human rights risks in mining. a baseline study. user’s guide

Human Rights Risks in Mining A Baseline StudyUser’s Guide

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2 | Human Rights Risks in Mining. A Baseline Study

AcknowledgementsThe research leading to the present study has been carried out as part of the research project “Human Rights Risks in Mining” by the German Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR) and the Max-Planck-Foundation for International Peace and the Rule of Law (MPFPR). This publication was produced on behalf of and financed by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Decvelopment (BMZ).

AuthorDr. Maximilian Spohr, MPFPR

With contributions by Prof. Dr. Rüdiger Wolfrum of MPFPR and Åsa Borssén, Johannes Danz and Dr. Sven Renner of BGR.

With thanks to Dr. Michael Priester, Viola Bölscher, Uwe Näher, Ludwig Feldhaus, Dr. Rolf Muff, Dr. Lothar Winkelmann, Dr. Rudolf Mauer, Peter Weis and Anna von Harnier

Photo creditsTitle photo: © Mr. Tsvangirayi Mukwazhi. This page & next/pg 14 & 15 bottom, from left to right: © SONY SAIFUDDIN/AFP/Getty Images; © Robert Nickelsberg/Getty Images; © Rodrigo Buendia/Getty Images; © Alon Skuy/The Times/Gallo Images/Getty Images; © Kuni Takahashi/Getty Images.

Design & Layout conceptIra Olaleye

DisclaimerThe views expressed in this publication are the sole responsibility of the author/s and do not necessari-ly reflect the views of the German Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources. The cases de-scribed solely serve as examples of possible human rights risks in certain scenarios and do not express any final legal opinion. Geographical Maps. The geographical maps in this publication are for informational purposes only and do not constitute recognition of international boundaries or regions; BGR and MPFPR makes no claims con-cerning the validity, accuracy or completeness of the maps nor assumes any liability resulting from the use of the information therein.

Manuscript completed in January 2016.This document is available online at: www.bmz.de/rue/includes/downloads/BGR_MPFPR__2016__Human_Rights_Risks_in_Mining.pdf© 2016 Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe

Human Rights Risks in Mining – A Baseline StudyAll rights reserved.For permission to reproduce please contact: [email protected]

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Human Rights Risks in Mining A Baseline StudyUser’s Guide


AMD ........................ Acid Mine Drainage

ASM .......................... Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining

CAT ........................... Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punish-ment

CEACR ................... Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations

CEDAW ................. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women

CPED ....................... International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance

CRC ........................... Convention on the Rights of the Child

CRPD ...................... Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities

DRC .......................... Democratic Republic of the Congo

ECHR ...................... European Convention on Human Rights

ECPMM ................ Environmental Code of Practice for Metal Mines

ECtHR .................... European Court for Human Rights

EMGAC ................. Exploration and Mining Guide for Aboriginal Communities

HRC .......................... Human Rights Committee

HRW ........................ Human Rights Watch

IACHR ................... Inter-American Court of Human Rights

ICCPR ..................... International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

ICERD .................... International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination

ICESCR ................. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

ICJ .............................. International Court of Justice

ICMW ..................... International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families

IIED .......................... International Institute for Environment and Development

ILO ............................ International Labour Organization

IPEC ......................... International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour

LSM .......................... Industrial and Large-Scale Mining

MMSD ................... Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Develop-ment

OHCHR ................ Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights

UNEP ...................... United Nations Environmental Programme

UNIDO ................. United Nations Industrial Development Organization

VDLT ........................ Vienna Declaration of the Law of Treaties

Abbreviations and Acronyms


1 IntroductionThe MPFPR/BGR baseline study on ‘Human Rights Risks in Mining’ provides scholars and practition-ers from different backgrounds with a source of ref-erence for human rights issues in the mining sec-tor. It identifies the 20 most important human rights risk areas related to mining in all of its forms, rang-ing from industrial and large-scale to artisanal and small-scale mining in all parts of the world. It can

therefore be used not only for an ex post analysis of human rights violations caused by mining activities but also allows for an ex ante assessment of possible human rights issues that can arise in the context of mining projects. Project planning is particularly sup-ported by the structure of the study that assigns the human rights risk areas to the different steps of the mine life cycle, according to its prevalence.

2 ContentsThe baseline study is divided in 4 major parts. Follow-ing the introduction, users are being provided with a sound basis on international human rights law in chapter 2, which gives an overview of its sources, ba-sic legal theory and methodology. The ensuing chap-

ters then analyze the most important human rights ‘Risk Areas’ in industrial and large-scale mining (LSM) (chapter 3), artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) (chapter 4) and ‘special situations’ (chapter 5).

How to navigate this user’s guide: y Get a brief description

by hovering over the i .

y Click on a listing on any of the following pages to go directly to the page in the study.

3 Risk Areas according to Mining ActivityINDUSTRIAL & LARGE-SCALE

` Licensing & Exploration Phase y Indigenous Peoples – FPIC i y Right to Participation & Information i

` Construction Phase y Area Clearing i y Area Clearing/Resettlement of Indigenous People i

` Operations Phase y Environmental Impact i

y Environmental Contamination y Water Depletion y Air Pollution

y Fatal Mud- & Landslides/ Tailings Dam Failures i

y Occupational Health & Safety i y Labor Unions/ Freedom of Association i

` Closure & Abandoned Mines y Environmental Destruction & Contamination i

y Water and Soil Contamination - Acid Mine Drainage (AMD)

y Other Land and Soil Contamination y Air Pollution

y Fatal Mud- & Landslide/ Tailings Dam Failures/ Subsidence i

ARTISANAL & SMALL-SCALE

` Loss of ASM as a Means of Livelihood i ` Environmental Impact i ` Occupational Health & Safety i ` Child Labor i ` Violation of Indigenous Rights i

SPECIAL SITUATIONS

` Situations of Armed Conflict i ` Violent Conflict, Protest & Clashes i

y Violent Conflict over Profits from Exploitation y Conflict over the right to participate in deci-sion-making over management of a resource and the sharing of benefits

y Conflict over environmental, social and cultur-al impact

` Forced Evictions i ` Forced Labor i ` Corruption i

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Photo: © Simon Dawson/Bloomberg via Getty Images Photo: © SONY SAIFUDDIN/AFP/Getty Images

Photo: © Alon Skuy/The Times/Gallo Images/Getty Images

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Table of Content in Detail

Key:Mining types/phases/subsectionsRisk areas

Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................... 6

Chapter 2: International Human Rights Law .................... 8

A. Substantive Basis of the Study .............................................................................................................................. 9

I. International Human Rights Treaties ............................................................................................................................... 9

II. International Labor Rights .................................................................................................................................................. 10

III. Rights of Indigenous Peoples............................................................................................................................................. 11

B. State Obligations under International Human Rights Law .............................................................................. 13

I. Legal basis of the State Obligations .................................................................................................................................... 13

1. Duty to Respect ................................................................................................................................................................. 14

2. Duty to Protect .................................................................................................................................................................. 15

3. Duty to Fulfill ..................................................................................................................................................................... 15

II. Territorial Scope of Application ......................................................................................................................................... 16

C. Human Rights Obligations of Business Enterprises and Transnational Corporations .................................. 17

D. Scope of the Legal Analysis .................................................................................................................................. 18

I. Interpretation of International Human Rights Norms ................................................................................................. 18

II. Absolute and Limited Human Rights ............................................................................................................................... 19

What is this study about?

The legal context. Overview of the legal sources, basic legal theory and methodology.

Photo: © Rodrigo Buendia/Getty Images

Photo: © Robert Nickelsberg/Getty Images,



















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Chapter 3: Human Rights Risk Areas in the Context of Industrial and Large-Scale Mining ............. 21

A. Licensing & Exploration ........................................................................................................................................ 22

I. Description of the Mining Phase ......................................................................................................................................... 22

II. Risk Areas and Human Rights Analysis ........................................................................................................................... 23

1. Indigenous Peoples – Right to Free, Prior and Informed Consent ....................................................................... 23

a. Description of Risk Area and Case Studies ........................................................................................................... 23

b. Human Rights Analysis .............................................................................................................................................. 25

aa. Art. 6 (2) ILO Convention 169 ........................................................................................................................... 25

bb. Art. 15 (2) ILO Convention 169 ......................................................................................................................... 26

cc. Art. 16 (2) ILO Convention 169 ......................................................................................................................... 27

dd. Art. 27 ICCPR: Rights of Minorities to Culture, Religion and Language ................................................. 27

ee. Art. 15(1)(a) ICESCR: Right to take part in Cultural Life ............................................................................. 28

ff. Art. 1(2) ICESCR: Right to Economic Self-Determination ........................................................................... 28

gg. Art. 5 (d)(v) ICERD: Right to Own Property, Art. 5 (e)(vi) ICERD: Right to Participation in Cultural Activities 28

hh. International Customary Law – Art. 19 and 32 UNDRIP ............................................................................ 29

2. Right to Participation and Information ....................................................................................................................... 30

a. Description of Risk Area and Case Studies ........................................................................................................... 30

b. Human Rights Analysis .............................................................................................................................................. 31

aa. Participatory Rights under Human Rights Law ............................................................................................ 31

bb. Art. 1(2) ICESCR: Right to Economic Self-Determination ......................................................................... 32

cc. Right to Information, Art. 19, 25 ICCPR ......................................................................................................... 32

B. Construction ...................................................................................................................................................... 33

I. Description of Mining Phase ............................................................................................................................................. 33

II. Risk Areas and Human Rights Analysis ........................................................................................................................... 34

1. Area Clearing .................................................................................................................................................................... 34

a. Description of Risk Area and Case Studies ............................................................................................................ 34

b. Human Rights Analysis............................................................................................................................................... 36

aa. Right to Adequate Housing, Art. 11 ICESCR .................................................................................................. 36

bb. Right to Privacy, Art. 17 ICCPR ......................................................................................................................... 37

cc. Right to Food, Art. 11 (1) ICESCR ..................................................................................................................... 38

dd. Right to Water, Art. 11 (1) ICESCR .................................................................................................................... 39

ee. Right to Health, Art. 12 ICESCR ........................................................................................................................ 40

ff. Right to Work, Art. 6 (1) ICESCR ......................................................................................................................... 41

2. Area Clearing/Resettlement and Indigenous People .............................................................................................. 42



aa. Art. 14 ILO Convention 169 (ILO 169) ............................................................................................................ 44

bb. Art. 15 (1) ILO 169 ................................................................................................................................................ 45

cc. Art. 16 ILO 169 ...................................................................................................................................................... 45

dd. Art. 27 ICCPR: Rights of Minorities to Culture, Religion and Language ................................................. 46

ee. Customary International Law ............................................................................................................................ 46

Identification of the most signifi-cant human rights risk areas related to indiustrial and large-scale mining.Photo: © Simon Dawson/Bloomberg via Getty Images













































(1) Art. 8(b) UNDRIP: State’s Duty to Protect Land, Territories and Resources of Indigenous People ... 46(2) Art. 25 UNDRIP: Right of Indigenous People to Spiritual Relationship with their Territories and Resources ................................................................................................................. 46(3) Art. 26 UNDRIP: Right of Indigenous People to their Lands, Territories and Resources ..................... 46(4) Art. 29 UNDRIP: Right of Indigenous People to Conservation and Protection of their Lands ........... 47

C. Operations ...................................................................................................................................................... 47

I. Description of Mining Phase .............................................................................................................................................. 47

II. Risk Areas and Human Rights Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 49

1. Environmental Impact..................................................................................................................................................... 49


aa. Environmental Contamination .......................................................................................................................... 49

bb. Water Depletion ................................................................................................................................................... 51

cc. Air Pollution ........................................................................................................................................................... 53


aa. Right to Water, Art. 11 (1) ICESCR .................................................................................................................... 54

bb. Right to Health, Art. 12 ICESCR ........................................................................................................................ 55

cc. Right to Food, Art. 11 (1) ICESCR ..................................................................................................................... 55

dd. Right to Housing, Art. 11 (1) ICESCR ............................................................................................................... 56

ee. Right to Remedy ................................................................................................................................................... 56

ff. Right to Information, Art. 19, 25 ICCPR ........................................................................................................... 57

gg. International Customary Law – Right to a Clean Environment ................................................................. 58

2. Fatal Mud- and Landslides / Tailings Dam Failures ................................................................................................... 59



aa. Right to Life, Art. 6 ICCPR .................................................................................................................................. 61

bb. Right to Housing, Water, Food, Health and Work, Art. 6, 11, 12 ICESCR................................................. 62

cc. Right to Remedy, Art. 2 (3) ICCPR ..................................................................................................................... 62

dd. Right to Information, Art. 19, 25 ICCPR .......................................................................................................... 62

3. Labor-Occupational Health and Safety ....................................................................................................................... 63



aa. Right to Just and Favorable Conditions of Work - Safe and healthy Working Conditions, Art. 7 (b) ICESCR............................................................................. 66

bb. Right to Just and Favorable Conditions of Work – Just and Fair Payment, Art. 7 (a) ICESCR .............. 68

cc. Right to Work, Art. 6 ICESCR ............................................................................................................................. 68

dd. Right to Health, Art. 12 ICESCR ........................................................................................................................ 68

ee. Right to Life, Art. 6 (1) ICCPR ............................................................................................................................ 69

4. Labor Unions / Freedom of Association ....................................................................................................................... 69



aa. Freedom of Association, Art. 22 ICCPR ........................................................................................................... 71

bb. Freedom of Association / to form Unions, Art. 8 ICESCR ............................................................................ 71

D. Closure & Abandoned Mines ................................................................................................................................ 72

I. Description of Mining Phase .............................................................................................................................................. 72

II. Risk Areas and Human Rights Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 73

1. Environmental Destruction and Contamination ....................................................................................................... 73


aa. Water and Soil Contamination – Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) .................................................................... 73

bb. Other Land and Soil Contamination ................................................................................................................ 74


















































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cc. Air Pollution ........................................................................................................................................................... 74


aa. Right to Water, Art. 11 (1) ICESCR .................................................................................................................... 75

bb. Right to Health, Art. 12 (1) ICESCR .................................................................................................................. 76

cc. Right to Food, Art. 11 (1) ICESCR ...................................................................................................................... 76

dd. Right to Housing, Art. 11 (1) ICESCR ............................................................................................................... 76

ee. Right to Remedy ................................................................................................................................................... 76

ff. Right to Information, Art. 19, 25 ICCPR ........................................................................................................... 76

gg. International Customary Law - Right to a Clean and Healthy Environment .......................................... 76

2. Fatal Mud- and Landslide / Tailings Dam Failures / Subsidence ............................................................................. 77



aa. Right to Life, Art. 6 ICCPR .................................................................................................................................. 79

bb. Right to Housing, Water, Food, Health and Work ......................................................................................... 79

cc. Right to Remedy.................................................................................................................................................... 79

dd. Right to Information, Art. 19, 25 ICCPR .......................................................................................................... 80

Chapter 4: Human Rights Risk Areas in the Context of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining .............. 81

A. Description of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining .............................................................................................. 82

B. Risk Areas and Human Rights Analysis ................................................................................................................ 85

I. Loss of ASM as a Means of Livelihood .............................................................................................................................. 85

1. Description of Risk Area and Case Studies .................................................................................................................. 85

2. Human Rights Analysis .................................................................................................................................................... 88

a. Right to Work, Art. 6 ICESCR .................................................................................................................................... 88

b. Right to Food, Water, Health, Housing and privacy ............................................................................................. 89

II. Environmental Impact ......................................................................................................................................................... 89



a. Right to Water, Art. 11 (1) ICESCR ........................................................................................................................... 95

b. Right to Health, Art. 12 ICESCR ............................................................................................................................... 95

c. Right to Food, Art. 11 (1) ICESCR ............................................................................................................................. 96

d. Right to Housing, Art. 11 (1) ICESCR....................................................................................................................... 96

Identification of the most signifi-cant human rights risk areas related to Artisanal & Small-Scale Mining.Photo: © SONY SAIFUDDIN/AFP/Getty Images.



































e. Right to Remedy .......................................................................................................................................................... 96

f. Right to Information, Art. 19, 25 ICCPR ................................................................................................................. 96

g. International Customary Law - Right to a Clean and Healthy Environment ................................................. 97

III. Occupational Health and Safety ........................................................................................................................................ 97



a. Right to Just and Favorable Conditions of Work - Safe and healthy Working Conditions, Art. 7 (b) ICESCR .................................................................................... 102

b. Right to Just and Favorable Conditions of Work - Just and fair payment, Art. 7 (a) ICESCR ...................... 103

c. Right to Work, Art. 6 ICESCR .................................................................................................................................... 104

d. Right to Health, Art. 12 ICESCR ............................................................................................................................... 104

e. Right to Life, Art. 6 (1) ICCPR .................................................................................................................................... 104

IV. Child Labor ........................................................................................................................................................................... 104

1. Description of Risk Area and Case Studies ................................................................................................................. 1042. Human Rights Analysis ................................................................................................................................................... 109

a. Art. 32 CRC: Right of Child to be Free from Economic Exploitation, Hazardous and Harmful Work ..... 109

b. Art. 10 (3) ICESCR: State’s Duty to Protect Children from Economic Exploitation, Hazardous and Harmful Work ...................................................................................................................................... 110c. Art. 12 ICESCR: Right to Health .............................................................................................................................. 111d. Right to Education, Art. 13, 28 CRC ........................................................................................................................ 111e. Art. 6(2) ICESCR: State’s Duty to Provide for Effectuating Right to Work .................................................... 112

V. Violation of Indigenous Rights ......................................................................................................................................... 112

1. Description of Risk Area and Case Studies ................................................................................................................. 112

2. Human Rights Analysis ................................................................................................................................................... 114

a. Art. 14 ILO Convention 169 (ILO 169) ................................................................................................................... 114

b. Art. 15 (1) ILO 169 ...................................................................................................................................................... 114

c. Art. 27 ICCPR: Rights of Minorities to Culture, Religion and Language ........................................................ 114

d. Customary International Law .................................................................................................................................. 114

aa. Art. 8(b) UNDRIP: State’s Duty to Protect Land, Territories and Resources of Indigenous People . 115bb. Art. 25 UNDRIP: Right of Indigenous People to Spiritual Relationship with their Territories and Resources ............................................................................................................... 115cc. Art. 26 UNDRIP: Right of Indigenous People to their Lands, Territories and Resources .................... 115dd. Art. 29 UNDRIP: Right of Indigenous People to Conservation and Protection of their Lands ......... 115


































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Chapter 5: Special Situations ............................................. 116

A. Special Situations of Conflict, Authoritarian and Weak Governance .............................................................. 117

B. Risk Areas and Human Rights Analysis ................................................................................................................ 117

I. Situations of Armed Conflict .............................................................................................................................................. 117



a. Right to Life, Art. 6 ICCPR ......................................................................................................................................... 119

b. Art. 7, 9, 21 ICCPR; Art. 1 (1), 2 (1) Convention against Torture; Art. 2, 3 UN Genocide Convention ........ 120

II. Violent Conflict, Protest and Clashes ............................................................................................................................... 120


a. Violent Conflict over Profits from Exploitation .................................................................................................... 122

b. Conflict over the right to participate in decision-making over management of a resource and the sharing of benefits ............................................................................................................... 125

c. Conflict over environmental, social and cultural impact .................................................................................... 126


a. Right to Life – Art. 6 ICCPR ....................................................................................................................................... 130

b. Right to Security of the Person, Art. 9 (1) ICCPR .................................................................................................. 131

c. Convention against Torture, Art, 1 (1), 2 (1) .......................................................................................................... 131

d. Freedom from Torture and Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment, Art. 7 ICCPR .................................... 131

e. UN Genocide Convention, Art. 2, 3 ......................................................................................................................... 132

f. Freedom of Assembly, Art. 21 ICCPR ..................................................................................................................... 132

III. Forced Evictions .................................................................................................................................................................... 133



a. Right to Housing, Art. 11 (1) ICESCR....................................................................................................................... 135

b. Right to Privacy, Art. 17 ICCPR ................................................................................................................................. 136

c. Right to Food, Water, Health and Work ................................................................................................................. 137

IV. Forced Labor ...................................................................................................................................................................... 137



a. Freedom from Forced and Compulsory Labor, Art. 8 ICCPR ............................................................................ 139

b. Right to Work, Art. 6 ICESCR ................................................................................................................................... 140

V. Corruption ........................................................................................................................................................................... 140



a. Acts of Corruption as a Human Rights Violation .................................................................................................. 143

aa. Causality ................................................................................................................................................................. 143

bb. Attribution ............................................................................................................................................................. 144

b. Direct, indirect and remote Human Rights violations through Corruption.................................................... 144

c. Direct, indirect and remote Human Rights violations through mining-related Corruption ...................... 144

d. Art. 2(1) ICESCR: State’s Duty to Take Maximum Steps to Effectuate Provisions of this Covenant ........ 145

e. Right to Housing, Art. 11 (1) ICESCR....................................................................................................................... 145

f. Right to Housing, Water, Food, Health Art. 11 (1), 12 ICESCR .......................................................................... 145

Photo: © Alon Skuy/The Times/ Gallo Images/Getty Images

Identification of the most signifi-cant human rights risk areas related to mining in special situations, such as situations of conflict, authoritar-ian governance and weak governance.














































Chapter 6: Conclusions ........................................................ 146

Bibliography ..................................................................................... 148

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