100 YEARS OF SIGNALLING (1911-2011) -SEMAPHORE TO SATELLITE

(Lt Gen Harbhajan Singh, PVSM)

The journey of Corps of Signals through 100 years of its existence has been a Saga of rich heritage, providing communications often under fire, in hostile climatic and terrain conditions, in undivided India, after independence and in many corners of the world. The Corps has excelled in fulfilling its role during war, in insurgency milieu, peace, in aid to civil authority during man made or natural disasters and for peace keeping under the United Nations in a number of countries. Its performance has stood up to its motto of Certa Cito, Tez-o-Sahi (after Independence) and afterwards Teevra Chaukas. Many brave Signallers paid the supreme sacrifice but kept the communications THROUGH, in the best traditions of the Corps of Signals and the Indian Army. We pay homage to them.

The means of signal communications available at various times through these 100 years depended on the technology in vogue, to fulfill the war and peace time requirements of the Indian Army at different times. Before Independence, the British brought in the technology, ideas and means of communications from England, for both military and civil communications in India. After Independence on 15 Aug 1947, the sources of technology and equipment were diversified. While, the Soviet Union became major supplier for lethal weapons and platforms like aircraft, ships and tanks, the communication equipment bore the stamp of Western countries. Gradually, local assembly and manufacturing capacity was set up in India, mostly in the Public Sector. After the economic and industrial liberalization in 1991, the electronics scene in India changed and it became possible for the civil sector to start supplying equipment, at times with foreign collaboration. The contributions of our Defence Scientists and the public and private sector companies has been of very high standards.

The Corps has excelled in adapting available technology and modernization/updating of means of communications to meet the changing operational scenarios. Those at the helm in Signals Directorate showed great vision and organizational skills to keep the Corps contemporary in its thinking, communication systems, equipment, training and organizations.

The Corps of Signals has also been responsible for introducing new systems like Computers, electronic warfare, signal intelligence in the Army and training personnel of all arms and services as also the Navy and the Air Force.

THE EARLY DAYS

At the advent of the 20th Century, near about the time the Corp of Signals came into

being, the means of communications available to the British Indian Army were, Semaphore,

Electric Telegraph, Flag, Lamp Signalling, Heliograph and Telephone. Wireless

telegraphy was introduced in October 1909. As a result of Meerut Manoeuvres of 1908, it was

decided to integrate telegraph, telephones and visual signals as these were complimentary to

each other. The Signallers of those days were nick named SHISHA JHANDI WALLAS

(Those dealing with mirrors ie Heliographs and flags)!!

Heliograph (Speed 5-12 words per minute)

The British had established two Semaphore routes Bombay-Puna-Hydrabad-Elore- Cuttack-Calcutta, consisting of 75 stations and another from Bombay along the West Coast, to Mangalore-Bangalore-Madras and from Madras along the East Coast to Calcutta, having 133 stations (ASCON of those days!!). During the 1857 Mutiny, they also used lines and telegraph

to a limited extent. The first Telegraph line in India started to be used between Calcutta and Diamond Harbor from 1851. Construction of 4,000 miles (6,400 km) of telegraph lines connecting Calcutta and Peshawar along with Agra, Mumbai, and Chinnai, as well as Ootacamund and Bangalore was started in November 1853. 28 January 1882, is a Red Letter Day in the history of telephone in India. On this day, telephone exchanges were declared open in Kolkata, Chennai and Mumbai. Calcutta had 93 subscribers to start with, just six years after Graham Bell’s first patent of a telephone.

BIRTH OF THE CORPS

Initially, all communication responsibilities were assigned to the Sappers and Miners. The first two Divisional Signal Companies; 31 and 32 were raised on 15 Feb 1911 at Fategarh, thus giving birth to the Corps of Signals. Three more Divisional Signal Companies were raised soon there after. Each company had a divisional section and three brigade sections, having visual and line detachments, including two visual detachments for the GOC (first rover detachments!).

While the Army was responsible for communications within divisions, the Post and Telegraph Department was chartered to provide communications up to the Filed Force Headquarters.

WORLD WAR I

When the First World War broke out on 4 Aug 1914, Indian Army comprised of nine divisions and eight cavalry brigades. However, the Signals comprised only of four divisional companies and one wireless company, as raised in 1911. New units had to be therefore raised. This War was characterised by Trench Warfare and heavy artillery barrages. The lines laid were torn to shreds in no time by artillery shells. But the brave Signallers continued to lay and repair lines and many paid the supreme sacrifice. The Indian Signals forming part of various Expeditionary Forces conducted themselves very creditably. In France they were augmented by a British Cable Section and additional detachment of Punjabi Muslmans. The Corps also operated in East Africa, Palestine and Persia.

BETWEEN THE TWO WORLD WARS

After the end of the First World War, the Army and the Corps were mostly engaged with the Third Afghan War of 1919. Later considerable part of the Army was stationed in the

North West Portion of India, bordering Afghanistan for dealing with the Tribals. Telephone, telegraph, wireless, lines (Field Cables and Permanent Lines), visual signals and some times pigeons were used in the operations against the Tribals. Use of airplanes was also made on occasions to drop messages. Wireless Sets Half KW Spark and “C” were in use.

In 1925 the class composition of the personnel in the Corps was firmed up to Punjabi Muslmans, Dogras, Sikhs and Mixed Madrasis. Other classes recruited during the First World War were shed. From 1926, a system of posting of individuals to units as against relief of units was adopted and continues to be in vogue even now.

WORLD WAR II

The concept of warfare was revolutionised during Second World War, with increased mechanisation, more and more use of tanks and close air support, as also amphibious and air borne operations. Accordingly, the development of signal communications in the Second World War II was affected by the need for increased mobility, large dispersion and long distances between headquarters. The importance of communications for concentration of artillery and logistics was also realised. Special communications support was organised for airborne and amphibious operations. Special resources were catered for Monitoring of enemy’s communications

and accorded high priority. New types of signal units i.e. Air Formation, Air Support, Monitoring, Intelligence, Amphibious came into being.

The Corps experienced tremendous expansion as new formations and units were raised to meet the onslaughts of the Germans, Italians and Japanese. Women’s Auxiliary Corps (WAC) was introduced and the Corps utilised them as switchboard, teleprinter, radio and cipher operators as also clerks.

Indian Signals provided very reliable and responsive communications in all theaters of war; North Africa, Italy, Burma. Middle East, SE Asia. Each Theater had peculiar terrain and operational requirements.

Visual signals petered out and in their place improved radio sets and line communication equipment were introduced. VHF and HF radio sets, for short and long distances respectively, for static and mobile role were inducted, some of which remained in use in our Corps till 1960s and 70s. Wireless set 19 was perhaps the most versatile of all. It comprised of three sets; ‘A’ (HF), ‘B’ (VHF) and Intercom. It. was tailor made for tanks but was also used for other communications. Wireless Set 62 was another very widely used equipment at division, brigade and in units of other arms. Wireless Set 76 Sender was specially designed for Morse communications for special operations in Burma.

Wireless Set 19

Wireless Set 62

SWAB series of High and Medium Power sets, ET 4331, HS 1 as also SCR 399 and RS 53, both Medium Power sets were the back bone of long distance radio communication. Large aerial parks spread over scores of acres were established at static headquarters for this purpose. STRAN (Strategic Radio Network) was set up linking static headquarters, important military stations and Category ‘A’ establishments.

Channeling and VFT equipment was introduced i.e. ACT 1 + 1, ACT 1+4, S+DX. A small but useful equipment called BBFU (Balance and Bypass Filter Unit) which could drop audio and enabled strapping thru of the Carrier channel proved very useful. Earth return circuits were used on many occasions in forward areas. Fullerphone was the main means of clearing traffic on lines at brigade and higher levels, till Teleprinters took over. Switch board F&F and Magneto telephones in the field and CB Exchanges for static formations were in use. Even some terminals of American Radio Relay AN-TRC were in the kitty for bridging gaps where line communications could not be provided.

It can be said that radio communications of various types came in their own during the

Second World War.

SCR 399 Radio Station

Lines continued to play a very important role and pigeons were still in use at a few places. Modem cipher systems of the time, like Typex machines and book cipher were current cipher systems. There was only one speech secrecy device of very low grade secrecy ie Ultaphone available. Signal Despatch Service was another means of communications which was the responsibility of the Corps. Till the raising of EME in Feb 1943, all maintenance and repair of communication equipment was undertaken by Corps of Signals.

Typex Cipher Machine

ROMANCE OF MORSE

Till about 1965 War with Pakistan, the main means of clearing signal message traffic at Field Force level was use of Morse on radio and lines. Morse code was created in early 1840s by Samuel F.B Morse’s for electric telegraph. It uses a standardised sequence of short and long elements to represent letters, numerals, punctuations and special characters. The short and long elements can be formed by sounds, marks or pulses which are commonly

known as "dots" and "dashes" or "dits" and "dahs".

Morse key

Establishing communications on CW/MCW radio link through heavy interference was not an easy task. The operators at times indulged in impromptu speed competitions and tried to excel over the operators on the other end. Some could send Morse using either hand and a few even with their feet!! There was a kind of romance and music in sending and receiving messages using Morse, particularly on radio links. Fullerphone was a very robust and reliable instrument for sending and receiving messages using Morse, on line circuits. Often the operators could recognise each other by the style and peculiarities in sending messages.

Fullerphone

THE INDEPENDENCE- 15 AUG 1947

When India gained independence on 15 Aug 47, the British all ranks left the country. Before Independence, hardly any Indian personnel were inducted in ciphers and mechanic trades. Therefore, there was urgent need to train personnel in these categories. Courses were started at School of Signals and STC and selected personnel were sent to UK for training. A few technical British officers and OR were retained in India for 2-3 years. In addition, both the manpower and equipment had to be shared with Pakistan in the ratio of 2:1.

Most of the signal equipment was of British origin which was used in the Second World War. Some American equipment was also available in depots and was gainfully made use of. For a number of years after independence, the Corps continued to source equipment from England. However, there was a need to modernise the equipment and have indigenous manufacture. Accordingly, Bharat Electronics was set up by Brigadier (later Man Gen)

BD Kaptur, the then CCR&D, a Signals Officer of very high standing.

INDEPENDENT INDIA

The J and K Operations (Oct 1947-Dec 1948) and deployment along the Cease Fire Line since then, Operation Polo (liberation of Hyderabad Sep1948)), Operation Vijay (liberation of Goa-1961) as also Nag and Mize insurgencies in the North East, blooded the Corps and many lessons were learnt as regards organizations, means of communications and equipment.

But the Sino- Indian conflict of 1962 and increased threat from the North, resulted in new raisings, development of roads in the Himalayas and side by side construction of PL (Permanent Lines) routes in a big way. A number of Line Construction Units were raised. United States of America gave equipment for three Mountain Divisions. This included American radio sets, field cables, exchanges and radio relay equipment. Mountain Divisional Signal regiments came into being along with raising of mountain divisions/ conversion of some infantry divisions to mountain role.

More and more use of radio relay followed due to its inherent advantages, and gradually it became the main stay of field communications, starting with RS C 41-R222, which lasted the Corps till late 1970s or so. New field cables were introduced. A tape relay system was set up to speed up the clearance of messages at Army Headquarters and major static locations. Thiswas a cumbersome system entailing handling of thousands of tapes. It was followed by computer based AMSS (Automatic Message Switching System) and the signal center staff breathed a sigh of relief.

1965 WAR WITH PAKISTAN

The Corps acquitted itself very creditably in the 1965 War with Pakistan even though most of the equipment and communication concepts were of almost World War II vintage. Some new radio sets like AN/GRC-9, AN/PRC-10, a few Radio Relay terminals (Radio Set C 41/R22 and field cables (WD-1, Carrier Quad with couplers) had been introduced in Mountain Divisions raised after 1962 War with China. But the formations in the plains where most of the fighting took place were still using old type equipment. Very limited Radio relay terminals were made available to 1, 11 and 15 Corps. The communications at brigade and below level as also air support communications experienced break downs in some cases. Corps linemen in particular stood out with their brave actions in face of enemy, including infiltrators in J&K.

As a result of experience gained during this War, Radio Relay was introduced in all field formations. Also brigade signal sections were upgraded to brigade signal companies and steps taken to introduce better equipment.

1971 WAR

By the time 1971 War with Pakistan took place, Radio Relay had been introduced in Field Formations. This speeded up establishing multi channel communications and reduced the dependence on lines. Introduction of Radio Set AN/PRC 25 a VHF set, improved the radio communications forward of divisional headquarters and provided VHF back up to HF radio at field formation level. Also time of 7-8 months that the Indian Army got as a result of it’s Army Chief Sam Mane Shaw advising the Prime Minister to postpone operations against East Pakistan (now Bangle Dash) till after the Monsoons, enabled deficiencies to be made up and enabled development of required static communications infrastructure all around E Pakistan . This resulted in much improved communications during 1971 War against E Pakistan and on the Western Front.

The war on the Eastern front was characterized by very fast advances over terrain

interspersed with large rivers. There was no possibility of extending lines in the tactical area. Thanks to Radio Relay and radio, basic communications were provided for the tactical operations to proceed unhindered. Operations Room to Operations Room ECL (Equipment Cipher Line) and speech circuits were also provided and have become a permanent feature.

AFFECT OF TECHNOLOGY

Electronics communication equipment till 1950s and early 1960s was using Valves or Vacuum Tubes. These were bulky, slow, fault prone, needed lot of power and got heated.

Valves Transistors

As solid state electronics developed to replace Thermion tubes, transistorized radio and line equipment which was much lighter and easier to operate/align was gradually introduced. It also became possible to design more and better equipment for very high frequencies.

The advent of digital communications using micro chips, ICs (Integrated Circuits), VLSI’s, multi layer PCBs and the like in 1970s-80s was a land mark development. It made possible new concepts like packet switching and opened vistas for numerous design concepts. The equipment became even smaller and miniaturized. Digital technology enabled better quality communicationswith enhanced security. It became possible to design equipment for still higher frequencies, band widths and speeds, which made it possible to have larger number of channels and new services like data communications fax and video. Equipments using such technologies became easy to align/tune, was very stable, used much less power, incorporated smart diagnostics and thus easy to repair.

Microchip Integrated circuit board

Coax cables followed by Fiber Optics cables made it possible to have much more number of channels. From the Indian Signallers point of view, many constraints that he had faced with older equipment, primarily band width, number of channels and speed and reliability of providing communications were overcome to a significant extent.

DOT systems and equipment which formed the backbone of static communications also improved and microwave, coaxial cables as also electronic exchanges were introduced. The quality, stability and reliability of static communications provided using them enhanced considerably.

However, the main concept of planning and providing communications down the chain of command and in a linear fashion, still remained. AREN AND ASCON-REVOLUTION IN SIGNAL COMMUNICATIONS

Visualization of an Area Grid system, Army Radio Engineered Network (AREN) by Lt Gen RN Bart in the early 1960s and its subsequent fielding in late 1989 onwards, along with Army Static Communication Network (ASCON), a multi channel state of the art static communication system masterminded under Lt Gen RP Singh the SO-in-C 1984-87, as also introduction of satellite, troposcatter and electronic switches, brought about a revolutionary change in signal communications in our Army in 1990s. Both AREN and ASCON were designed to provide speech, telegraph, Fax and data communications.

Plan AREN envisaged setting up of mobile Communication Centers in a combat zone interlinked by Radio Relay based Highways and the Field Formations hooking on to them with Radio Relay hooks. Electronic switches formed the heart of the system. RTE (Radio TrunkExtension) was provided for important mobile subscribers and RLE (Radio Local Extensions) for local communications at brigade, division and corps headquarters. To keep up with advance of formations, the Grid rolls forward; a few communication centers at a time. The whole system was designed indigenously by Indian scientists, production agencies like BEL Bangalore, guided by Corps of Signals officers under PMO (Project Management Organization). It took nearly 25 years from the time Plan AREN was conceptualized to its fielding.

APC mounted Radio Trunk Extension (RTE)

ASCON was designed to provide backbone static communications along our borders using microwave and fiber optics cables. The System was designed, manufactured and put on the ground by ITI, Bangalore. ASCON nodes were established 40-50 kms or so apart. Field formations could hook up with the nodes using Plan AREN or other means. Phase one was to cover the Western Border with Pakistan including up to Rajouri in J&K. ASCON has now been extended all over India.

AREN and ASCON are perhaps the biggest achievements of our Corps in the 20th Century and pride of the Nation. The responsibility for fielding Plan AREN and ASCON fell on the shoulders of Lt Gen Harbhajan Singh (SO-in-C 1988-91) and his team. These two systems were the trend setters and changed the thinking of the Corps and manner of planning and providing communications.

AUTOMATION OF SIGNALCENTERS

Work was started for automating various stages and procedures of Signal Centers at MCTE, Mhow in 1987 under the guidance of Brigadier Rajopadhaya. The programming was further progressed and refined at 1 Army Headquarter Signal Regiment under the guidance of Col VK Chatterjee (later Maj Gen) and his successors. Various stages in Signal centers have been computerised. This has enabled messages to be accepted, registered, routed and clearance checked using Table Top computers, resulting in speeding up clearance of messages and reduction in Signal Center staff.

COMPUTERISATION IN THE ARMY

The Corps can be proud of ushering in computer systems in our Army and training large Number of Defence personnel in information systems and technology. Use of EDPS and computers for the Indian army was conceived in early 1960’s by the Corps of Signals. In January 1964 the Army Headquarters EDP Steering Committee was formed with the SO-in-C as the Chairman in and subsequently he was entrusted with the responsibility of developing EDPS in the Army During those days only main frame computers were available, which required centralized expensive data processing facilities called computer centers.

The Army’s integrated EDP Plan (1969-78) was formulated in 1968. It visualized the use of computers for management information systems (MIS), command and control, fire control and war gaming. A top down philosophy for automation of management information systems at various headquarters was adopted. Accordingly, the process of automation was to commence at Army HQ and then move downwards to commands and lower headquarters. As a result, the Army HQ EDP Center was raised with effect from 18 September 1969 and ICL 1904 Computer installed. Lieutenant Colonel V. M. Sundaram, commanded this Center in successive ranks up to brigadier. He along with his team, deserves the credit for ushering in EDP systems in the MS, AG and other branches at Army Headquarters.

Initially, some officers were trained in EDPS under the Government of India by Honeywell. A few officers were also sent to USA for training. Later, in house training facilities were established at MCTE Mhow and a Computer Wing started in 1971. This has now become a full fledged Faculty of Computer technology. Work was also started on Field Computer systems and RPSO (Real time Processing Systems Organisation) came into being with Headquarter 16 Corps Headquarters in late 1970s.

With the advent of Personal Computers, more and more processing power became available on Desk Top Computers. This changed the whole thinking about computerization. Units and establishments could now easily develop own systems using local processing. After a few years, the control of computer systems was handed over to General Staff. However, many officers of the Corps continued to be posted in key positions for developing and manning computer systems in the Army.

ELECTRONIC WARFARE AND SIGNAL INTELLIGENCE

Signal Intelligence which deals with gaining intelligence by monitoring adversary’s electronic communications and other systems, is manned by Corps of Signals personnel. This is the main source for military intelligence. A new category ‘Operator Special’ was started to meet the requirement of Signal Intelligence units. Signal Intelligence units have played

commendable role in providing bulk of intelligence, both during peace time and war.

Electronic Warfare deals with not only gaining tactical level intelligence but also disrupting enemy’s communications at desired time, as part of overall operational scenario and plan. The Corps ushered in the systems in 1970s and since then the capability has grown. This gives the Corps an offensive capability. Electronic Warfare has become one of the most potent force multipliers and a technologically challenging field in which the Corps has developed tremendous expertise. EW has played a stellar role in anti-insurgency and low intensity conflict operations in J&K, besides the conventional operations conducted earlier in Sri Lanka and Kargil.

ARMY OWNED NETWORKS

ASCON was evolved to have back bone communications in the border areas and integrate the telecommunication infrastructure of the hinterland with the tactical communication networks. It is a digital, fully automated, secure, reliable and survivable static communication system based on microwave radio, optical fibre cable, satellite and milli-metric wave communication equipments. Value added services such as Fax, Telex, data transfer and video are also available to the defence users on this network

ASCON Node

ASCON set the tone for having Army owned networks. It has been extended Nationwide. Beside ASCON, in the first decade 21st Century a number of other dedicated satellite and Optical Fiber based networks for the Army were speedily planned, got sanctioned and implemented.

Project AWAN was conceptualized as a Wide Area Network, to replace the Legacy Messaging system, AMSS and to provide a standard multilevel secure messaging platform., across the Army at the desk top of the user. On 25 Mar 04 the contract for the project was signed with M/s Tata Infotech and on 24 Feb 06 the project was dedicated to the Nation by the President of India.

SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS (SATCOM)

Conventional communication systems derived over microwave/coax/fibre optics cannot be

Established, maintained and safeguarded satisfactorily over mountainous and snow-clad areas. Also there

is a need for an alternate to such systems. Hence the Corps has developed expertise and is exploiting the

latest facilities available via satellite communications, by using different kinds of terminals like

INMARSAT, INSAT, LCTs and ECTs. The satellite networks are having geographically redundant hubs

and are secure. The day is not far when the Defence Services will have dedicated satellites.

A Satellite terminal

CYBER WARFARE

Increasing use of computers in networks and internet has made the computers vulnerable to cyber crimes and warfare. Our potential adversaries have developed considerable capability in

various facets of cyber warfare. The Corps has taken a lead role in developing capability to detect cyber attacks and take preventive measures in concert with national level organizations assigned this role.

CHANGING ROLE OF THE CORPS

The role of the Corps is changing due to establishing networks like ASCON and AREN which enables the users to dial own calls and pass messages themselves using terminal equipment like auto telephones and PCs/Lap Tops. The traffic load on the Signal Centers is decreasing. This is changing the role of the Corps from Operating to Engineering

In addition the Corps has offensive capability in terms of Electronic warfare and cyber Warfare The vision of Corps of Signals is to attain and maintain “informatics ascendancy” by

developing info-structure to cater for Network Centric Warfare in a digitized battlefield of tomorrow. The Signallers have also thus become INFORMATION WARRIORS.

THE FUTURE

The Corps of Signals is well poised to exploit the state-of-art modern communication techniques for meeting the requirements of the Indian Army in the 21st Century. Some of the

areas are the Cellular Radio (both GSM & CDMA), WLL, mobile trunked radio, mobile satellite

systems, OFC and so on as also advanced data transmission techniques. The Corps has also developed expertise in exploiting Satellite based communications. The increased availability of software and hardware capabilities with the Indian industry is an important enabling factor.

The Corps is fully geared to face the challenges of Network Centric Warfare and Information Warfare, including Cyber and Electronic Warfare. The role of the Corps is changing from operating to engineering and Information warfare.

We can be justly proud of our officers, JCOs and men, who have helped the Corps not only keep abreast but in cases well ahead of advancements in weapons and warfare capabilities of our Army, with the result that the Corps is ready and geared to take on the challenges of the new millennium. It has also created an unenviable niche for itself amongst all arms and services of the Army and other two Services. The saying is “if any Corps has modernised and advanced, it is the Corps of Signals”.

The Corps has come a long way from Semaphore to Satellite in 100 years of its existence. It has embraced new technologies with technical acumen and always geared to face the challenges in warfare and increased responsibilities of the Defence Services in peace, war and internationally. This has largely been due to the vision, foresight, dedication, legacies and traditions of the forefathers and their sacrifices. THEY ALL DESERVE A SALUTE and gratitude. The Future of the Corps is secure in the hands of the present and future generation of Signallers.

TEEVRA CHAUKAS

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Lt Gen Harbhajan Singh, PVSM (Retd) Signal Officer-in-Chief and Senior Colonel Commandant, 1988-91