Human Trafficking and Modern Slavery

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• Trafficking in persons is the 2nd largest criminal activity in the world, following illegal drugs Just in front of illegal arms

• Human trafficking is a violation of human rights; linked to organized crime and further undermines our peacekeeping efforts

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Who is Responsible?

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It is not just the people who operate the trafficking enterprise but also their customers

• Contractors• Governments• Civilians• Military Personnel

What is Trafficking

The United Nations defines trafficking as:“Recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons. By means of the threat, use of force, coercion, abduction, fraud, deception, abuse or exploitation”

Holding and/or transporting people against their willForcing people into servitude through violence and/or deceptionBuying or selling human beingsSupporting the above by hiring forced prostitutes or patronizing forced labor establishments

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The Victims

Most victims are women and children who have been:

• Kidnapped• Tricked• Coerced/Forced• Sold by their families

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Photo Credit: DOD JCCC

Circumstances Leadingto Victimization

• Poverty• War• Lack of safety nets• Low status within family• Ill informed families sell their children

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Perpetrators

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• Lying to victims about future employment, travel, living conditions or treatment

• Promises of valid immigration and travel documents

• Threat of harm to the victim and the victim’s family

• Involving victims in additional criminal activities

• Moving victims around on a circuit of workplaces or brothels

Who Are the Perpetrators?

• International organized crime• Small trafficking groups that specialize in one

specific country • Individual freelancers

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Types of Trafficking

• Sexual exploitation• Forced labor• Child soldiers• Indentured servants• Refugees• Migrants

9Photo Credit: DOD JCCC

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rmMhDRJt0ek

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Global civil society

Globalization

Aspects of Globalisation Globalisation as westernisation or modernisation: the social structures of modernity (capitalism, rationalism, bureaucratism, etc.) are spread the world over, normally destroying pre-existent cultures and local self-determination

Globalisation as liberalisation: Removing government-imposed restrictions in order to create an open, borderless world economy Globalisation as universalisation: Spreading various objects and experiences to people at all corners of the earth. Internet, Sushi, Baywatch, human rights Globalisation as de-territorialisation: reconfiguration of geography, so that social space is no longer wholly mapped in terms of territorial places, territorial distances and territorial borders

What is Globalised?

Economy

Technology

Politics

Culture

Law

People

Debates on globalisation:

Globalisation isn’t happening: We’ve seen all this before, not so revolutionary, states still in charge

Globalisation is good : Global trade benefits all, global norms defeat local bullies, global contacts breed nice people

Globalisation is bad : Globalisation increases inequalities, destroys local cultures, destroys the environment, undermines democratic accountability

Globalisation of:

Supporters Rejecters Reformers

Economy Yes: As part of economic liberalism

No: Greater protection of national economies

Mixed: If leading to greater social equality

Technology Yes: Open competition for techno-logical innovation

No: Threatens local com-munities

Mixed: If beneficial to the marginalised

Law Yes: Commercial law and human rights

No: Undermines national sovereignty

Yes: Building global rule of law

People Yes: Open border policy

No: Undermines national cohesion

Yes: Open border policy

Why did Globalisation Occur?

New technology enabled global communications, global financial flows, cheap transport

End of Cold War, allowed global cooperation and global trade

IMF and World Bank increase development

Deeper causes of globalisation: 1960-70s peak of nation state – two reactions: - New Social Movements, from 1968, incl. Peace, Human Rights, Women, Environment

- Neo-liberalism, 1980s, retreat of state. IMF/World Bank

Transnational advocacy networks:

Promote causes, principled ideas and norms that cannot be reduced to self-interest

May include NGOs, local social movements, foundations, media, churches, trade unions, consumer organisations, intellectuals, parts of IGOs, civil servants, politicians

Work through information politics, symbolic politics, leverage politics, accountability politics

(Keck and Sikkink, 1998)

Global civil society?

“Global civil society is the sphere of ideas, institutions, organisations, networks and

individuals located between the family, the state and the market, and operating beyond the confines of national societies, polities

and economies.”

It is not just civil society organisations, individuals, networks working at the global level

But rather, the whole of organisations,individuals, networks with transnational elements in their line of work, partners and networks, or ideology

The normative connotations of civil society:

Trust, social capital

Active citizens in public affairs

Non-violent and resisting violence

Fostering public debate

Counter-hegemonic: challenging the powerful; championing the marginalised

Being part of a global imagined community, a sense of connection

Belief in human rights, global social justice rather than just civil rights, justice for own citizens

Belief in global and shared responsibility for the environment, ‘One World’ solutions, ‘global governance’

Challenging the winners, championing the losers, of globalisation

Before Globalisation:

S

M

controls

CS

S

M

controls

CS

Country 1 Country 2

S SMarket

Civil society

Retreat of the State. A combination of globalisation, privatisation, NGO-isation.:

Country 1 Country 2

Control?

Some Figures:

Number of INGOs

1981 1991 2001

9,789 17,826 24,797

Revenues of Relief and Development INGOs $ bln

1980 1988 1999

Public 1.6 2.4 1.7

Private 3.6 4.5 10.7

Total 5.2 6.9 12.4

.

NGOs with UN consultative status

1945 1965 1985 2005

0 361 760 2,595

.

Globalisation has changed the organisational environment for NGOs. New Opportunities:

Retreat of states and decline of party politics

Expanded private and institutional donations

Major reductions in communication costs

More democracy, freedom of expression and freedom of assembly

.

New problems:

External:

More complex and diverse cultural, political and economic environment

Relations with diverse constituencies and stake-holders

Managing different legal and fiscal systems

Complex international funding environment

Internal:

Transnational governance structure must be clear on responsibilities, line management and enforcement

Need to develop a common mission and language within the organisation

Structure that remains accountable to dispersed membership and reflects diversity

Different Solutions

Member consultation:

• One vote per member (Amnesty)

• One vote per country (FOEI)

Headquarters:

• Move to South (Civicus, ActionAid)

• Split HQ (World Rainforest Movement)

• Ring structure (Panos)

Boards

• More Southern and female (ActionAid)

• Regional sub-boards (HRW)

Forms of organisation

• Unitary organisation (HRW)

• Partnerships (Christian Aid)

• Federations (IFRC)

• Confederations (Oxfam Int)

• Networks (YES!)

1990s move from service-delivery to advocacy:

Macro-explanations:

Political party activism declines, decision-making power seeps away from national level

development encounters international politics

Micro-explanations:

NGO staff increasingly frustrated by lack of macro-impact of their work on development

Northern NGOs need new role: capacity-building and advocacy

‘advocate: an intercessor or defender: one who pleads the cause of another’

‘advocacy: the function of an advocate; a pleading for’

 ‘advocates plead the cause of others or defend a cause or proposition’

What can be the basis for NGO advocacy?

- representation          

- moral conviction (values)

         - experience/expertise

Representation: speaking for

Problems:

• constituency

• procedure

• time

• money

Some solutions:

- transparency about procedures or absence of

- networks

-accompaniment

Deeper problem: What does it mean to ‘represent’? To speak ‘on behalf of?

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NhPf8hcuFYo

• Nike• http://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=M5uYCWVfuPQ

Climate Change and the Developing World

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Vulnerability

• Climate Change: Global warming and everything which effects increased greenhouse gases

• Leads to flooding, drought, dramatics increases in heat and cold, natural disasters

• Climate change disproportionately effects developing countries

• 73% of disasters reported since 1900 were climate related

• GDP growth in Mozambique dropped from 8% (1999) to 2% (2000) post cyclone.

• >1/4 of Africa’s population lives within 100km of the coast. Numbers at risk from coastal flooding to rise from 1m in 1990 to 70m in 2080

Adaptive Capacity• Capability to adapt• Function of:

– Wealth– Technology – Education– Institutions– Information– Infrastructure– “Social capital”

• Having adaptive capacity does not mean it is used effectively

Climate Change & PovertyDisproportionate negative impact on poor

94% of disasters and 97% of natural disaster related deaths occur in developing countries

Annual costs of natural disasters estimated at $55billion Economic damages are greatest in developed countries, e.g. total economic impact of Hurricane Katrina in Louisiana and Mississippi may exceed $150 billion

Climate Change impact is a structural factor that will exacerbate inequality and thwart p growth

Dependent on climate sensitive sectors

Socioeconomic impacts• small increases of temperature will prompt food

prices to increase due to a slowing in the expansion of global food supply relative to growth in global food demand

• Climate change will lower incomes of the vulnerable populations and increase the absolute number of people at risk of hunger

• What would the impacts be in a already fragile society of mass starvation? Climate refugees?

• How would the rich world react? Especially if it was also struggling with the negative effects of climate change?

Impact on Human Development and the MDGs

(Millennium Development Goals)

• Biophysical effects associated with climate change will in turn impact on human development and the achievement and sustainability of MDGs– MDGs 4,5,6 (health): Incidence of Cholera increased 6-fold in Nicaragua

following flooding as a result of Hurricane Mitch– MDG2 (education): In Bihar India, annual flooding shuts schools across the

state for 3 months. – MDG3 (gender): 90% of victims in 1991 Bangladesh cyclone were women

and children.– MDG7 (environment): 1997 El Niño killed up to 80% of livestock in Somalia

and Kenya.

Freshwater Stress – Billions at risk

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Agriculture and Climate Change

• GDP from agriculture: 34% , 199442% , 1980

• Area under agriculture: 50% , 760 mha• Dependent population: 70%• Average farm size: 1 to 5 ha• Landless dependent on others

• 2.5o to 4.9oC increase with -20% drop in precipitationrice yield - 15% to - 42%wheat yield - 25% to - 55%

• 2-3.5°C increase in temperature in India could reduce farm net revenues by 9 – 25%

Indian Agriculture

Source: Parikh J and Kavi Kumar

Rainfed districts with shallow soil cover and severly degraded soil

Sea Level Rise Indian subcontinent

Bangladesh• Displaced 13 million• 16% of national

rice production lost

India• Displace 7 million,

est. cost $Bn 230• inundate 1700 km2 agricultural land • necessitate 4000 km of dykes and sea walls • submerge 576 km2 total land & 4200 km of roads

Mitigation in Developing Countries• China, India, Brazil & South Africa, will

become major GHG emitters in the next 20-30 years, overtaking the US in China’s case

• Mitigation of GHGs poses a fundamental equity problem: total emissions must decrease but developing country share of emissions will need to increase

• Obstacles:– Political risks: domestic (government

interference), international (no price for carbon if no +2012 framework)

– Price gap between low carbon technologies and Business As Usual (more coal plants)

– Price of carbon too low to incentivise action– Price of access to clean technology

Intellectual Property Rights (wind turbines)

15 September 2006 IEF climate conference 48

• Every year China builds 60 gigawatts of power-generation capacity, almost as much as Britain's entire existing capacity.

• Four-fifths of Chinese power is generated by coal, the dirtiest source of electricity.

• China currently uses 40% of the world's coal—more than America, Europe and Japan put together.

Conclusions• Warming of 2°C threatens many tens of millions with increased

risk of hunger, hundreds of millions with increased Malaria risk, millions with increased flooding and billions with risk of water shortage.– All these threats most severe for developing countries and poor people

everywhere • Warming of 2°C risks major ice sheet responses with

commitments to many metres of sea level rise. At least 1m by 2100, could be much more later– Ensuing sea level rise threatens large populations everywhere and

particularly in developing countries• Warming of 2°C threatens major ecosystems from the Arctic

and Antarctic to the tropics– Loss of forests and species will affect the lives of all with economic costs

falling disproportionately on the poor and developing countries