HUMANBE REVIEWER

CHAPTER 7 Leadership

Leadership Influencing and supporting others to work enthusiastically

toward achieving objectives Three Important Elements

o Influence or Supporto Voluntary Efforto Goal Achievement

Catalyst that transforms potential into reality Ultimate Test of Leadership

o Degree to which it identifies, develops, channels, and enriches the potential that is already in an organization and its people – and then sustain it across both good and bad times

Leadership Styleso Behavioral Approaches – descriptive and offers a

variety of ways in which the actions of leaders often differ

o Contingency Approaches – analytical and encourages managers to examine their situation and select a style and best fits

Traits of Effective Leaders Most Important Traits:

o A High Level of Personal Drive o The Desire to Leado Personal Integrityo Self-Confidence

Narcissism – leaders become filled with their own importance, exaggerate their own achievements, seek out special favors, and exploit others for their personal gain

Alpha dogs – when leaders are intensely aggressive, egocentric, domineering, and controlling

Leadership Behaviors Behaviors and skills can change while traits are more

permanent Three Broad Types of Skills Leaders Use

o Technical Skill – a person’s knowledge of, and ability in, any type of process or technique

The distinguishing feature of job performance at the operating and professional levels

Become less important as you get promotedo Human Skill - working effectively with people and

building teamwork

o Conceptual Skill – thinking in terms of models, frameworks, and broad relationships

Increases in importance in higher managerial jobs

Situational Flexibility Three Elements that Affect Appropriate Leadership

Behavioro Leadero Followerso Situation

The key task for a leader is to recognize different situations and adapt to them on a conscious basis

Followership Being an effective follower is a testing ground for future

leaders Positive Followership Behaviors

o Being loyal and supportive, a team playero Becoming actively engaged by pursuing dialogues and

generating suggestionso Acting as a devil’s advocate by raising penetrating

questionso Constructively confronting the leader’s ideas, ethical

values, and actionso Anticipating potential problems and actively preventing

them Negative Followership Behaviors

o Competition – opposing the leader to catch the limelight

o Uncritical – saying yes all the timeo Rebellion – actively opposing a good leader, or

supporting a bad oneo Passivity – failing to actively participate when the

opportunity is provided to them

Leadership Style Total pattern of explicit and implicit leaders’ action as seen by

employees A consistent combination of philosophy, skills, traits, and

attitudes that are exhibited in a person’s behavior In Terms of Motivation

o Positive Leadership – emphasizes rewards – economic or otherwise – and a supportive approach

o Negative Leadership – emphasis on threats, fear, harshness, intimidation, and penalties

In Terms of Using Powero Autocratic Leaders – centralized power and decision

making in themselves

Negative – threats and punishment Benevolent Autocrat – give rewards to employees

o Consultative Leaders – asks for inputs from employees which he can choose to use or ignore

o Participative Leaders – decentralized authority Two Different Leadership Styles Used With Employees

o Consideration (Employee Orientation) – concern about human needs of employees

o Structure (Task Orientation) – keeping people busy, monitoring employee actions, ignoring their personal issues and emotions, and urging them to produce at even-higher levels

Glass Ceiling – an invisible barrier that has prevented many females from reaching important positions

Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grido Robert Blake and Jane Moutono A tool for identifying a manager’s own styleo Dimensions of consideration (concern for people) and

structure (concern for production)o Country Club Leaders

1,9 High in concern for people Low in concern for production

o Authoritarian Bosses 9,1 Overly concerned with production

o Backup Style – what managers tend to use when their normal style does not get results

Contingency Approaches to Leadership Style A number of models that have been developed to explain

exceptions when a different style is needed Fiedler’s Contingency Model

o Fred Fiedlero Leadership style depends on whether the overall

situation is favorable, unfavorable, or in an intermediate stage of favorability to the leader

o Leader’s effectiveness is determined by the interaction of employee orientation with three additional variables that relate to the followers, the task, and the organization:

Leader-Member Relations – manner in which the leader is accepted by the group

Task Structure – degree to which one specific way is required to do the job

Leader Position Power – organizational power that goes with the position the leader occupies

Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Modelo Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchardo Development level of a subordinate is the most

important factor affecting the selection of leader’s style Task-specific combination of an employee’s task

competence and commitment (motivation to perform)

Theory Y – appropriate guidance, job experience and rewards means developed employees

o Uses a combination of guidance (task) and supportive (relationship) orientations to create four majors styles

Telling – high directiveness (employee willingness or commitment) and low supportiveness (employee ability or competence)

Selling (Coaching) – high directiveness (employee willingness or commitment) and high supportiveness (employee ability or competence)

Participating (Supporting) – low directiveness (employee willingness or commitment) and high supportiveness (employee ability or competence)

Delegating– low directiveness (employee willingness or commitment) and low supportiveness (employee ability or competence)

Path-Goal Model of Leadershipo Robert House and Martin Evanso Derived from expectancy model of motivationo The leader’s job is to use structure, support, and

rewards to create a work environment that helps employees reach the organization’s goals

o Two Major Roles: To create a goal orientation To improve the path toward the goals so that they

will be attained

o Task Support – help assemble the resources, budgets, power, and other elements that are essential to get the job done

o Psychological Support – stimulates people to want to do the job and attend to their emotional needs

o The leader’s goal is to help employees understand what needs to be done (the goal) and how to do it (the path)

o Leadership Styles Directive Leadership – clear task assignments,

standards of successful performance, and work schedules

Supportive Leadership – concern for employee’s well-being and needs while trying to create a pleasant work environment

Achievement-Oriented Leadership – setting high expectations for employees and encouraging them through his confidence on their abilities

Participative Leadership – invites employees to provide inputs to decisions and seeks to use their suggestions as final decisions are made

o Contingency Factors Two Major Factors

General Work Environmento Task – structured or noto Formal Authority System –

directive or participativeo Work Groups – social and esteem

needs Characteristics of Employees

o Locus of Control Internal Locus – participative External Locus – directive

o Willingness to Accept the Influence of Others

High – directive Low – participative

o Self-Perceived Task Ability high – supportive low – achievement-oriented

leader Vroom’s Decision-Making Model

o V.H. Vroomo Problem Attributes

Decision Quality – cost considerations and availability of information, and whether or not the problem is structured

Employee Acceptance – need for their commitment, their prior approval, the congruence of their goals with the organization’s objectives,

and the likelihood of conflict among the employees

o Leadership Options Autocratic I – information is already available

and the leader solely try to solve problems Autocratic II – data is obtained from

subordinates but the leader decides Consultative I – leader explains the problem and

obtains ideas individually before deciding Consultative II – leader meets with a group of

subordinates to share the problem and obtain input before deciding

Group II – leader shares the problem with the group and facilitates discussion of alternatives and reaches a group agreement for a solution

o Assumptions Managers can accurately classify problems

according to criteria offered Managers are able and willing to adapt their

leadership style to fit the contingency conditions they face for each major decision

Managers are willing to use a rather complex analytical model

Employees will accept the logic of different styles being used for different problems, as well as the validity of the leader’s classification of the situation at hand

Model Soft Emphasis Hard EmphasisUniversity of Michigan and the Ohio State University

Consideration Structure

Black and Mouton’s managerial grid

People Production

Fiedler’s Contingency Model

Employee Orientation Task Orientation

Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Model

Relationships Task Guidance

Path Goal Model Psychological Support

Task Support

Vroom’s Decision-Making Model

Employee Acceptance

Decision Quality

Steven Kerr – modest contingency flavor

Neutralizers – attributes of subordinates, tasks, and organizations that actually interfere with or diminish the leader’s attempts to influence the employeesSubstitutes for Leadership – factors that make leadership roles unnecessary through replacing them with other sourcesCoaching – the leader prepares, guides, and directs a “player” but does not play the gameSensemaking (Karl Weick) – similar to cartography (map making); process of finding order in complex or ambiguous situations, requiring situational awareness, data gathering from multiple sources, the two-way act of fitting data into a menta model and/or adapting a mental framework to fit the data, and checking with others on an ongoing basis to gain from their perspectivesVisionary Leaders – those who can paint a portrait of what the organization needs to become and then use their communication skills to motivate others to achieve the vision

CHAPTER 8 Empowerment and Participation

Leadership Influencing and supporting others to work enthusiastically

toward achieving objectives

Low Self-Efficacy Powerlessness Conviction among people that they cannot successfully

perform their jobs or make meaningful contributions

Impostor Phenomenon Individuals at all levels and in all industries fail to

acknowledge properly their own expertise and accomplishments

Empowerment Process that provides greater autonomy to employees through

the sharing of relevant information and the provision of control over factors affecting job performance

Five Broad Approaches1. Helping employees achieve job mastery (result in initial

successes)2. Allowing more control and holding them accountable3. Providing successful role models (observe peers who

already perform successfully on the job)4. Using social reinforcement and persuasion (raise self-

confidence)5. Giving emotional support (reduction of stress and

anxiety)

Participation The mental and emotional involvement of people in group

situations that encourages them to contribute to group goals and share responsibility for them

o Involvement – meaningful involvement (ego-involved) Pseudoparticipation – fake involvement or

merely a façadeo Motivation to Contribute – more than getting consent

for something that has already been decided; heightens sense of responsibility for goal attainment

o Acceptance of Responsibility – good organizational citizens

Roethlisberger, Coch and Frencho Participation tends to improve performance and job

satisfaction Spirit – need for meaning and fulfillment at work Ethical Imperative – highly nonparticipative jobs cause both

psychological and physical harm to employees

The Participative Process

Impact on Managerial Power Leader-Member Exchange – leaders and their followers

develop a unique receiprocal relationshipo In-group – employees attaining favored statuso Out-Group – employees perceiving some unfairness in

their treatmento Two views of Power and Influence

Autocratic View Power Participative View Power Is a fixed amount Is a variable amount Comes from the authority

structure Comes from people

through both official and unofficial channels

Is applied by management Is applied by shared ideas and activities in a group

Flows downward Flows in all directions

Prerequisites for Participation1. Adequate time to participate2. Potential benefits greater than costs3. Relevance to employees interests4. Adequate employee abilities to deal with the subject5. Mutual ability to communicate6. No feeling of threat to either party7. Restriction to the area of job freedom (area of discretion after

all restraints have been applied

Contingency Factors Emotional Intelligence – combination of two personal

abilities – self-awareness and self-management – and two social competencies – social awareness and relationship management

Underparticipation and Overparticipation Expectations for Employees

o Be fully responsible of their actions and their consequences

o Operate within the relevant organizational policieso Be contributing team memberso Respect and seek to use the perspectives of otherso Be dependable and ethical in their empowered actionso Demonstrate responsible self-leadership

Expectations for Managerso Identifying the issues to be addressedo Specifying the level of involvement desiredo Providing relevant information and training (in advance)o Allocating fair rewards

Participative Management When a company uses either a very significant approach with

widespread application or a sufficient number of programs to develop a substantial sense of empowerment among its employees

Participative Programs Suggestion Programs – formal plans to invite individual

employees to recommend work improvements Quality Circles – voluntary groups that receive training in

process improvements and problem-solving skills and then meet to produce ideas for improving productivity and working conditions

o Guidelines Use them for measurable, short-term problems Obtain continuous support from top management Apply the group’s skills to problems within the

circle’s work area Train supervisors in facilitation skills View quality circles as one starting point for other

more participative approaches to be used in the future

Total Quality Management – a formal program with direct participation of all employees

Self-Managing Teams (Semi-Autonomous Work Groups or Sociotechnical Teams) – natural work groups that are given a large degree of decision-making autonomy and are expected to control their own behavior and results

Employee Ownership Plans – employees provide the capita to purchase control of an existing operation

Forces Affecting The Greater Use of Participation

Forces Affecting the Lesser Use of Participation

Research Results Theory X Beliefs by ManagerProductivity-Improvement Pressures

Lack of Support from Higher Levels

Utilization of Workforce Diversity Managerial Fear of Lost: Power, Status and Control

Employee Desires for Meaning Lack of Adequate Training for Managers and Employees

Employee Desires and Expectations

Problems Encountered in Early Stages

Ethical Arguments Substantial Efforts Needed to Implement

Servant Leadership – stewardship paradigm where the challenge is to help others attain relevant goals while developing their skills and abilities

CHAPTER 9 Employee Attitudes and Their Effects

Entitlement – a belief that they deserve things because society (or the employer) owes it to them

Attitudes – feelings and beliefs that largely determined how employees would perceive their environment, commit themselves to intend actions, and ultimately behave

Positive Affectivity – optimistic, upbeat, cheerful, and courteous

Negative Affectivity – pessimistic, downbeat, irritable, and even abrasive

Employee Attitudes Job Satisfaction

o Set of favorable or unfavorable feelings and emotions with which employees view their work

o Three Elements of Employee Attitudes Feelings Objective Thought (belief) Behavioral Intention

o Morale – overall group satisfactiono Overall Attitude – miss hidden exceptions as they

asses the employee’s overall satisfactiono Job related attitudes predispose an employee to behave

in certain wayso Multidimensional view is best for job satisfactiono Job satisfaction varieso Spillover Effect – influence in both directions between

job and life satisfactiono Some Related Elements of Life Satisfaction

Life Family Leisure Politics Religion

Job Involvement – degree to which employees immerse themselves in their jobs, invest time and energy in them, and view work as a central part of their overall lives

o Organizational Identification – employees blend in so well and fit the organization’s ethics and expectations that they experience a sense of oneness with the firm

Organizational Commitment (employee loyalty) – degree to which an employee identifies with the organization and wants to continue actively participating in it

o Three Forms: Affective Commitment – positive emotional

state in which employees want to exert effort and choose to remain with the organization

Normative Commitment – stays because of strong cultural or familial ethics that drive them to do so

Continuance Commitment – stay because of their high investments in the organizational and the economic and social losses they would incur if they left

Work Moods – variable attitudes toward their jobs

Effects of Employee Attitudes Dissatisfied Employees May Engage In:

o Psychological Withdrawalo Physical Withdrawalo Aggressiono Retaliation

Four Simplified Characterizations of Employee Responses

o Albert Hirschmano Exit – voluntary departureo Voice – constructive criticism of disliked policies

o Loyalty – remaining in the organization but not being verbal about problems

o Neglect – passively destructive Performance-Satisfaction-Effort Loop

o Devote its efforts to aiding and facilitating employee performance

Other Effectso Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (prosocial

behavior) – discretionary and helpful actions above and beyond the call of duty that promote the organization’s success

Reasons for Doing So: Personal Traits Special Recognition or Rewards Image-Enhancement

Negative Behaviors Turnover – when employees leave an organization during a

given time periodo Negative Effects in the Organization:

Separation Costs Training Costs for New Employees Vacancy Costs Replacement Costs Morale Effects

o May have some functional effects Absenteeism and Tardiness

o Presenteeism – employees come to work despite troublesome physical and emotional health conditions that substantially affect their work performance

Theft – unauthorized use or removal of company resourceso Part of bending the rules

Violence – verbal or physical aggression at work

Studying Job Satisfaction Job Satisfaction Survey – procedure by which employees

report their feelings toward their jobs and work environment Daily Contacts and Existing Data

Survey Design and Follow Up

Types of Survey Questions Closed-End Questions – presents a choice of answers in

such a way that employees simply select and mark the answers that best represent their own feelings

Open-End Questions – seeks responses from the employees in their own words

o Directed Questions – focus employee attention on specific parts of the job and ask questions about those aspects (analysis of satisfaction in a specific job condition)

o Undirected Questions – asks for general comments about the job (topics that are currently troubling employees)

Backbones of Any Effective Study Reliability – capacity of a survey instrument to produce

consistent results, regardless of who administers it or when someone responded to it

Validity – capacity to measure what they claim to measure

Intranets – in-house versions of the internet

CHAPTER 11 Conflict, Power, and Organization Politics

Conflict – interpersonal process that arises from disagreements over the goals to attain, the methods to be used to accomplish those goals, or even the tone of voice used as people express their positions

Levels:o Intrapersonal Conflicto Interpersonal Conflicto Intergroup Conflict

Sources:o Organizational Changeo Different Sets of Valueso Threats to Statuso Contrasting Perceptionso Lack of Trusto Incivilityo Difficult Taskso Personality Clashes

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) – high popular personality test used in a wide array of organizations (Carl Jung)

o Thinking – using rational logico Feeling – considering the impact on otherso Judging – rapidly solving ordered problemso Perceiving – preferring spontaneityo Extroversion – asserting themselves confidently o Introversion – preferring to work aloneo Sensing – organizing details in a structured fashiono Intuition – relying on subjective evidence and gut

feelings

Model of Conflict Four Outcomes:

o Lose-Loseo Win-Loseo Lose-Wino Win-Win

Conflict Outcomes – product of participants’ intentions and their strategies

o Fixed-Pie (Zero-Sum) Viewpoint – you can only succeed at the expense of others

o Different Strategies Avoiding – physical or mental withdrawal (lose-

lose) Smoothing – accommodating the other party’s

interest (lose-win)

Forcing – power tactics to achieve a win (win-lose)

Compromising – searching for a middle ground (no clear outcome)

Confronting – facing the conflict directly and working it through to a mutually satisfactory level (win-win

Relationship-Restoring Approaches (Goffman)o Signaling the Offenseo Acknowledgement of Erroro Acceptance o Appreciation

Assertiveness – process of expressing feelings, asking for legitimate changes, and giving and receiving honest opinions

Opposite of Aggressiveness (people may humiliate others) and Passiveness (elicit either pity or scorn from others and seldom have much positive impact)

Stageso Describe the behavioro Express your feelingso Empathizeo Offer problem-solving alternativeso Indicate consequences

Interpersonal Facilitation – capacity to focus on others’ personal needs, sensitivities, and idiosyncrasies, and then work to keep conflict under control and collaboration high among team members

Stroking – any act of recognition for another Positive Strokes – feel good when they are received, and

they contribute to the recipient’s sense of well-being and self-esteem

Negative Strokes – hurt physically or emotionally and make recipients feel less proud of themselves

Mixed Strokes – positive strokes + negative strokes Conditional Strokes – offered to employees if they perform

correctly or avoid problems Unconditional Strokes – presented without any connection

to behaviorPower – ability to influence other people and events

Types:o Personal Power (referent power or charismatic power)

– comes from each leader individually and is the power to develop followers from the strength of their own personalities

o Legitimate Power (position power or official power) – comes from higher authority

o Expert Power (authority of knowledge) – comes from specialized learning

o Reward Power – capacity to control and administer items valued by another

o Coercive Power – capacity to punish another, or at least to create a perceived threat to do so

Effects of Power Bases:o Resistanceo Complianceo Commitment

Organizational Politics – intentional behaviors that are used to enhance or protect a person’s influence and self-interest while also inspiring confidence and trust by others

o Four Key Dimensions Socially Astute (accurately perceiving and

understanding what is taking place in social interactions)

Interpersonal Influence (adapting one’s behaviors to most effectively elicit a desired response from others)

Useful Networks (developing personal contracts into useful allies and supporters)

Sincerity (exhibiting honest and authentic intentions in one’s interactions with others such that they trust you)

o Tactics Used To Gain Political Power Social Exchange Alliances Identification with Higher Authority Doing Favors for Others Control of Information Selective Service Power and Status Symbols Power Plays Networks Posturing

Impression Management – ability to protect and enhance their self-image while intentionally affecting another’s assessment of them