the poverty risk of children has increased continuously, while that of those older than 65 years decreased. The profile of the poor in 2009: almost one/third of them are aged 0-17, whereas only 5% above 65 years. Half of the poor are living in completely inactive or unemployed households with zero work intensity. More than 53% live in villages (as compared to 1/3 of the total population).13 At present, the poverty rate in households with children is nearly 50 percent higher than the overall rate for all Hungarian households, and is nearly double the rate for households without children. The proportion of children living in jobless households is the second highest in the EU and labour market opportunities also have very significant regional differences, as demonstrated later in this paper. Based on the EUROSTAT material deprivation indices 12% of the Hungarians are both income poor and materially deprived. The primary indicator of material deprivation14 is 51.2%, while the average of deprivation items is 4.2. 75.7% cannot afford to go on an at least week-long holiday, 71.7% cannot afford to pay unexpected required expenses, 41.3% cannot afford to eat meat every second day, 28.6% has no car, 21.5 has arrears relating to mortgage payments, rent, utility bills, hire purchase, 19.8% cannot heat their homes properly. Households affected most by material deprivation are where the head of household is Roma (95%), inactive or unemployed (80%), the work intensity of the household is between 0 and 0.5 (64%), the family has a lot of kids (65%), or live in villages (61%).15

- Education

80% of Roma adults – compared to 33% in the total population – only have primary education.16 Only 42% of Roma children go to nursery school, as compared to 88% of the total population. Among 20-24 year-olds, 5% of the Roma and 55% of the total population completed secondary education (A levels). Though there has been some increase in levels of education, it has been much slower among Roma than among children from the majority, so that the ethnic gap has in fact increased. The practice of sending Roma children in large numbers to special needs classes still exists.

Presently 90% of young Roma complete primary school education, and 85% of them go on to study in some form of secondary institution. In recent years the proportion of Roma students at secondary school institutions providing a school-leaving certificate has risen from 9 to 15%, which is still, a very low figure, plus most young Roma acquire qualifications in professions where there is a little chance of finding employment. Only 0.3% of the Gypsy population holds a university or college degree.

The drop-out rate has always been high among Roma students. The education system magnifies the disadvantage of uneducated parents. The main problems are the lack of

13 Gábos-Szívós ibid p. 74. 14 Proportion of people lacking 3+ items of the material deprivation scale. 15 Gábos-Szívós ibid. pp.: 77-78. 16 Kemény et al. 2004, Kertesi G. (2005): Roma foglalkoztatas az ezredfordulon. Szociológiai Szemle, 2: 57-87,

Kertesi 2005.

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monitoring, adverse selection of teachers, obsolete teaching methods and curricula, the dysfunctional operation of the child-protection network, severe segregation and prejudice.17

- Employment

As mentioned above, economic activity status of the household and the educational level of the head of household are the most important independent determinants of poverty in present day Hungary. The disastrous labour market situation of the Roma is a basic factor of their social exclusion. Only 40% of adult Roma men are employed and 10% out of this live on temporary (casual jobs or public works), often illegal work, and the employment situation is even significantly worse in case of Roma women. The level of employment dramatically changed throughout the economic transition; the main losers of this period were the Roma, who had regular employment in the lower segments of the economy during the socialist period. In the 1970s the level of employment of the Roma men was around the same as that of the total population, although the jobs occupied by them were unskilled low prestige jobs. As a consequence of the transformation of the Hungarian economy that resulted in a general loss of 1.5 million jobs with a peak of 1993, the Roma lost their jobs in a very short time. Altogether around 30% of the total jobs and 55% of the jobs of the Roma disappeared in the beginning of the transition period. The main reason of the extreme job loss among the Roma is their low level of education as unskilled jobs ceased to exist in the highest extent, and especially in branches which were particularly hit by the transformation shock of the early 1990s, e.g. heavy industry, metallurgy, mining, construction. In case of women the same is true for textile and other light industries. The extremely low level of the employment hasn’t changed in the years of the economic recovery (chart 4).

As indicated in the first section, the Roma live in regions which have low level of employment and high long-term unemployment in the North East and Eastern part of the country, with limited access to among others labour market services and proper public transport (See Annex Charts 5-6). As will be discussed later, labour market discrimination has also been identified as an essential reason for the extremely low level of employment.18 In 2003, over three quarters of the Roma of 15-74 had no regular job. Nearly a quarter of the 20-29 years old and about 7% of those of 30-39 has never had a job, according to the 2003 Roma survey data. Others have previous job experiences but no employment at the time of the survey. In 2003 in Budapest 64% of the Roma men were employed, in other towns 27.5% and 20% in the villages. As for women, employment is lower, in Budapest 36%, in other towns 15% and 10% in the villages. In 2003 among the employed Roma 71% had a job all over the year, 19% had a job for some weeks or months, and 10% had casual employment. The share of actually employed young Roma was low: for men of 20-29 around 40-45%; for men aged 30-39 40-56% (depending on primary or vocational education). Even this low level of employment is dominantly comprised of unstable, short term jobs with a high turnover on the periphery of the labour market. Kertesi (2009), Fleck and Messing (2009) and others estimate considerable share of these jobs as supported jobs of welfare programmes.19

17 Fazekas et al (2009) Green Book for the Renewal of Public Education in Hungary

http://mek.oszk.hu/08200/08221/08221.pdf 18 Kertesi, G (2009) Roma foglalkoztatás az ezredfordulón. Számítások a 2003. évi Országosan reprezentatív roma

felvétel adatain. (Roma employment at the Millennium. Estimations based ont he Roma survey 2003) In Fazekas, K., Lovász, A., Telegdy, Á (eds) Munkaerőpiaci helyzetkép, 2009.OFA-KTI Budapest pp 133-148.

19 Kertesi, G (2009) Roma foglalkoztatás az ezredfordulón. Számítások a 2003. évi Országosan reprezentatív roma felvétel adatain. (Roma employment at the Millennium. Estimations based ont he Roma survey 2003) In Fazekas,

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As joblessness is very characteristic of the Roma, welfare provisions are important income sources of the families. Those who are not working are partly in school (32%), get retirement/disability pension (13%), child-care benefit (13%), unemployment benefit (3%) social assistance (10%) or they are dependent on other provisions (12%).20 The survival strategies of the poor are very diverse. In a study of the poor in two micro-regions we found that 83% of poor families have some kind of work-related income, although some in the black/grey economy. However, regular sources of income (either work-related or social provisions) characterise the non-Roma poor in a greater extent, while Roma families depend more on irregular ones. The collection and re-selling of used/thrown away products (“lomizás” is often done in Western European countries, mostly Austria, Germany, the Netherlands21) was a source of income for on average 16% of the surveyed poor, but for 33% of the Roma poor from Central Hungary. 22

- Health

Hungary, as a number of other countries in Central and Eastern Europe, is generally characterised by poor health with high premature mortality (generally defined as death before age 65 years) mainly as a result of cardiovascular diseases, cancer, chronic liver diseases, and accidents. Behind the low average life expectancy, there are significant geographical and social differences. In villages with less than 1,000 inhabitants the number of years of life lost in case of males is 50% more than in big cities.23 As a high number of Roma live at such locations, the phenomenon significantly affects these people. The health status, mortality and morbidity rates of the Roma are significantly worse than the average Hungarian population, their life expectancy at birth is 10 years shorter. They have poorer physical health than the national average due to lack of education, poor housing conditions, and also inadequate access to health services.24

Comparative health interview surveys carried out in 2003/2004 in representative samples of the Hungarian population and inhabitants of Roma settlements found that regarding persons older than 44 years, 10% more of those living in Roma settlements reported their health as bad or very bad than did those in the lowest income quartile of the general population. Of those who used any health services, 35% of the Roma inhabitants and 4.4% of the general population experienced some discrimination. In Roma settlements, the proportion of persons

K., Lovász, A., Telegdy, Á (eds) Munkaerőpiaci helyzetkép, 2009.OFA-KTI Budapest pp 133-148. and Fleck, G – Messing, V (2009) A roma foglalkoztatáspolitika alakváltozásai (Metamorphosis of the Roma employment policy) In Fazekas, K., Lovász, A., Telegdy, Á (eds) Munkaerőpiaci helyzetkép, 2009.OFA-KTI Budapest pp. 82-96.

20 Kemény et al 2004. ibid. 21 Pauker Csaba (2010): „A lomizáshoz nemcsak jó érzék, éles szem, jó szimat, orr, hanem erős gyomor is kell”

(részletek) in: Piachely, kgst-piac, emberpiac szerk.: Czakó Ágnes, Giczi Johanna, Sik Endre, TáTK, Budapest, pp. 320-324.

22 Havasi Éva 2010: Jövedelmi helyzet, megélhetési viszonyok a mély szegénységben élők körében. (Income situation, survival strategies among those living in deep poverty) In: Kóczé Angéla (szerk.) Nehéz sorsú asszonyok feketén fehéren. Roma nők munkaerőpiaci és megélhetési lehetőségei két kistérségben. Budapest. pp 19-50, pp:38-40.

23 Kincses Gy: Kő az egészségügy levesében. In Népszabadság 2006.01.30. http://www.nol.hu/archivum/archiv-392428

24 Janky Bela (2004): A cigany csaladok jovedelmi helyzete, megjelent: Tarsadalmi Riport 2004, TARKI; Kosa, Zs. et al: A Comparative Health Survey of the Inhabitants of Roma Settlements in Hungary. Am J Public Health. 2007 May; 97(5): 853-859.; Voko Z., Csepe P., Nemeth R., Kosa K., Kosa Zs., Szeles Gy., Adany R. (2008): Does socioeconomic status fully mediate the effect of ethnicity on the health of Roma people in Hungary?, J Epidemiol Community Health doi:10.1136/jech.2008.079715.

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who thought that they could do much for their own health was 13% to 15% lower, and heavy smoking and unhealthy diet were 1.5 to 3 times more prevalent, than in the lowest income quartile of the general population (see Annex Tables 2-4.)

- Housing and environment

In 2003, the Roma population numbered around 600,000 (6%), with almost two thirds living in North-East of Hungary, one of the country's most underdeveloped regions. Around 40% live in villages of below 5,000 inhabitants, which is only slightly higher than in the total population (35%). However, over 70% live in spatially segregated housing with only or mostly Roma neighbours and up to 26% of the Roma population live in segregated Roma settlements with basic or no infrastructure.25 According to Kemény et al, currently, 5% of Roma dwell in huts or shacks (compare: two-thirds in 1971) .In 2003, 28% of Roma dwellings had one room, 42% had two rooms, and 30% had three or more rooms. One room dwellings accounted for 12% of the total housing stock in Hungary, 41% of dwellings had two rooms, and 47% had three or more rooms. In 2003, 77% of dwellings were in brick, concrete or stone buildings and 19% in adobe or mud-and-wattle buildings. There is no data for 4% of dwellings. The share of dwellings with earthen floors was 4% in 2003. In both 1993 and 2003, the share of Roma homes supplied with electricity was 98%. In 2003, the share of Roma homes with running water was 72% (94% in Budapest, 68% in provincial urban areas, and 67% in rural areas). Water was drawn from a well on site in 6% of homes. The share of homes with an indoor toilet was 51% (59% in Budapest, 54% in provincial urban areas, and 44% in rural areas) while 7% of homes had an outdoor toilet (33% in Budapest, 5% in provincial urban areas, and 3% in rural areas). In 2003, the share of Roma homes with a bathroom was 57.6% (66.7% in Budapest, 57.4% in provincial urban areas, and 55.5% in rural areas). Among the Roma population, there were 2.4 persons per room in 2003. In the same year, the share of persons with 5 square meters of living space or less was 9.3%, while 26.5% had between 5.1 and 10 square meters, 44.4% between 10.1 and 20 square meters, and 19.7% more than 20 square meters.26

A comprehensive environmental survey of all settlements in Hungary was carried out employing Roma field workers in order to locate and characterise segregated parts (colonies) of human habitats. Based on the collected data on environmental conditions and aggregate population numbers of the colonies, ranking of colonies and maps on their characteristics were prepared for all counties of Hungary. Seven hundred fifty-eight colonies were identified with approximately 134,000 inhabitants. Ninety-four percent of all colonies are populated dominantly by Roma. A total number of approximately 134,000 people (1.6% of the total population of Hungary in 2003) were found to live in segregated habitats in the 19 counties of Hungary. 33% of the total colony population lived in the Northern Great Plain region; 32.7% of colony dwellers lived in the region of Northern Hungary. The northernmost county (Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén) was home to 21% of all colony dwellers, comprising 3.8% of the total population of this county. The lack of sewage and gas mains, garbage deposits, waterlogged soil and lack of water mains are the most frequent environmental problems in

25 6% in Kemény et al 2004, 20-26% in Ungváry et al 2005 and Kósa et al 2009. 26 Kemény-Janky 2005.

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the colonies. The proportion of colony-dwelling Roma is approximately one-fifth to one-quarter of the estimated number of Roma people in Hungary.27

- Sport, recreation, culture

Despite the traditional and stereotypical views on Roma music and dancing, it should be emphasised that different Roma groups have different traditions, cultural values and life-style attributes, so we cannot speak about a homogenous Roma culture at all. There have been efforts to spread knowledge about the Roma and their culture both to the Roma themselves and also to the majority society. A nice example of this is an interactive multimedia CD ROM available via the internet as well, the ”Virtual House of Roma Culture28.

1.4 The extent and nature of discrimination experienced by Roma

Anti-discrimination legislation and administrative procedures to fight ethnic discrimination are in place, but their enforcement is weak. A survey in 2005 found thal almost two-thirds of Hungarians agree to some extent with the statement that “criminality is genetically coded in Gypsies” and 80% think that “problems of the Roma would be solved if they finally started to work”.29

The EU-MIDIS survey30 carried out in 2008 found that 62% of Roma respondents experienced discrimination during the previous year in Hungary, 41% in private services, 32% in work-related settings, 18% by health care or social service, 17% by school personnel, and 16% related to housing (see Annex chart 7). 90% of Hungarian Roma respondents feel that ethnic discrimination is widespread in the country. Only 41% are aware of anti-discrimination legislation and 78% has no information about organisations that might provide assistance in such cases. The overwhelming majority of discrimination cases remain unreported. 41% of respondents were stopped by the police and 58% of these cases were perceived as “ethnic profiling”.

“The depression of local economy represents a much more serious plight for Roma than for non-Roma of the same gender, age, educational level and family conditions. […] It would be hard to interpret this situation as something else than the sign of employment discrimination.”31 “Their employment opportunities amount to less than half of those characterising the control group [employment seekers of the same level of education]…” 32

27 Kósa, K. – Daragó, L. – Ádány R. Environmental survey of segregated habitats of Roma in Hungary: a way to be

empowering and reliable in minority research. In: European Journal of Public Health, 2009. http://eurpub.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2009/07/17/eurpub.ckp097.full

28 http://www.dalit.hu/a-roma-kultura-virtualis-haza/ 29 Dencső Blanka- Sik Endre (2007): Adalekok az előitéletesség mértékének és okainak megismeréséhez a mai

Magyarorszagon, Educatio, 2007/I. 30 EU Minorities and Discrimination Survey 2009. http://www.fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/attachments/EU-

MIDIS_ROMA_EN.pdf 31 Kertesi Gábor (2000) A cigány foglalkoztatás leépülése és szerkezeti átalakulása 1984 és 1994 között. [The

decline and restructuring of Roma employment between 1984 and 1994] Munkatörténeti elemzés Közgazdasági Szemle, Vol. 47, No. 5. pp. 406–443., p. 440.

32 Kertesi Gábor (2005) Roma foglalkoztatás az ezredfordulón. A rendszerváltás maradandó sokkja [Roma employment at the turn of the millennium. The lasting shock of the regime change]. In: Kertesi Gábor: A tarsadalom peremén. Romák a munkaerőpiacon es az iskolaban [On the fringes of society. The Roma in the labour market and at school], Osiris, Budapest, pp. 173–204. p. 191.).

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According to the empirical studies done by Ferenc Babusik regarding Hungarian enterprises, 80% of employers “not only do not employ Roma but are also unwilling to do so, even in the case where their educational level is satisfactory”.33 In spite of anti-discrimination legislation, Roma are excluded from employment already at the point of entry to the labour market, i.e. during hiring procedures. It is a common experience, evidenced by both research studies, that employers reject applicants merely on the basis of their presumed Roma origin: 29% of respondents in the ERRC survey said employers had explicitly told them that the reason for refusal had been their Roma origin. This phenomenon is also revealed by the complaints submitted to, and investigations conducted by, the authorities in charge of enforcing equal treatment: reports of the Equal Treatment Authority, the Roma Anti-discrimination Lawyers’ Service Network of the Ministry of Justice and Police, the Legal Defence Bureau for National and Ethnic Minorities and the ombudsman for minorities all refer to similar cases. As indicated by several studies, Roma are discriminated against not only by employers but, indirectly, also by employment agents and public employment centres that take employers’ preferences with respect to ethnic membership into account. Employment centres treating this type of request by employers in a lenient or even accepting manner have been encountered during research projects. E.g. a Hungarian case study shows how this is done in practice: jobs for which employers indicated they did not want to employ Roma were marked by the letter R in the computer system of the employment agency.34

Segregation based on ethnicity is frequent in the public education system as well. The prohibition of unlawful segregation was motivated by the unlawful practices of segregating Roma and non-Roma pupils followed in some schools in Hungary. This is a specific Hungarian provision, not regulated in the EU norms. Under the law, unlawful segregation is defined as a conduct that separates certain persons or groups from other, similarly situated persons or groups devoid of an explicit permission by the law. The Hungarian Supreme Court has made a historical sentence very recently, closing a 9-year long struggle: segregation of Roma children is prohibited in Hajduhadház. This has been the first segregation case at Supreme Court of the Republic of Hungary. 35

1.5 Main data gaps in relation to Roma There are two main problems regarding this issue. The gathering of ethnic identity during research is strictly regulated in Hungary, and data protection laws have resulted in a lack of reliable statistical data. A governmental decree to improve the situation of Roma accepted in 1997 called for reliable information on disadvantaged Roma, especially those living in segregated habitats (colonies) in Hungary. Previous governmental efforts to collect information through administrative channels yielded incomplete data due to lack of uniform methodology and enforcement of reporting. The second issue is the definition problem: who is Roma? As it could be seen from the very first section of this present paper, there is a difference in magnitude between the numbers of the population based on various definitions. Three representative surveys of the Roma population in 33 Babusik Ferenc (2006) Foglalkoztatasi egyenlőtlensegek a munkaerő-piacon: a romak foglalkoztatasi

diszkriminacioja [Employment inequalities in the labour market: Roma discrimination]. Delphoi Consulting, Budapest, www.delphoi.hu. p. 3.

34 ERRC The glass box. Exclusion of Roma from employment. ERRC, Budapest, http://www.errc.org/ db/02/14/m00000214.pdf.ERRC, 2007, p. 41.).

35 http://www.ambedkar.eu/historic-sentence-in-budapest/

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Hungary have been conducted over the past years (1971, 1993, 2003) which covered the entire Roma population. The data collected thus relate to each of the three language groups (Hungarian, Romani and Beás). These classified as Roma all persons whom the surrounding non-Roma community considered to be Roma. Official records relating to the places of residence and addresses of Roma do not exist, and thus the selected method was considered to be the only means of compiling a sample. In other surveys, e.g. those carried out by TÁRKI, respondents are usually asked about their ethnic identity but also at the very end of the questionnaires interviewers are also asked about the perceived ethnic identity of the respondent. The whole definition-issue generated substantial scientific debate in the late 90s.36 In the census Roma is a person who identifies his/herself as Roma. In official records however (police, education, social services) records of such people do not exist and are not permitted. Taking the huge difference between census and survey data into account, we can state that census data cannot be used for policy design. In the forthcoming census an improved methodology is to be applied to collect data on ethnicity, as a result of hot scientific and political debate on the issue. Regarding programmes: very often, even in case of programmes with explicit ethnic targeting, no data is gathered in this regard, thus the share of the Roma is based on guesses, as there is no formal registration of the Roma in the projects (several examples could be cited for this, e.g. from the previous EU programming period measures HRD OP 1.1., 2.3.1). Obviously it seriously limits the monitoring and evaluation of programmes.

2. Assessment of existing policy and governance framework 2.1. Policy framework and governance arrangements The issue of Roma integration is on the agenda of the government and has been a priority of the Hungarian EU presidency. The issue of Roma inclusion has been on the political agenda for a long time, however, as other analysts put it „the political commitment to integration policies has never been very firm over the past 20 years, but the necessity of dealing with the problem has moved higher on the political agenda, partly due to increasing pressure from the EU.”37 A number of various strategies and action plans has been accepted in Hungary to improve the situation of disadvantaged social groups including the Roma, e.g. the Joint Inclusion Memorandum on Social Inclusion, National Action Plans, Employment Action Plans, Roma Government Programme a government decree (1021/2004 (III.18.) on measures related to government programmes to promote the social integration of the Roma, which all serve as the basis of the action plan of the Roma Decade. The previous Socialist government in 2007 joined the Roma Decade and published a strategy. In the framework of this programme specific measures focusing directly on the Roma population and more broadly, to all disadvantaged social groups, should be realised paralelly so as to achieve the best results and efficiency.

36 Ladányi J, Szelényi I. Who is gypsy? [in Hungarian] Kritika. 1997;(Dec):3–6., Ladányi J, Szelényi I. On the

objectivity of ethnic classification [in Hungarian]. Kritika. 1998;(March):33–35. 37 A Roma Integráció Évtizede Program az Európai Unió roma integrációs politikájában. Budapest Intézet 2011.

http://www.budapestinstitute.eu/dontestamogatas/prj/A_Roma_Integracio_Evtizede_Program_az_Europai_Unio_roma_integracios_politikajaban. p. 3.

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The new FIDESZ government (taking office in 2010) established a new ministerial unit with considerable resources for promoting the integration of disadvantaged (among them Roma) people. (The Ministry of Public Administration and Justice, which is led by the Minister of Public Administration and Justice, has a Minister of State for Social Inclusion [Zoltán Balog]). The most recent government decree numbered 1136/2011. (V. 2.) on certain short-term measures promoting social inclusion of the Roma setting deadlines and responsible for each proposed area of action. This document phrases as the most important target to enhance education and employment of the Roma, by elaborating a detailed action plan with a deadline of September 1 to extend employment opportunities, increase the quality of education and develop programmes to improve living conditions in a coordinated manner. Regulations on decision making processes, interministerial committees and consultative bodies are to be revised so as to provide an opportunity for the National Roma Self-Government (Országos Roma Önkormányzat, ORÖ) to cooperate, take part in decision making and monitoring regarding measures aiming to promote social exclusion. The National Roma Self-Government is to improve the existing institutional system of Roma representation that could support ongoing processes and secure that Hungary represents a view during consultations with the EU which is previously discussed by the National Roma Self-Government by delegating at least one person from this body. Thus this decree contains no details regarding implementation. As to governance, in Hungary the system of minority self-governments is to represent minority interests but in fact the system would require substantial reforms for which now the 2/3 majority rule of the governing party would provide opportunities. At present minority governments cannot contribute substantially to promoting Roma integration: they lack professional and financial capacities, and they are often used by national politics for building their clientele. Their relationship (roles, responsibilities) with local governments is not clearly defined. The municipal system, which is to provide public services, is seriously underfunded: especially small settlements in disadvantaged regions where people affected by social exclusion, including the Roma, are overrepresented, has neither sufficient financial nor human resources to provide a full range of quality services and other provisions, thus the system is the weakest exactly where demand is the greatest. Also, discretionary elements (e.g. in the new form of social assistance) provide opportunities for prejudices and tensions to emerge. Furthermore some studies indicate that this increases the vulnerability of service users.38 2.2 Targets The most recent and quantified targets both regarding reducing poverty and handling the situation of the Roma are set out in the National Reform Programme submitted in April 2011, detailed in section 2.3. As described in the first report of the Network this year, the proposed targets, especially in the field of employment (1 million new jobs) and social exclusion (5% less poor people) by 2020 are highly ambitious (and of course highly desirable), but in view of current trends seems a bit unrealistic. As for 2012 “Hungary will not commit itself to concrete targets concerning the development of target indicators”, but makes projections based on the best available information. On the other hand, most improvements and their impact are expected in some years’ time.

38 Szalai Julia (2004, 2005): A joleti fogda I. es II., Esely, 2004/6; Esely 2005/1.

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Currently the situation is getting worse for the poor, as the amount of the minimum pension, to which most social provisions and also family allowance, a major source of income with poor families with children, are tied in Hungary, has not been increased at all since 2008, plus a number of new measures, e.g. the modified tax system or the restructuring of public work schemes, the modification of sick pay and unemployment benefit systems affect those socially excluded negatively. Thus at least for a year or two, the situation of almost 30% of the Hungarian population affected by poverty and social inclusion will not improve but can be expected to worsen. On May 20th 2011 the government and the National Roma Self-government (ORÖ) signed a framework agreement creating a common decision making mechanism, highlighting that the ORÖ would participate in all decisions regarding improving the employment end education of the Roma. The major targets of the agreement are the same as the ones presented in the NRP. Preventive medical screening is to be organised for 150,000 Roma.39 2.3 NRP Reducing regional disparities and improving the situation of the Roma are declared to be horizontal principles of the final NRP. The Roma population as a specific and highlighted target group of several measures is indicated, and specific target indicators are identified for them. The integration of the Roma is presented as a horizontal aspect of the NRP (together with regionalism) – this is a significant improvement as compared to the draft version of the NRP and is completely in line with the measures aimed at the reduction of poverty, increasing employability and educational performance and also with the Commission’s framework published in April 2011. The main areas of concern of the Roma strategy are 1) spatial disadvantages (disadvantaged areas and settlements), 2) social conditions (permanent joblessness, low school attainment, bad health etc), thus in the four priority fields of education, employment, housing and healthcare both social and spatial aspects are considered. The major targets are: equal access to quality education, better labour market access, improvement of health status and of living conditions. Discrimination and gender equality are both mentioned as horizontal aspects regarding the above mentioned areas. The threat of enhancing further segregation, and the necessity to involve Roma professionals are mentioned. The problem definition and the description of the situation of the Roma is high quality (pp. 33-35). The monitoring and evaluation of the measures targeting the Roma is also highlighted, but without particular detail. The need for the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development to support Roma integration in a greater extent is emphasised. There are specific national Roma targets set in the NRP: Involve 100,000 currently out-of job Roma in employment and support 10,000 Roma enterprises, (from which at least 3,000 start-ups). Provide marketable skills for 20,000 young Roma in 50 prioritised vocational training schools, and 10,000 more to participate in courses providing a final exam, 5,000 more of them to study in the tertiary education system; 50,000 Roma adults with maximum vocational training school attainment can obtain marketable skills, and another 80,000 Roma adults to take part in programmes which provide basic skills (writing, reading, arithmetic, informatics). 150,000 Roma will undergo health screening and will receive permanent counselling necessary for a healthy lifestyle.

39 http://static.fidesz.hu/download/177/Kormany_ORO_keretmegallapodas_20110520_4177.pdf

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2.4 Strengths and weaknesses of existing policies and programmes

Generally one can say that the proposed (and existing) policies and programmes, IF IMPLEMENTED, could substantially improve the present situation of the poor and also the Roma as their problem analysis is scientifically grounded and their approach is complex. However during the past years we could witness how on paper well planned and appropriate programmes could not turn out to be really effective in practice, due to a number of reasons detailed below. All the good examples cited cannot be considered exemplary in every respect: if professional content is good, then there are, or in the near future easily can be problems at least with sustainability. The fact, that project financing do not permit the realisation of long programmes, and often complex programmes cannot be realised, are serious obstacles in way of efficiency. In the case of most programmes, available resources have been distributed via tenders. The problem is, that the most potent organisations and communities, with extensive experience in application for tenders and maintaining widespread social relationships, are the most likely to obtain resources. Thus inequalities have become even greater as the factors determining the disadvantaged situation of the most dependent population mutually reinforce one another. The same counter-selective procedure, another source of insufficient efficiency can be observed connected to project administration. The realisation or implementation of programmes entails administrative difficulties that only potent organisations with extended experience can manage. Flaws of project financing (delayed payments of often very significant amounts) also has driven a number of otherwise professional organisations into bankruptcy or close to that. The professional preparedness of the implementing organisation is also an important issue and Roma NGOs often lack these capacities of the necessary formal certificates and in case of several programmes no professional support has been provided to beneficiaries. EU funded programmes have been monitored, but this has become more and more formal and bureaucratic since 2004 loosing the initially supportive aspects and professional considerations are overcome by procedural and administrative requirements. Although promoting equal opportunities for highlighted groups, among them the Roma, in has been a horizontal principle the National Development Plan, this requirement could be easily satisfied by generally framed statements (e.g. the mere appearance of cooperation with Roma organisations) The Catch-up programme for the most disadvantaged small regions was based on territorial determinants justified by the fact that the territorially based marginalisation of poor groups due to ethnicity is growing. Although at the level of small regions these programmes are effective, inequalities within small regions will not decrease. The “Making the Most of EU Funding for the Roma” initiative of the Open Society Institute40 aims to tackle some of these problems, that „major sources of funding have yet to “trickle down” to ideal candidates” OSI intends to maximise the use of available resources and funds by governments in the region and to help major European Structural and other European Funds “flow” to local governments, civil society, and private sector actors, who have the expertise needed to contribute the social inclusion of the Roma in all aspects of civic life, through several interlinked interventions, promoting Roma expertise and involvement in different phases of project development and implementation by capacity building (technical assistance and mentoring: project development fund to strengthen stakeholders work toward Roma integration; mentoring for Roma representatives involved in programming and monitoring EU funds and pre-financing

40 http://lgi.osi.hu/documents.php?m_id=188

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and non-eligible cost funding to increase the impact of EU funded projects and to support access to or the flow of EU funding towards communities, by offering NGOs and smaller/poorer municipalities involved in Roma projects monetary assistance; and influencing EU policies in new- or -pre accession countries of South Eastern Europe.) and advocacy (marketing Roma inclusion a political priority in conceiving European funding projects; monitoring the implementation of EU funded programmes in all member states of the Decade of Roma Inclusion). In public discourse it appears that high welfare expenditure is a major factor contributing to the bad economic situation of the country, and that is strongly connected to the situation of the Roma (who do not want to work, are inherently criminal41 and have lots of children to get more social provisions. Even more radical statements characterise the far right Jobbik (‛The Movement for a Better Hungary’) established in 2003, which won 3 of the 22 Hungarian seats at the EU Parliamentary elections in 2009 and won 12% of seats in the national Parliament in 2010. Magyar Gárda (Hungarian Guard) is a closely related movement established in mid-2007 and banned in late 2008). The media also strengthens a distorted and negative picture of the Roma. Facts however do not support this: only 10% of the inactive adults are Roma. The proportion of Roma among recipients of child benefit and unemployment benefits is 10-12%, and below 1% in the case of pensions.42 Ear-marked government spending on Roma integration amounted to 26 billion HUF in 200643, which is less than one-tenth of annual public expenditure on cultural, leisure and religious activities (330 billion HUF).44 That is why it is especially problematic, that “Integration programmes typically aim at alleviating deprivation and segregation, while there are no public institutions to promote tolerance and a formation of Roma identity (such as a national Roma Archive or a Roma Cultural Center).”45 - income (tax and welfare policies)

Social policy have mostly been dominated by cash benefits. According to economists, the repeated increases of the minimum wage, high taxes on labour and large administrative costs that disproportionately burden small firms have held back the growth of demand for unskilled labour.46 The social benefit system is being changed to promote employability and increase

41 There is a special and highly debated term used by the media, the police and others: Roma criminality

(cigánybűnözés), although the police (as all other actors) cannot legally keep records of the ethnicity of their “clients” since 1991. The share of Roma among convicted property offenders is relatively high but not higher than the similary educated and poor non Roma. (OKRI (2008): Allasfoglalas a magyarorszagi bűnozesi helyzetről, az elkovetők etnikai hovatartozasanak

nyilvantartasarol es a „ciganybűnozesről”, Országos Kriminológiai Intézet http://www.okri.hu/images/stories/doc_files/allasfoglalas_hossz.doc 42 A Roma Integráció Évtizede Program az Európai Unió roma integrációs politikájában. Budapest Intézet 2011.

http://www.budapestinstitute.eu/dontestamogatas/prj/A_Roma_Integracio_Evtizede_Program_az_Europai_Unio_roma_integracios_politikajaban

43 ÁSZ (2008) A magyarországi cigányság helyzetének javítására es felemelkedésére a rendszerváltás óta fordított támogatások mértéke és hatékonysága, Állami Számvevőszék, April 2008. http://www.asz.hu/ASZ/tanulmanyok.nsf/0/79ED5720B293EBC9C12574F30031B5C7/$File/t206.pdf

44 A Roma Integráció Évtizede Program az Európai Unió roma integrációs politikájában. Budapest Intézet 2011. http://www.budapestinstitute.eu/dontestamogatas/prj/A_Roma_Integracio_Evtizede_Program_az_Europai_Unio_roma_integracios_politikajaban

45 A Roma Integráció Évtizede Program az Európai Unió roma integrációs politikájában. Budapest Intézet 2011. http://www.budapestinstitute.eu/dontestamogatas/prj/A_Roma_Integracio_Evtizede_Program_az_Europai_Unio_roma_integracios_politikajaban

46 Nagy Gy. (2008): Önkormányzati szociális segélyezés, in: Nagy Gy. szerk.: Joléti ellátások, szakképzés és munkakinálat, MTA-KTI;Kertesi G. - Köllő J. (2004): A 2001. évi minimálbéremelés foglalkoztatási

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sustainability. The revision of the sick-pay system also aims at promoting sustainability and improving employability. The recent modification of the tax system introducing flat rate taxation negative affects poor people without higher than average work-related income. The amounts of cash benefits has not been indexed since 2008, and the compulsory public work is now often expected in 4, instead of 8 hours and for more limited periods, resulted in a significant decrease of incomes of the very poor, among them the Roma. The generated new tensions may also fuel ethnic conflicts.

- Education

As the PISA studies indicate47, the Hungarian education system is unable to alleviate or even compensate for social inequalities due to, among others, significant segregation of school system, lack of quality control and sufficient financing from local governments. The disadvantage of uneducated parents is reproduced and so are the disadvantage of having low levels of education. However, since 2002 EU funded integration projects have been launched which reached one fourth of the schools and resulted in significant improvement of the school performance of disadvantaged, among them Roma children.48

The government plans to significantly extend early childhood facilities (now available only for 10.5% of the children) and decrease the regional inequalities in this regard which affects Roma in a higher extent due to the regional distribution of the population. In case of the Roma this could not only contribute to female employability but to promoting equality regarding children from a disadvantaged family background and significantly increase further educational success.49 Connected to this, some elements of the model programme to fight child poverty are to be spread, e.g. the Sure Start programme. In this regard it is hard to understand how the sustainability of the pioneering pilot programme in Szécsény50 cannot be secured.51

The planned decrease of the school leaving age from 18 to 15 or 16 years is perceived to be a step back by several experts. Some good practice examples:

Ghandi secondary school founded in 199252, Romaversitas (training and scholarship programme of Roma youngsters in higher education)53, or a more recently founded Dr

következményei, Közgazdasági szemle, 2004. április, 293-324.; Köllő J. (2009) A pálya szélen. Iskolázatlan munkanélkuliek a posztszocialista gazdaságban, Osiris.

47 PISA 2009 tájékoztató. http://oecd-pisa.hu/ 48 Reszkető P.E., Scharle A, and Varadi, B. (2010): Evaluation of the Equal Opportunity and Integration Project

SROP 331 (full report available in Hungarian only). http://www.budapestinstitute.eu/uploads/BI_SROP331_evalution_summary.pdf a Kézdi Gábor és Surányi Éva (2008): Egy sikeres iskolai integrációs program tapasztalatai. A hátrányos helyzetű tanulók oktatási integrációs programjának hatásvizsgálata. Educatio Közhasznú Társaság. Budapest.

49 Reszkető Petra_Scharle Ágota – Váradi Balázs: A kisgyermekek nappali elátásának bővítése: célok, eszköztár és várható társadalmi hatások. In Szerepváltozások 2011 (eds: Nagy Ildikó-Pongrácz Tiborné). TÁRKI, Budapest.

50 http://www.peer-review-social-inclusion.eu/peer-reviews/2010/promoting-social-inclusion-of-children-in-a-disadvantaged-rural-environment-the-micro-region-of-szecseny

51 Segénység, Magyarország 2020.. http://www.gyerekesely.hu/index.php?option=com_phocadownload&view=category&id=24&Itemid=74&lang=hu 52 http://gandhi.dravanet.hu 53 http://www.romaversitas.hu/

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Ámbédkar Gimnázium.54 This latter is a special secondary school supported by the Hungarian State, the Buddhist church and private funds in Sajókaza. The school has over 400 young adult and adult students, most of who come from extremely poor Roma communities. The four teaching centres of the Gimnázium operate in small villages near Miskolc, NE Hungary, providing primary and secondary education and vocational courses

The activities of ’Real pearl’ Basic Art-Educational Foundation (Igazgyöngy alapítvány)55 , which has been operating since 2000, with a centre in Berettyóújfalu in East Hungary. It provides facilities in 6 bases for the age-group from 6 to 22, of fine, applied and dance art. The number of students is about 600, more than 60% is underprivileged, with high rate of Roma pupils. Their most important task is to help personality development, compensate disadvantages with the means of art education. The lessons are real creative workshops where taking on individuality and identity has overriding importance. Among the applied methods there are many local innovations, alternative ones. (Cooperative methods, differentiation, individual development, projects, social competence-improving programmes). The students are extremely successful in domestic and foreign children drawing applications, they bring 400-500 awards annually from all around the world and are regularly invited to international workshops and organise change-programmes with foreign partners.

Employment

The issue of employment policies is very high on the political agenda. So far central governmental employment policy has mostly been dominated by cash benefits, instead of supporting adaptation skills. Training programmes with often questionable effectiveness frequently excluded those with low levels of education, although the employment figures of workers without secondary education are the lowest in EU comparison, does not reach 30%, and respective figures for the Roma are even worse. The overview of the Roma employment policies point out56 that the past years’ programmes aimed at Roma employment were not able to successfully influence the level of Roma employment. The problems of the system can be linked to the definition of the target population, the goals and priorities, the indicators, and the procedures for grant applications, as well as the lack of monitoring and impact analysis.

At first programmes with direct ethnic targeting were launched to counterbalance the increasing social exclusion of the Roma. As mentioned in the section on data gaps, it is very hard to identify who is Roma. Several strategies have been used for this goal, all with limited success. E.g. programmes were launched for Roma employers supposing that they are likely to employ Roma. Other programmes asked the applicants for a recommendation of Roma civil organisations or Roma self governments as a precondition. Research evidences indicate that the participation rate of the Roma in the targeted Roma programmes varied with an average of 50% Roma in the programmes. The more complex the programme was, the longer the programme lasted, the lower the share of the Roma in the programme was. The fact that resources were distributed via project applications further limited the pool of applicants, esp. in disadvantaged regions. During the 2000s the ethnic-targeted programmes

54 http://www.ambedkar.eu. 55 http://www.igazgyongy-alapitvany.hu/index.php?page=intro.php 56 Fleck, G – Messing, V (2009) A roma foglalkoztatáspolitika alakváltozásai (Metamorphosis of the Roma

employment policy) In Fazekas, K., Lovász, A., Telegdy, Á (eds) Munkaerőpiaci helyzetkép, 2009.OFA-KTI Budapest pp 82-96.

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have been replaced by more generally framed inclusion programmes for disadvantaged groups. The low level of Roma employment is connected with the low-education, social and regional exclusion, discrimination and other associated problems that mostly go hand-in-hand. The target groups of the new inclusion policy programmes were the disadvantaged or the multiple disadvantaged groups. As a consequence, the target group of labour market inclusion programmes moved from the multiple disadvantaged groups most in need ‘upward’ (as they were less difficult to involve, keep in the programme, successfully employ afterwards). In this way those at the bottom enjoyed less support, in contrast to other disadvantaged groups and programmes failed to reach the aim to diminish extreme social exclusion. 57

Even the official evaluation of the State Audit Office (2008) on government initiated Roma projects described the above mentioned anomalies of the Roma programmes and their failure in diminishing social and labour market exclusion.58 Regional employment offices and NGOs manage a number of employment inclusion programmes. A fundamental problem is, that employment inclusion programmes were successful mostly only until the programmes were completed. To find employment following the programme for the Roma was even more difficult than for other disadvantaged groups due to discrimination. On the other hand programmes mostly tackle the labour supply side (e.g. training courses or developing skills) while the demand side is hardly focused on. Thus instead of finding employment possibilities, the Roma get a kind of welfare/supported job that is on the one hand instable and often humiliating and on the other hand maintains, or even reinforces the instable and dependent, socially excluded situation of the Roma.59 Even in the case of tenders that report on using relatively convincing means to ensure further employment the following typical cases have been detected:

Participants were not really unemployed, or they were unemployed only on paper. The programme, in fact, provided a means for companies to legalise the employment of previously illegally employed workers; in successful programmes (with a higher than 50% rate of further employment), the percentage of Roma among participants was insignificant; further employment generally lasts strictly for the prescribed compulsory period, after which participants are immediately dismissed. After the end of the programme, an element of the participants started working in the framework of another one; thus their further employment was apparently realised and the programme could demonstrate success on paper, while the labour market situation of the concerned target group remained absolutely unchanged. Hardly any of the programmes the quoted study encountered were adjusted to the actual labour market opportunities in the given area.60

Real monitoring and impact assessment would be both needed for “Ever since support programmes have appeared in Hungary, the absence of pre-planning studies, monitoring to

57 Fleck, G – Messing, V (2009) A roma foglalkoztatáspolitika alakváltozásai (Metamorphosis of the Roma


58 ÁSZ (2008) A magyarországi cigányság helyzetének javítására es felemelkedésére a rendszerváltás óta fordított támogatások mértéke és hatékonysága, Állami Számvevőszék, April 2008. http://www.asz.hu/ASZ/tanulmanyok.nsf/0/79ED5720B293EBC9C12574F30031B5C7/$File/t206.pdf

59 Szalai, J (2007): Nincs két ország...? (Are not there two countries…?) Budapest : Osiris, 2007. 60 Fleck, G – Messing, V (2009) A roma foglalkoztatáspolitika alakváltozásai (Metamorphosis of the Roma


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trace the process, and subsequent evaluation, or the effectively formal nature of such exercises, represent notorious problems. Evaluation and monitoring – if undertaken at all – tend to refer only to the formal (legal or administrative) and financial aspects of implementation.”

Public work projects are becoming more and more relevant. The “Pathway to work” programme (2008-2010) was a significant step in this, trying to strengthen the work incentive elements of the social assistance system claiming to try to contribute to the labour market integration of those affected (which experts generally found unjustified). County-level data provided by the National Employment Service indicated that one of the most important target groups of the programme was represented by the Roma population that has permanently been excluded from the formal labour market. The transformation of the public work scheme by the new government since January 2011 on, although agreeable in its ambition (to strengthen the work incentives and support employment at enterprises instead of promoting participation in public work schemes) currently seems to mean in practice that people are employed for shorter periods and only half time, which leads to decreased income for families already in a disadvantaged situation. Conditionality of social provisions are increased: living arrangements and lifestyle has to be decent (regulated by local government decrees!), any job offered should be accepted regardless one’s level of education and if someone cannot prove 30 days of employment, will not be entitled to the benefit (“bérpótló juttatás” wage-supplementary provision), the next year and will prove to be undeserving, although a number of local governments, due to altered financing from the state cannot provide enough public work for the unemployed. The organisation and implementation of public work projects have been delegated to be the responsibility of the Minister of Interior. The recently published National Plan for Work61 aims to decrease administrative burdens, proposes employment-friendly modifications of the tax system, the increase of the efficiency and continuous monitoring of the Public Employment Service, the supervision of public transport and home maintenance support schemes to promote mobility and other important targets. However the proposed employment schemes for the long-term unemployed, among them significant numbers of Roma, contains serious risks according to experts, primarily related to the radical decrease of the period of job seeking while they can get cash benefits on condition of participation in public work projects. This may lead to an even tighter poverty trap for those affected hundreds of thousands.62 Even international media is spreading news on plans regarding huge public work projects (road and dam construction etc) where thousands of former “policemen – early retirees who have been summoned back into the force – will be set to work supervising as many as 300,000.In exchange for four hours’ work a day, the participants will continue to receive benefits – though at a rate rather less than the 81,000 forint 300 EUR) monthly minimum wage. They will be entitled to free meals if they have to travel for more than three hours to get to work, and overnight accommodation if their journey lasts more than six hours. The policemen say both workers and their supervisors will be accommodated in containers. Lest anyone think of work camps, Sándor Pintér, the interior minister, said the retired policemen would be there to co-ordinate operations, not oversee workers.”63 Public Employment Services have a very important role and their services should be, as planned, significantly improved.

61 http://www.kormany.hu/hu/nemzetgazdasagi-miniszterium/foglalkoztataspolitikaert-elelos-allamtitkarsag/hirek/a-

kormany-megtargyalta-es-elfogadta-a-magyar-munka-tervet 62 http://index.hu/gazdasag/magyar/2011/06/30/kozmunkaval_rosszabb_lesz_az_allaskeresoknek/ 63 http://nol.hu/belfold/20110623-a_fo_celcsoport__szazezer_roma

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Best practice examples:

- The village Igrici: the expert(s) of the non-profit foundation initiating the programme conducted a thorough assessment of the need in the village. The idea was to initiate a cooperative and get the investment needed for the production financed through micro-financing. Following the decision about the profile, the foundation helped to get preferential credit for the activity. The success of the cultivation of gherkin offered employment initially to 25 persons, the crop was good and additional people had to be employed for the harvest. There is a possibility that the cooperation will increase and employ more persons and set up new direction of cultivation, trade etc. An important feature of the project was that the Roma themselves find the profile that mobilised their activity. In the next village the preparation of another possible project resulted in a very different profile, their initiation was the production of a special quality of stone while in a third case the tradition in the village was collecting herbs. In each case the people’ informal activity was transferred into the employment of the new initiation of the project.64

- Önellátó falu – self sustaining village: The small village of Túristvándi with approx. 700 inhabitants tries to achieve sustainability locally: promote tourism in the countryside, healthy lifestyle, locally grown products, social cooperative. The local government owns a 5 ha plot where those families in which one parent is unemployed may grow gherkins. The village provides the plants, specialised knowledge on production and watering. The rest of the work is done by the locals in exchange for 60% of the products. They are planning on open a local market. Hungarian and Roma inhabitants live together without conflicts, which is based on the local school specialising in minority education and children can Lovari language and Roma culture.65

- Bódvalenke66 – Fresco village: A different approach: frescoes are painted on the walls of the houses and try to attract touristic attention and generate some employment opportunities and promote dialogue between the Roma and the majority population. 4 universities also support the project, however, the annual festival called Dragon celebration may not be organised this year due to lack of minimum resources.

- The Roma Centre in the Bogdán János Community Centre for Roma Minorities, Nagykanizsa, a Model Project of the Austro-Hungarian Experts Academy67: In addition to counselling and information activities on labour-market policy, employment and training programmes, the centre also offers schooling supervision facilities for children and cultural activities.

- Sorsfordító programme – Gyulaj68 A labour market reintegration programme of the South Danubian Regional Employment Centre, in which 30 settlements participate involving Roma people. Unemployed people work in horticultures of local governments or entrepreneurs after participating in a 8.5 month training programme. Mentors support the participants not only in

64 Csák Gergely (2009) Túl nagyra nőtt a siker az igrici cigányoknál (Success grew enormously at the Igrici Gipsies)

168 óra online, 28 July http://www.168ora.hu/itthon/termeloszovetkezetet-alapitottak-az-igrici-romak-a-problema-most-az-hogy-tul-nagyra-nottek-az-uborkak-40688.html

65 http://umvp.eu/?q=sajtoszemle/onellato-falu 66 http://www.bodvalenke.eu/ 67 http://www.expak.at/expak/img/pdf/expak1112090599.pdf 68 Németh, Nándor (ed): A HELYI KEZDEMÉNYEZÉSŰ GAZDASÁGFEJLESZTÉSI PROGRAMOK VIZSGÁLATA

Esettanulmányok. MTA Közgazdaságtudományi Intézet Budapest, 2011. http://www.econ.core.hu/file/download/ktik14/ktik14_book.pdf

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employment related problems but in other spheres of life. The programme also contributes to enhanced regional sustainability. As compared to other projects the programme puts more emphasis on voluntary work.

- Health

As demonstrated above, people living in Roma settlements experience severe social exclusion, which profoundly affects their health. Besides tackling the socioeconomic roots of the poor health of Roma people, specific public health interventions, including health education and health promotion programmes, are needed.69 Often health related targets are part of more complex programmes (e.g. those improving living conditions etc.)

Roma people in Hungary are regularly subjected to discrimination at healthcare institutions. The existence of this phenomenon is partly due to lack of preparation at medical schools, thus it would be necessary to overview of medical schools’ curricula and include cross-cultural training in the educational programmes of medical schools, as at present there are such initiatives only on an ad hoc basis. It would be very important that representatives of disadvantaged social and cultural groups, such as the Roma enter medical schools and become healthcare providers, moreover instructors at medical schools. This way, receiving the social prestige of this profession, they would have the opportunity to change the perception of society on the Roma; moreover, the attitude of medical students as future healthcare providers towards social disadvantages and cultural differences. The Social Renewal OP now supports a project of Semmelweis Medical University which helps 10 talented young Roma prepare for their medical university studies.70

Best practice projects:

Egyenlő eséllyel a rák ellen71 (With equal chances against cancer), a mobile breast cancer screening and education programme targeting disadvantaged women 2007-2011: screening project targeting disadvantaged women whose participation in screening programmes is even worse than the otherwise low 37.5% national participation rate. In the framework of the programme more than 4,500 mammography screenings has been done, 38 local “health days” organised with the participation of 14,500 people in 49 settlements.

DETERMINE model project of Opre Roma. The project has grown out of a study of segregated settlements of the Faculty of Public Health of University of Debrecen, The Opre Roma Association – established jointly by a disadvantaged Roma community and health promotion professionals in 2006 – identified housing as the single major problem of Roma in Debrecen, Hungary. This was due not only to the severely substandard housing conditions, but to the impending danger of evacuation. The aim is to find a legally tenable solution for housing so we can the community together and tackle other health determinants. Domokos Márton Kert in Debrecen (eastern Hungary) is home to a small, impoverished Roma community. They are technically squatters (some families have lived there for almost 20 years) and have received several eviction notices in the past. However, their vision is to renovate their own houses, legally acquiring the land on which they stand. They won support

69 Kósa et el. A Comparative Health Survey of the Inhabitants of Roma Settlements in Hungary In: American

Journal of Public Health. 2007; 97:853–859. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2005.072173 70 http://mediasarok.sote.hu/4409/vasarnapi-hirek-roma-orvosokat-kepeznek/ 71 www.oefi.hu/e6.ppt

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from the DETERMINE programme of EU to raise awareness of environmental and energy issues regarding sustainable housing and to develop a housing project eligible for fund-raising and implementation. The project was running from October 2008 to September 2009. A detailed plan for housing was developed by the end of the project by the architectural company. Now they are negotiating with the municipal government about the legal possibilities, and raising funds for this project, but as to our most recent information the chief architect (!) of Debrecen refused support. Meanwhile participants • learned new methods of saving energy & water, learned new, low-cost methods of building, became familiar with the workings of public utilities, became aware of the importance of community, showed improved tolerance towards each other etc. Quantitative results are lower psychological stress, enhanced satisfaction with life.

- Housing and environment

Improving the housing conditions of the Roma has long been on the agenda, it is mentioned in several NSRs still significant improvement has not been achieved yet. Long term success can only be achieved by long term and complex programmes: to provide a better housing facility can only be one step in such rehabilitation. On the other hand the failure of such efforts has extra negative effects as it reinforces the stereotypes of the Roma being undeserving and unable to integrate. Some good examples:

- The Maltese charity found has 2 projects, one is specifically targeted at Roma people, the Tabán Programme in the city of Monor where there is a segregated Roma colony in the middle of the town where approx. 300 people live in very meagre circumstances: the average size of the habitats are 20 m2 and average 5 people living in it. From 60 households only 11 have running water all the others can use the public well at the corner of the colony. 32 households have electricity, 4 gas, 3 sewage. The project in Monor is exemplary in many ways, there is a communal bathroom and a wash-room, and some houses have pre-paid electricity meters, quite rare in Hungary. The community house, a planned element for all sites, has already been built at the Tabán settlement. It houses a social service office, a playroom and a study room, operated with the help of experts. The Hangár community house functions so well that it can provide field practice for college students; they can study the alternative education methods necessary for the inclusion of Roma children. The principle of reverse integration is included in other plans as well; one of those is the construction of a well-equipped, guarded playground within the settlement where people living outside of the settlement would be willing to take their children.72 The other project, “Host Village” was first launched in Tarnabod, for homeless people (among them Roma). It is a very complex project comprising housing elements, early childhood development, trainings, creating employment (they established an electronic waste disassembling plant 5 years ago).73

- In Bátonyterenye 16 families from the local segregate participated in the programme. In addition to getting a new place to live with pre-paid meters, they participated in health screening programmes, various trainings. They have been prepared to keep animals and are to get involved into a local social cooperative.74

72 http://www.maltai.hu/?action=program&programid=12 73 http://www.maltai.hu/?action=program&programid=9 74 http://www.boon.hu/az-utolso-lakok-is-elhagytak-batonyterenye-ket-romatelepet/haon-news-charlotteInform-

20110501-1004383064

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- The Kiskunhalas Housing Project75 was initiated in 1998 by the Albert Schweitzer Family Help Foundation. 10 Roma families & 10 non-Roma families were selected from over 90 applications, 20 new homes were built. The families were involved in the building process, they worked together to make adobe bricks used. In 2010: 8 Roma and 9 non Roma families still lived in these homes. All new homes were built with the most basic amenities possible for an inhabitancy permit: small stove, sink, tub, toilet, wood stove, concrete floors.

- IDA (Individual Development Account) housing project76 is run by Autonómia Foundation. It is an individual saving programme for low-income non-bankable people – amongst them Roma and young grown-ups of state care institutions. The goal of the savings is to improve the housing situation of the clients. The savings of the clients will be matched with a grant (based on IDA methodology). Clients are also eligible to take a loan to achieve their asset goals. Counselling and family care, practical financial training, as well as technical advice and support for the renovations with special attention to energy saving solutions are provided for the participants in the project. Local governments are to be partner and share the risk of the loan capital given away in the settlements. By 2010 293 persons applied for the participation in the programme, 171 contracts have been signed with the participants, 51 participants are successfully completing their regular savings. Financial education training curriculum has been prepared and modified to tailor to the needs of the participants. The programme is running in 14 settlements. Individual financial consultancy started to tackle with the serious debt trap of the participants. One CAF group has been established with Roma members.

- sport, recreation, culture

The Roma policy of governments in office since the social and political changes has been characterised in part by efforts to promote social integration and to resolve the social problems arising from deprivation and partly by particular emphasis on preserving the identity, cultural values and language of the Gypsy population. Due to the very deprived situation of the Roma, the focus is not on recreation and sports activities (but see the football talent competition of Polgár Foundation77 or a number of summer camps supported by various NGOs), but more on the cultural aspects. A radio channel for the Roma (Rádió C – started to broadcast in 2001.

- A promising initiative is “Ózd - „Cseppben a tenger” Alkotásközpontú Integrációs model” (Ocean in the drop – creativity-focused integration model).78 The programme originally started in 2007 which targeted integration of the Roma living in Hétes telep near Ózd (80 families, 400 people) through getting into contact with various forms of art, at the beginning in the form of summer camps. The idea was to provide a positive experience which builds the local community, strengthens a positive self-image and Roma identity, self representation skills, individual abilities and autonomy, self sufficiency and promotes cooperation between Roma and non Roma. By now a number of other programmes are running, several households have been reconnected to utilities, people have learned how to grow vegetables, a complex methodology has been elaborated.

75 www.oefi.hu/e5.ppt 76 http://www.autonomia.hu/en/node/3493/ 77 http://www.polgaralapitvany.hu/en/index.html 78 http://kktt.tutoralapitvany.hu/projekt/ozd-cseppben-a-tenger-alkotaskozpontu-integracios-modell

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- Anti- discrimination There are several important actors fighting for this target, e.g. the Roma Civil Rights Foundation, the Legal Defence Bureau for National and Ethnic Minorities, the Equal Treatment Authority, the Jászság Roma Civil Rights Foundation, still, discrimination against the Roma is not decreasing at all. Some exemplary projects:

- The Movement for Desegregation Foundation established and operates an anti-discrimination signal system based on, among others, information given through the toll-free green number of 06-80-204-894 in connection to harm caused to Roma children in schools. As part of their project “With Music Against Segregation” a video clip and a spot of 30 seconds have been made to be broadcasted as a non-profit advertisement.

- The Roma Civil Rights Organisation in Jászság called “Come and See” National Tour Against School Segregation. Roma and non-Roma activists visited 24 locations where discrimination against Roma children was assumed. The list of the villages and towns to be visited by people dedicated to the programme was established based on a study on school segregation.79

3. Structural Funds Whether state-run or managed by NGOs, funding for the programmes promoting integration is volatile and unpredictable and their impact is rarely measured or evaluated, claimed the report of the State Audit Office in 200880 and the situation has not changed significantly since then. Even successful organisations work in precarious and unpredictable financial circumstances which constrains capacity building. The report also stated that “Allowances promoting employment have played a determining part in the funding of Roma integration. Resources dedicated to this purpose are allocated by different ministries. The amount of support invested in enhanced employment, reintegration of people excluded from the labour market, the development of networks organising such initiatives, and the promotion of Roma enterprises and enterprises employing Roma, has increased every year. Estimated data suggest that overall 74.7 billion HUF was spent on such objectives between 1997 and 2006.” But due to the problems with the definition of the target group, in most cases, ministries and organisations managing programmes have no idea concerning how much of the budget of their programmes has been invested in helping the Roma. ESF funding comprises a very significant part of funding, but other government funds, e.g. the National Employment Fund (NEF) and usually foreign NGOs (Soros, OSI) or NGOs having foreign sources (Maltese Charity Fund), with the exception of the privately founded Polgár Foundation finance Roma programmes, but precise estimates regarding the amounts cannot be provided.

79 www.jrpsz.hu 80 ÁSZ - State Audit Office (2008) A magyarországi cigányság helyzetének javítására és felemelkedésére a

rendszerváltás óta fordított támogatások mértéke és hatékonysága. Összegző helyzetfeltáró tanulmány. (The size and efficiency of the assistance for the Roma inclusion and improvement since the beginning of the transition. A summary and overview study) Állami Számvevőszék, Budapest.

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4. Role of civil society organisations and international organisations

Civil society organisations play a key role in promoting the integration of the Roma by implementing a number of projects in key areas for which several examples have been cited in section 2 of the present report. A number of important NGOs could be cited, but maybe the activities of the Open Society Institute, Autonómia Alapítvány, Polgár Alalpítvány and Matese Charity Found should be highlighted.

Despite having a number of devoted and credible activists, unfortunately the Roma political, economic, and cultural elite is narrow, highly fragmented and does not act as a unified advocacy group. Civil organisations of the Roma have several times got involved into controversial issues, e.g. related to managing project funds etc.

5. Recommendations

5.1 Key challenges The key challenges that need to be met are well reflected in the national goals and policies that affect all the priority areas of the Roma Decade, with the exception of the issue of public transport, as a significant proportion of the permanently unemployed live in settlements that are difficult and expensive to access by public transport. Otherwise the present situation is well described, scientifically grounded, although regular focused studies should be carried out to gain information on smaller population segments and local problems. (E.g. very poor Roma women will not be represented well enough in a national sample).

The emphasis should be put on the successful implementation of proposed measures. As the problem is very complex, coherent and complex intervention and long-term political commitment is required to handle it. As several studies have pointed out so far, there is no sense to launch policies to combat discrimination and mitigate its effects without collecting data concerning the programmes, or planning and carrying out impact assessments – and then using the results for future policy design. The local characteristics should be taken into account and in very deprived areas community building and empowerment are the first steps to be taken.

Geographic targeting for the improvement and enhanced accessibility of employment, social and health services would be necessary with additional financing. Targeting parents via their children is an efficient tool, so the combination of day-care and community services, as in the child poverty programme, could be extended.

NGO innovations in the key areas of employment, education, housing and health should be mainstreamed and supported in the long run, with stable and possibly increasing financing.

There are fears regarding the planned modifications of the system of social provisions, the enhanced conditionality of benefits and their insufficient amount to facilitate decent life for their recipients, the implementation of the planned public work schemes, but no evaluation of these can be provided as yet.

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5.2 Steps to be taken

The problem of identifying the target group (Who is Roma?) should be solved so as to be able to monitor the impact of the projects. 5.3 Strengthening cooperation

Presently the government considers the National Roma Self-government (ORÖ) as their partner in the dialogue with Roma civil society, and signed a framework agreement with them. On the other hand, as party politics heavily influence this issue (the president being Farkas Flórián, MP of FIDESZ), the legitimacy of ORÖ in this respect is questionable and should be strengthened, together with stakeholder involvement more generally. The responsibilities are fragmented, a number of ministries are involved. 5.4 Better use of EU Structural Funds

More flexibility may enhance the realisation of programmes. For such issues, due to the complexity of the problems, only very complex programmes can contribute to the solution, which realise objectives in different spheres of life, and can run for longer periods of time, continuously. In the present framework only short (1-2 year long) programmes can be realised, and then, due to lack of local recourses both from the state, or NGOs or other donors, even successful and professionally undoubtedly viable programmes often cease to exist, which may even do more harm than good. E.g. Roma community houses established from EU funds close down as there was no further stable financing. At present sustainability of even the best programmes cannot be provided, and especially not just after the programmes have been set up, as they are not mainsteamed and local resources either from state or private sources are insufficient.

The monitoring of ESF funded projects also has become more and more formal, by now having lost its professional, supportive side which it had for some years after 2004, and which contributed to the successful implementation of programmes in a number of cases. 5.5. Better representation in NRP

The integration of Roma is properly reflected in Hungary’s Europe 2020 national targets and National Reform Programme, however, the implementation of the proposed measures should be thoroughly monitored and assessed, and necessary steps taken to realise the proposed targets.

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Selected bibliography

A Roma Integráció Évtizede Programme az Európai Unió roma integrációs politikájában. Budapest Intézet 2011. http://www.budapestinstitute.eu/dontestamogatas/prj/A_Roma_Integracio_Evtizede_Program_az_Europai_Unio_roma_integracios_politikajaban

ÁSZ - State Audit Office (2008) A magyarországi cigányság helyzetének javítására és felemelkedésére a rendszerváltás óta fordított támogatások mértéke és hatékonysága. Összegző helyzetfeltáró tanulmány. (The size and efficiency of the assistance for the Roma inclusion and improvement since the beginning of the transition. A summary and overview study). Állami Számvevőszék, Budapest.

Bernát (2006) A magyarországi cigányság helyzete nemzetközi összehasonlításban. (Situation of the Hungarian Roma in international comparison). In: Kolosi T, Tóth I. Gy, Vukovich, Gy (eds) Társadalmi Riport 2006, TÁRKI, Budapest, pp. 118-137.

Bernát (2010) Integráció a fejekben: a romák társadalmi integrációjának érzékelése és megítélése a lakosság körében. (Integration in the minds. Perceived integration of the Roma and its evaluation by the population). In: Kolosi. T, Tóth I. Gy, Vukovich, Gy (eds) Társadalmi Riport 2010, TÁRKI, Budapest, pp. 312-326.

Dupcsik Csaba: A magyarországi cigányság története. (The history of the Hungarian Roma). Osiris Kiadó, 2009.

Fazekas et al (2009) Green Book for the Renewal of Public Education in Hungary. http://mek.oszk.hu/08200/08221/08221.pdf

Fleck, G – Messing, V (2009) A roma foglalkoztatáspolitika alakváltozásai (Metamorphosis of the Roma employment policy) In Fazekas, K., Lovász, A., Telegdy, Á (eds) Munkaerőpiaci helyzetkép, 2009.OFA-KTI Budapest pp. 82-96.

Havas G.–Lisko I.–Kemeny I. (2002): Cigány gyerekek az általános iskolában. (Roma children in primary schools). Budapest: Oktataskutato Intezet– Uj Mandatum Kiado.

Kemény, I, Janki, B, Lengyel, G (2004) A magyarországi cigányság 1971-2003. (The Hungarian Roma, 1971-2003). Gondolat-MTA NKI, Budapest.

Kemény, I (ed.) 2005: Roma of Hungary. Social Science Monographs, Boulder, Colorado, Atlantic Research and Publications, Inc., Highland Lakes, New Jersey, Distributed by Columbia University Press, New York, 385 p. http://www.mtaki.hu/kiadvanyok/isvtan_kemeny_ed_roma_of_hungary_main.html

Kertesi G.-Kezdi G. (2010): Roma Employment in Hungary after the Post-Communist Transition. BWP 2010/9. http://www.econ.core.hu/file/download/bwp/bwp1009.pdf

Kertesi G. – Varga J. (2005): Employment and Educational Attainment in Hungary. In: Fazekas and Varga (eds): The Hungarian Labour Market – Review and Analysis, IE-HAS, pp. 37-44.

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Annex

Chart 1. Age pyramid of the Hungarian (in red) and Roma (in blue) population81

81 HVG 2009/18.

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Chart 2. Share and geographic concentration of the Roma in Hungary82

82 Source: VÁTI (http://www.hungariannationalruralnetwork.eu/index.php?oldal=rtt_100325_02).

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Chart 3. Segregated colonies/ghettos in Hungary

Chart 4.83

83 Kósa K et al. (2009) Environmental survey of segregated habitats of Roma in Hungary: a way to be empowering

and reliable in minority research. In European Journal of Public Health. http://eurpub.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2009/07/17/eurpub.ckp097.full

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Chart 5.

Regional inequalities: LFS-based unemployment rate in NUTS2-level regions (%)84

Chart 6.

The long term unemployment rate by region, %85

84 KSH LFS data, Fazekas et al 2010: The Hungarian labour market. Review and analysis. p. 279. 85 Gyerekesélyek Magyarországon A „Legyen jobb a gyermeknek!” Nemzeti Stratégia Értékelő Bizottságának 2009.

évi jelentése (Chances of children in Hungary. Evaluation report for 2009 of the “let it be better for children” National Strategy Evaluation Board, Ferge Zsuzsa- Darvas Ágnes (eds) Budapest, 2010.

3,4

2,3

2,3

2,7

4,5

5,5

4,6

3,6

3,5

2,5

2,1

2,2

4,4

5,9

5,2

3,6

3,7

2,1

2,2

1,9

5,3

7,1

5,9

4

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Total

Central Hungary

Central Transdanubia

Western Transdanubia

Southern Transdanubia

Northern Hungary

Northern Plain

Southern Plain

2008 2007 2006

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Table 1. Employment rates of the Roma, by gender86

Table 2.87

86 Kemény-Janky 2005. ibid. p. 175. 87 Kósa et al., p. 855.

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Table 3.88

88 Kósa et al., p. 857.

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Table 4.89

89 Source: Kósa et al., p. 858.

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Chart 7. Overall discrimination rate for 9 areas surveyed – EU MIDIS90

90 EU Minorities and Discrimination Survey 2009. http://www.fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/attachments/EU-

MIDIS_ROMA_EN.pdf, p. 5.

hu_promoting the social inclusion of roma

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