Human Biological and Human Biological and Cultural EvolutionCultural Evolution

Cultural AnthropologyCultural Anthropology

Culture in Evolutionary PerspectiveCulture in Evolutionary Perspective

To understand culture, we need to:To understand culture, we need to: (1) Know our biological capacity for culture(1) Know our biological capacity for culture (2) How we fit into the animal kingdom(2) How we fit into the animal kingdom (3) How we came to be what we are: (3) How we came to be what we are: Homo Homo

sapienssapiens We are the only human species in the world.We are the only human species in the world. Neanderthals, our closest “relatives” Neanderthals, our closest “relatives”

disappeared 30,000 years ago. disappeared 30,000 years ago.

Our Capacity For Culture: Our Our Capacity For Culture: Our Biological RootsBiological Roots

(1) Our thinking ability(1) Our thinking ability (2) Our language ability(2) Our language ability (3) Our ability to make and use tools(3) Our ability to make and use tools (4) Our bipedalism—ability to stand and walk (4) Our bipedalism—ability to stand and walk

on two feeton two feet If the “science of humankind” is to be taken If the “science of humankind” is to be taken

seriouslyseriously We need to know our own anatomyWe need to know our own anatomy

Topics of This SectionTopics of This Section We start with the taxonomy, and where we fit in the animal We start with the taxonomy, and where we fit in the animal

kingdom.kingdom. We then look at human anatomy and compare it with the We then look at human anatomy and compare it with the

chimps.chimps. Primary focus: capacity for thinking, for language, for tool Primary focus: capacity for thinking, for language, for tool

making and use, and for bipedalism, which enables us to do making and use, and for bipedalism, which enables us to do many other things. many other things.

We then look at hominin/hominid fossils and the tools they We then look at hominin/hominid fossils and the tools they made—or didn’t make. made—or didn’t make.

We then look at the behavior of our closest relative—the We then look at the behavior of our closest relative—the chimps, bonobos, and gorillas. chimps, bonobos, and gorillas.

All of these have a bearing on our capacity for culture. All of these have a bearing on our capacity for culture.

First Things First: TaxonomyFirst Things First: Taxonomy

Definition: Hierarchical, systematic Definition: Hierarchical, systematic classification of all lifeformsclassification of all lifeforms

from the general (kingdom. from the general (kingdom. Phylum, class, order)Phylum, class, order)

to the specific (genus, species, to the specific (genus, species, variety)variety)

Taxon (pl. taxa): categories at all Taxon (pl. taxa): categories at all levels from broad to specificlevels from broad to specific

Taxonomy: Binomial Taxonomy: Binomial NomenclatureNomenclature

Every species has at least two namesEvery species has at least two names Genus: Genus: HomoHomo Species: Species: sapienssapiens Variety: Variety: sapiens? sapiens? (If we accept the splitters’ terms)(If we accept the splitters’ terms) Stylistic ConventionStylistic Convention Italicize or underline all namesItalicize or underline all names Capitalize the genusCapitalize the genus Lowercase the species and varietyLowercase the species and variety Example: Example: Homo (sapiens) sapiensHomo (sapiens) sapiens

Taxonomy: The General TaxaTaxonomy: The General Taxa

Kingdom:Kingdom: Animalia (ingests food, moves) Animalia (ingests food, moves) Phylum:Phylum: Chordata (has spinal cord) Chordata (has spinal cord) Subphylum:Subphylum: Vertebrata (has segmented Vertebrata (has segmented

protective bone or cartilageprotective bone or cartilage Class:Class: Mammalia (warm blooded, female Mammalia (warm blooded, female

secretes milk, has hair)secretes milk, has hair) (Pop quiz: what is our constant temperature (Pop quiz: what is our constant temperature

fixed at?)fixed at?)

Taxonomy: Order PrimataTaxonomy: Order Primata

Order: Order: Primata Primata larger brainlarger brain relative to body size. relative to body size. Stereoscopic visionStereoscopic vision: eyes angled toward the same : eyes angled toward the same

direction, enabling depth perceptiondirection, enabling depth perception Flexible digits: Flexible digits: Hands only in humans; hand and feet Hands only in humans; hand and feet

with other primates. with other primates. Complex sociabilityComplex sociability: We live in groups but have : We live in groups but have

complex interactions, from grooming to dominance complex interactions, from grooming to dominance hierarchies to infant rearing. hierarchies to infant rearing.

Suborder: Suborder: Anthropoidea (monkey, apes, humans)Anthropoidea (monkey, apes, humans)

Taxonomy: Suborder AnthropoideaTaxonomy: Suborder Anthropoidea

Suborder Prosimii: These are the lemurs, Suborder Prosimii: These are the lemurs, tarsiers, and other so-called prosimians. tarsiers, and other so-called prosimians.

The don’t look much like human, but have all The don’t look much like human, but have all the features of primates.the features of primates.

Suborder Anthropoidea (“Manlike”)Suborder Anthropoidea (“Manlike”) These are the monkeys (New World, Old These are the monkeys (New World, Old

World) and apesWorld) and apes They look like men: almost upright, hands like They look like men: almost upright, hands like

ours, even the feet look similar.ours, even the feet look similar.

Taxonomy: Superfamily Taxonomy: Superfamily HominoideaHominoidea

Superfamily CercopithecoideaSuperfamily Cercopithecoidea: Old World Monkey: Old World Monkey Most have tails, smaller brained, smaller in size. Most have tails, smaller brained, smaller in size. Superfamily HominoideaSuperfamily Hominoidea: All apes and humans. : All apes and humans. They look even more humanlike than the monkeysThey look even more humanlike than the monkeys Larger brainsLarger brains No tailsNo tails Larger body sizeLarger body size Social behavior more humanlikeSocial behavior more humanlike

Taxonomy: Hominids (Old Taxonomy: Hominids (Old Taxonomy)Taxonomy)

Now the confusion beginsNow the confusion begins Old taxonomy: three hominoid familiesOld taxonomy: three hominoid families Hylobatidae or Hylobates: the lesser apes—Hylobatidae or Hylobates: the lesser apes—

gibbons and siamangsgibbons and siamangs Pongidae, or pongids: Orangutans (SE Asia), Pongidae, or pongids: Orangutans (SE Asia),

gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos (all gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos (all African apes)African apes)

Hominidae: All bipedal animals: Hominidae: All bipedal animals: AustralopithecusAustralopithecus and and HomoHomo

Taxonomy: Hominids (New Taxonomy: Hominids (New Taxonomy)Taxonomy)

This is the new taxonomy: This is the new taxonomy: Hominids Hominids apply to all humans and African apesapply to all humans and African apes Hominins Hominins apply to apply to Homo sapiensHomo sapiens and and All extinct ancestors:All extinct ancestors: AustralopithecusAustralopithecus, , Homo habilisHomo habilis, , H. H.

erectuserectus, , H. heidelbergensisH. heidelbergensis, and , and H. neanderthalensisH. neanderthalensis

On Hominid Taxonomy, DNA, and On Hominid Taxonomy, DNA, and Monkey WrenchesMonkey Wrenches

Why can’t they leave well enough alone?Why can’t they leave well enough alone? Answer: DNA comparisonsAnswer: DNA comparisons Humans and chimps DNA genomes vary only by about Humans and chimps DNA genomes vary only by about

99.5%; gorillas, by about 99% or so. 99.5%; gorillas, by about 99% or so. Human and Orangutan genomes vary by about 95%, justifying Human and Orangutan genomes vary by about 95%, justifying

another taxon, pongidae; the hylobates are even more distant.another taxon, pongidae; the hylobates are even more distant. The new taxonomy is justified by genetic variationsThe new taxonomy is justified by genetic variations Differences exist among physical anthropologists as to which Differences exist among physical anthropologists as to which

taxonomy is better; some textbooks still use the old system. taxonomy is better; some textbooks still use the old system. We’ll stick to the old system for now; but you should know We’ll stick to the old system for now; but you should know

that this issue exists. that this issue exists.

Human Comparative AnatomyHuman Comparative Anatomy

Why anatomy? We need to know what biological Why anatomy? We need to know what biological features give us the capacity for culture.features give us the capacity for culture.

The brain is the seat of thinking ability, language, and The brain is the seat of thinking ability, language, and even tool use.even tool use.

Our vocal tract enables speech, as we will see in the Our vocal tract enables speech, as we will see in the unit on language.unit on language.

Our hands are key to our ability to make and use Our hands are key to our ability to make and use tools.tools.

Our ability to stand and walk on two feet frees our Our ability to stand and walk on two feet frees our hands to do these and much else. hands to do these and much else.

Overview: The Human SkeletonOverview: The Human Skeleton

You do need to know You do need to know some of the parts of some of the parts of

The human skeletonThe human skeleton Use the online graphics Use the online graphics

(such as this) (such as this) Or your printed handoutsOr your printed handouts

Where It All Begins: The BrainWhere It All Begins: The Brain

Frontal Lobe and Frontal Lobe and Motor CortexMotor Cortex::

CognitionCognition Motor AbilitiesMotor Abilities Parietal Lobe:Parietal Lobe: Touch Touch

and Tasteand Taste Temporal Lobe:Temporal Lobe:

HearingHearing Occipital Lobe:Occipital Lobe: Vision Vision Olfactory BulbOlfactory Bulb: Smell: Smell

Parts of the Brain: Motor Cortex, Parts of the Brain: Motor Cortex, Cross SectionCross Section

Related to LanguageRelated to Language: : Lower Part:Lower Part:

LipsLips TongueTongue VocalizationVocalization Related to Tool Making Related to Tool Making

and Use: and Use: Upper part:Upper part: Fingers and ThumbFingers and Thumb HandHand ArmArm

Parts of the Brain: Language Parts of the Brain: Language CentersCenters

Parts of CerebrumParts of CerebrumFrontal Lobe (Thinking)Frontal Lobe (Thinking)Motor CortexMotor CortexBroca’s Area (Speech production))Broca’s Area (Speech production))Temporal Lobe (Hearing)Temporal Lobe (Hearing)Auditory Cortex (Hearing)Auditory Cortex (Hearing)Wernicke’s Area (Speech reception)Wernicke’s Area (Speech reception)Arcuate Fasciculus (Coordinator of Arcuate Fasciculus (Coordinator of

Broca’s with Wernicke’s areasBroca’s with Wernicke’s areasParietal Lobe (Taste and touch)Parietal Lobe (Taste and touch)Occipital Lobe (Sight)Occipital Lobe (Sight)Angular Gyrus (Intersensory Angular Gyrus (Intersensory

Connector)Connector)

Comic Relief, Anyone?Comic Relief, Anyone?(Courtesy of Geico)(Courtesy of Geico)

So easy a caveman can do it. . . .?So easy a caveman can do it. . . .?

Human SkullHuman Skull

Note the following:Note the following: High foreheadHigh forehead Rounded skullRounded skull No brow ridgeNo brow ridge Chin is presentChin is present Teeth are smallTeeth are small The bones are named The bones are named

after the lobes of the after the lobes of the brain they coverbrain they cover

Skull Morphology: Chimp and Skull Morphology: Chimp and HumanHuman

Note the followingNote the following Larger brow ridge (Larger brow ridge (supraorbital torussupraorbital torus) of chimp than ) of chimp than

human’shuman’s Sloping forehead of chimp compared to humanSloping forehead of chimp compared to human More More prognathousprognathous jaw of chimp compared to human jaw of chimp compared to human Larger canine and gap (Larger canine and gap (diastemadiastema) of chimp than human) of chimp than human

Human and Chimp Skulls Human and Chimp Skulls Compared: Brain StructureCompared: Brain Structure

Compare the followingCompare the following Chimp’s brain is much Chimp’s brain is much

smaller (400cc vs 1400cc)smaller (400cc vs 1400cc) It has reduced frontal lobeIt has reduced frontal lobe It has no Broca’s or It has no Broca’s or

Wernicke’s areaWernicke’s area It does have Brodmann’s It does have Brodmann’s

area 10, where calls may area 10, where calls may originate—but no speechoriginate—but no speech

It does have planum It does have planum temporale, where calls are temporale, where calls are received—but not received—but not processed as languageprocessed as language

What This All MeansWhat This All Means

Our brains are larger than the chimps’Our brains are larger than the chimps’ We have a well-developed frontal lobeWe have a well-developed frontal lobe We have well developed language areas: We have well developed language areas:

Broca’s and Wernicke’s areaBroca’s and Wernicke’s area The motor strip is more well developed among The motor strip is more well developed among

humans than among chimpshumans than among chimps

DentitionDentition

For each jaw (upper or For each jaw (upper or maxillamaxilla or lower or or lower or mandible:mandible:

IncisorsIncisors (4) for cutting (4) for cutting CaninesCanines (cuspid) (2) for (cuspid) (2) for

piercingpiercing Premolars Premolars (4) for light (4) for light

grindinggrinding Molars Molars (6) for grinding (6) for grinding

Chimp and Human JawsChimp and Human Jaws

Note the following:Note the following: Dental Arcade: Humans’ are arclike; apes, parallel back Dental Arcade: Humans’ are arclike; apes, parallel back

teeth, which are larger than human molarsteeth, which are larger than human molars Canines and Diastema (gap): Apes have larger canines Canines and Diastema (gap): Apes have larger canines

and gaps in opposite jaw to fit them; humans do not and gaps in opposite jaw to fit them; humans do not Ape incisors are more horizontal than vertical. Ape incisors are more horizontal than vertical.

Anatomy of Tool Making and Use: Anatomy of Tool Making and Use: The HandThe Hand

Note The Following:Note The Following: Our digits are straightOur digits are straight Our thumb is opposableOur thumb is opposable The thumb is longThe thumb is long The wrist bones are The wrist bones are

known as known as carpals.carpals. The bones of the hand The bones of the hand

are called are called metacarpals.metacarpals. The fingers are known The fingers are known

as as phalanges.phalanges.

Ape and Human HandsApe and Human Hands Hands of orangutan, chimpanzee, gorilla and human Hands of orangutan, chimpanzee, gorilla and human Note the following:Note the following: Our thumbs are longer than the others’Our thumbs are longer than the others’ We can make a finer grip than the others canWe can make a finer grip than the others can Less visible: apes’ digits are curved, ours are straightLess visible: apes’ digits are curved, ours are straight

Power and Precision GripPower and Precision Grip

Note the Following:Note the Following: Power grip:Power grip: Fingers Fingers

and thumbs wrap and thumbs wrap around the objectaround the object

Precision grip:Precision grip: Forefingers and thumb Forefingers and thumb hold the objecthold the object

Importance: Importance: We can do We can do finer work compared to finer work compared to nonhuman primatesnonhuman primates

BipedalismBipedalism

We are the only mammals We are the only mammals that can stand and walk on that can stand and walk on two feettwo feet

Kangaroos hop and maintain Kangaroos hop and maintain balance with their tailsbalance with their tails

Apes are semibipedal, but use Apes are semibipedal, but use their knuckles to get aroundtheir knuckles to get around

Notice the human is on his Notice the human is on his knees, not just his feetknees, not just his feet

Chimp and Human LocomotionChimp and Human Locomotion

Advantages of BipedalismAdvantages of Bipedalism

Efficient locomotionEfficient locomotion Freeing of handsFreeing of hands Foraging and hunting/scavagingForaging and hunting/scavaging Tool making and useTool making and use Care and provisioning of offspringCare and provisioning of offspring Tracking migrating herdsTracking migrating herds Predator avoidancePredator avoidance

Vertebral Column and PelvisVertebral Column and Pelvis Note the followingNote the following Human vertebral Human vertebral

column is S-Shapedcolumn is S-Shaped Chimp verebral Chimp verebral

column is bow-shapedcolumn is bow-shaped Human pelvis, with Human pelvis, with

ilium, is bowl-shapedilium, is bowl-shaped Chimp pelvis is long, Chimp pelvis is long,

with flat ilium with flat ilium

Pelvis and FemurPelvis and Femur

Note the following:Note the following: Longer ilium of chimpLonger ilium of chimp Shorter, more curved Shorter, more curved

ilium of humanilium of human Straight vertical Straight vertical

orientation of chimp orientation of chimp femurfemur

Inward angle of human Inward angle of human femurfemur

Foot StructureFoot Structure

Note the following:Note the following: Large toe of chimp foot Large toe of chimp foot

(right) is opposable to other (right) is opposable to other digitsdigits

Large toe of human foot Large toe of human foot (left) is aligned with other (left) is aligned with other digitsdigits

Ankle bones (tarsals) of Ankle bones (tarsals) of human food are larger and human food are larger and more rigid than the chimps’ more rigid than the chimps’

Foot Arch: Longitudinal and Foot Arch: Longitudinal and TransverseTransverse

Note the following:Note the following: Longitudinal arch Longitudinal arch

reflected from reflected from First metatarsal to First metatarsal to Calcaneus (heel bone)Calcaneus (heel bone) Transverse arch can be Transverse arch can be

inferred frominferred from Lower placement of Lower placement of

outside foot. outside foot.

The Evolution of HumankindThe Evolution of Humankind

The fossil records tells us one thing: human The fossil records tells us one thing: human populations today are very different from those one populations today are very different from those one million years ago.million years ago.

Human biological evolution is well established for Human biological evolution is well established for that reason.that reason.

This section provides a cultural and intellectual This section provides a cultural and intellectual history of creationism and evolutionismhistory of creationism and evolutionism

It describes the mechanisms of evolutionIt describes the mechanisms of evolution It concludes with a record of both biological and It concludes with a record of both biological and

cultural evolution to the present.cultural evolution to the present.

The Model of EvolutionThe Model of Evolution

The model of evolution: genetic change interacting The model of evolution: genetic change interacting with environmental pressureswith environmental pressures

Mutation:Mutation: Genetic change that is random Genetic change that is random Natural Selection:Natural Selection: environmental pressures that environmental pressures that

favor some lifeforms over othersfavor some lifeforms over others Gene Flow: Gene Flow: Change in the population by migration Change in the population by migration

of life form from another populationof life form from another population Genetic Drift:Genetic Drift: Change induced in small population Change induced in small population

by differential reproduction of the new lifeform. by differential reproduction of the new lifeform.

Early Models: The Great Chain of Early Models: The Great Chain of BeingBeing A hierarchy of entities from the A hierarchy of entities from the

simplest to most complex simplest to most complex anticipated the later rise of anticipated the later rise of taxonomy; Karl von Linntaxonomy; Karl von Linné é (discussed below) drew on this (discussed below) drew on this model.model.

In this view, the human race was In this view, the human race was the most complex and perfect of the most complex and perfect of all living formsall living forms

Humans, however, were below the Humans, however, were below the divine beings (including demons divine beings (including demons in the model depicted here. in the model depicted here.

CatastrophismCatastrophism Earth’s history is product of sudden Earth’s history is product of sudden

changechange Example: Creation of Earth in six Example: Creation of Earth in six

days (upper left), including Adamdays (upper left), including Adam Example: Flood (Noah’s Ark), Example: Flood (Noah’s Ark),

which eliminated all life except which eliminated all life except Noah’s family and the male and Noah’s family and the male and female animals he allowed into the female animals he allowed into the ark ark

Catastrophism does have some basis Catastrophism does have some basis of reality: an asteroid that struck the of reality: an asteroid that struck the earth 65 million years ago (lower earth 65 million years ago (lower left) nearly destroyed all lifeleft) nearly destroyed all life

Catastrophists: Ussher and LinnaeusCatastrophists: Ussher and Linnaeus

James UssherJames Ussher (1581-1656): Argued that (1581-1656): Argued that humankind created noon, Oct. 23, 4004 humankind created noon, Oct. 23, 4004 BCE (Upper left)BCE (Upper left)

He based his calculations on biblical He based his calculations on biblical history and astronomyhistory and astronomy

Carolus LinnaeusCarolus Linnaeus (Carl Linn (Carl Linné; 1707-é; 1707-1778) 1778)

Inventor of Inventor of taxonomytaxonomy—classification of —classification of lifeforms based on similarities and lifeforms based on similarities and differences (Sample taxonomy next slide)differences (Sample taxonomy next slide)

Viewed system as divinely ordainedViewed system as divinely ordained

The Garden of Eden: OverviewThe Garden of Eden: Overview

Location: Southern Iraq where the Tigris and Euphrates meet (left)Location: Southern Iraq where the Tigris and Euphrates meet (left) The Garden of Eden, Home of the First Couple—and of Original SinThe Garden of Eden, Home of the First Couple—and of Original Sin

The Garden of Eden: The MythThe Garden of Eden: The Myth

The beginning: Adam and Eve The beginning: Adam and Eve live in the Garden of Edenlive in the Garden of Eden

God: “Of every tree, thou God: “Of every tree, thou mayest eat freelymayest eat freely

But of the Tree of Knowledge of But of the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil, thou mayest not Good and Evil, thou mayest not eateat

For in the day thou eatest of it, For in the day thou eatest of it, thou shalt surely die”thou shalt surely die”

Garden of Eden: The TemptationGarden of Eden: The Temptation

Tempted by the Serpent, Eve does so (left)Tempted by the Serpent, Eve does so (left) She is the one who starts the FallShe is the one who starts the Fall Tempted by Eve, Adam also eats the fruitTempted by Eve, Adam also eats the fruit God confronts the pair for having done so God confronts the pair for having done so

(lower left)(lower left) Despite their supplications, He carries out Despite their supplications, He carries out

His punishmentHis punishment

Garden of Eden: The ExpulsionGarden of Eden: The Expulsion

The couple is expelled from the The couple is expelled from the Garden of EdenGarden of Eden

Consequences:Consequences: Woman must bear the pain of Woman must bear the pain of

childbirthchildbirth And be subject to man’s dominionAnd be subject to man’s dominion Man toils by the sweat of his browMan toils by the sweat of his brow The serpent is forever reviledThe serpent is forever reviled

Of Course, Others Besides Of Course, Others Besides Adam Talk to God . . .Adam Talk to God . . .

But was bombing the But was bombing the Garden of Eden back to Garden of Eden back to the Stone Agethe Stone Age

Something God had in Something God had in mind?mind?

(Censored by the FCC)(Censored by the FCC)

Uniformitarianism Uniformitarianism

Definition:Definition: All geological processes occurred All geological processes occurred in the past as they do todayin the past as they do today

Implications:Implications: It takes millions, perhaps It takes millions, perhaps billions of years for the geological processes to billions of years for the geological processes to take placetake place

The earth could not be only 6,000 years ago as The earth could not be only 6,000 years ago as Ussher would have claimedUssher would have claimed

Uniformitarianism According to Charles Uniformitarianism According to Charles LyellLyell

Charles LyellCharles Lyell (1797-1875) (1797-1875) Espoused extreme form of uniformitarianism Espoused extreme form of uniformitarianism

by denying catastrophism (by denying catastrophism (Principles of Principles of GeologyGeology))

Three aspects hold up todayThree aspects hold up today Geological processes of past are the same as Geological processes of past are the same as

todaytoday Stratigraphy serves to reconstruct history of Stratigraphy serves to reconstruct history of

the earththe earth Immense amount of time necessary for Immense amount of time necessary for

geological processes to effect change in the geological processes to effect change in the landscape landscape

Age of earth: The current estimate is 4.5 Age of earth: The current estimate is 4.5 billion yearsbillion years

Evolutionary Theories: Natural Evolutionary Theories: Natural SelectionSelection

Natural selection defined:Natural selection defined: Evolutionary change byEvolutionary change by Differential reproductive success Differential reproductive success

of individualsof individuals within a within a species species (group of (group of

organism able to reproduce fertile organism able to reproduce fertile offspring)offspring)

Through successful adaptation to Through successful adaptation to an environmentan environment

Charles Darwin Charles Darwin (1809-1882) (1809-1882) Origin of Origin of SpeciesSpecies

Charles Darwin (above) observed that Charles Darwin (above) observed that pigeons, dogs, and horses were subjected to pigeons, dogs, and horses were subjected to artificial selectionartificial selection in order to improve in order to improve their breedingtheir breeding

On Galapagos Islands in 1832, Darwin On Galapagos Islands in 1832, Darwin observed that 13 species of finches adapted observed that 13 species of finches adapted in different niches descended from a in different niches descended from a common ancestor (next slide)common ancestor (next slide)

He conceived the idea of natural selection He conceived the idea of natural selection and after years of dithering finally and after years of dithering finally published his conclusions in published his conclusions in The Origin of The Origin of Species Species in 1859in 1859

Charles Darwin and Natural Charles Darwin and Natural SelectionSelection

Natural Selection: Definition and Natural Selection: Definition and ImplicationsImplications

Variations are already present when selection occursVariations are already present when selection occurs Natural selection has no particular direction—Natural selection has no particular direction—

change is randomchange is random Therefore, not all evolution is from the simple to the Therefore, not all evolution is from the simple to the

complexcomplex Species can and do become extinctSpecies can and do become extinct New species can and do arise (Darwin had no way New species can and do arise (Darwin had no way

of explaining how the originated, however.) of explaining how the originated, however.) New species fill new nichesNew species fill new niches Dark-winged moths filled a new environment in a Dark-winged moths filled a new environment in a

soot-darkened coal-fired steel city; birds couldn’t soot-darkened coal-fired steel city; birds couldn’t see themsee them

Genetics and MutationGenetics and Mutation

Natural selection is one principle of evolution.Natural selection is one principle of evolution. Species proliferateSpecies proliferate Some are removed by natural selection.Some are removed by natural selection. But how do new species emerge in the first But how do new species emerge in the first

place?place? An Austrian Monk, Gregor Mendel, provided An Austrian Monk, Gregor Mendel, provided

a partial answer a partial answer

Principles of Evolution: Genetics IPrinciples of Evolution: Genetics I

Gregor Mendel: Genetic theory, based onGregor Mendel: Genetic theory, based on experiments with peasexperiments with peas

Genes: Hereditary information determining physical Genes: Hereditary information determining physical characteristicscharacteristics

Genotype: the genetic makeup of a particular Genotype: the genetic makeup of a particular characteristic (color of flowers in pea plant)characteristic (color of flowers in pea plant)

Phenotype: the physical characteristics created by the Phenotype: the physical characteristics created by the genetic makeupgenetic makeup

Genes are always paired: male contributes half, Genes are always paired: male contributes half, female contributes halffemale contributes half

Alleles: Variations of a genetic characteristicAlleles: Variations of a genetic characteristic

Principles of Evolution: Genetics IIPrinciples of Evolution: Genetics II

When different alleles combine:When different alleles combine: Allele of one manifests in physical characteristic Allele of one manifests in physical characteristic

(Dominant)(Dominant) The other does not (Recessive)The other does not (Recessive) Or both may manifest as hybrid (Codominant)Or both may manifest as hybrid (Codominant) Traits change when mutation occurs in the genes Traits change when mutation occurs in the genes

change in the sex cells of one or both individuals. change in the sex cells of one or both individuals. This process of mutation requires information beyond This process of mutation requires information beyond

the scope of this course. the scope of this course.

Reconstructing Fossil Hominins and Reconstructing Fossil Hominins and their Toolstheir Tools

If taxonomies keep changing, it’s If taxonomies keep changing, it’s because we rely on fragments and because we rely on fragments and infer from theminfer from them

Human remains: mostly teeth, bones, Human remains: mostly teeth, bones, and stones—because they are and stones—because they are preserved the bestpreserved the best

Here is Lucy—that’s one of the most Here is Lucy—that’s one of the most complete remains we have that is complete remains we have that is dated 3.7 million yearsdated 3.7 million years

Here are two stone choppers—we Here are two stone choppers—we think (lower left)think (lower left)

Trends in Human Evolution: Trends in Human Evolution: Australopithecus to HomoAustralopithecus to Homo

Australopithecus afarensis to A. africanusAustralopithecus afarensis to A. africanus: Gracile : Gracile AustralopithecinesAustralopithecines

Paranthropus robustusParanthropus robustus and and P. boisei:P. boisei: Robust Robust Australopithecines—Dead end?Australopithecines—Dead end?

A. africanus A. africanus to to Homo habilisHomo habilis: : Rise of tool manufacture?Rise of tool manufacture? H. habilisH. habilis to to H. erectus: H. erectus: Migration throughout Old Migration throughout Old

World; more kinds of toolsWorld; more kinds of tools H. erectus H. erectus to to H. heidelbergensisH. heidelbergensis to to H. sapiens:H. sapiens: Tool Tool

specialization and population explosion to New Worldspecialization and population explosion to New World H. neanderthalensis:H. neanderthalensis: Dead end? Dead end?

Fossil Hominins: Skull, Arms, Fossil Hominins: Skull, Arms, HandsHands

Large bulbous craniumLarge bulbous cranium Short face compared to apeShort face compared to ape Vertical carriage of headVertical carriage of head Shortened forelimbShortened forelimb Hands (manipulation, not locomotion)Hands (manipulation, not locomotion) Enlarged thumbEnlarged thumb Straight fingers, not curvedStraight fingers, not curved Enhanced finger sensitivityEnhanced finger sensitivity

Fossil Hominins: Bipedalism Fossil Hominins: Bipedalism

S-shaped vertebrae (backbone)S-shaped vertebrae (backbone) Short, wide, bowl-shaped pelvisShort, wide, bowl-shaped pelvis Femoral head (ball of femur at pelvis) angled Femoral head (ball of femur at pelvis) angled

and strengthenedand strengthened Lengthened hindlimbLengthened hindlimb Angle of knee: femur “slopes” to pelvisAngle of knee: femur “slopes” to pelvis Platform (arched) structure of footPlatform (arched) structure of foot Nonopposable big toe; toes not curved Nonopposable big toe; toes not curved

Encephalization (a.k.a. Bigger Encephalization (a.k.a. Bigger Brains)Brains)

Defining Cranial Capacity (and cc’s)Defining Cranial Capacity (and cc’s) A. afarensis:A. afarensis: 390-500 cc; av. 440 cc 390-500 cc; av. 440 cc A. africanus:A. africanus: 435-530 cc; av. 450 cc435-530 cc; av. 450 cc A./P robustus:A./P robustus: 520 cc, one specimen520 cc, one specimen A.P. boisei:A.P. boisei: 500-530 cc; av. 515 cc.500-530 cc; av. 515 cc. H. habilis:H. habilis: 500-800 cc; av. 680 cc.500-800 cc; av. 680 cc. H. erectus:H. erectus: 750-1250 cc; av. 1000 cc750-1250 cc; av. 1000 cc H. neanderthalensis:H. neanderthalensis: 1300-1750 cc; av. 1450 1300-1750 cc; av. 1450 H. (s.) sapiens:H. (s.) sapiens: 900-2350 cc. av. 1400900-2350 cc. av. 1400

Lucy (Lucy (Australopithecus afarensisAustralopithecus afarensis) ) and Us (and Us (Homo sapiens)Homo sapiens)

Note the Following:Note the Following: Shorter (3’6”)Shorter (3’6”) Longer armsLonger arms Curved fingersCurved fingers Shorter lower legsShorter lower legs Greater prognathismGreater prognathism Sloped foreheadSloped forehead Smaller cranial capacitySmaller cranial capacity What are the Similarities?What are the Similarities? Hint: it’s all related to bipedalismHint: it’s all related to bipedalism

When We Became Bipedal When We Became Bipedal (According to Gary Larson)(According to Gary Larson)

““Hey! Look! No Hey! Look! No hands!”hands!”

(Does he look like Lucy (Does he look like Lucy to you. . .?)to you. . .?)

Gracile and Robust Gracile and Robust AustralopithecinesAustralopithecines

For For A. africanusA. africanus (top), note: (top), note: Somewhat rounder skullSomewhat rounder skull No Sagittal crestNo Sagittal crest Prognathous jawPrognathous jaw For Paranthropus boisei, note:For Paranthropus boisei, note: Sagittal crest (ate a lot of veggies)Sagittal crest (ate a lot of veggies) Massive lower jaw (mandible)Massive lower jaw (mandible) Flatter faceFlatter face Massive cheek bones (zygomatic arch)Massive cheek bones (zygomatic arch)

Homo habilis: Homo habilis: The First Known The First Known ToolmakerToolmaker

Note the following:Note the following: Face is much flatterFace is much flatter Reduced brow ridge (supraorbital Reduced brow ridge (supraorbital

torus) torus) Larger cranial capacity (680 cc.)Larger cranial capacity (680 cc.) Toolmaking TechniqueToolmaking Technique HammerstoneHammerstone used to strike used to strike A A core core (lump of stone) to knap(lump of stone) to knap A A Flake Flake (stone chip)(stone chip) Note: Note: Stone has to be crystalline (so it Stone has to be crystalline (so it

will fracture predictably)will fracture predictably)

Homo erectus: Homo erectus: Cranial StructureCranial Structure

Note the Following:Note the Following: Cranial capacity: 1,000 ccCranial capacity: 1,000 cc Occipital bunOccipital bun Reduced brow ridgeReduced brow ridge Reduced sloping foreheadReduced sloping forehead Reduced prognathismReduced prognathism No chin; jaw is reinforced by a No chin; jaw is reinforced by a

simian shelfsimian shelf Artist’s conception of Artist’s conception of H. erectusH. erectus

Homo ErectusHomo Erectus (H. ergaster to Some): (H. ergaster to Some): Postcranial SkeletonPostcranial Skeleton Note the following:Note the following: Fully bipedalFully bipedal Arms about length of Arms about length of Homo sapiensHomo sapiens Cranial capacity: 1000 cc (average)Cranial capacity: 1000 cc (average) Main apelike features: Main apelike features: Prognathous lower facePrognathous lower face Sloping forehead Sloping forehead

Lower PaleolithicLower Paleolithic

Oldowan Tradition: Oldowan Tradition: Four or five strokesFour or five strokes Unspecialized: choppersUnspecialized: choppers Flakes also made and usedFlakes also made and used Acheulean Tradition: Acheulean Tradition: 50-75 strokes50-75 strokes Symmetrical design Symmetrical design Multiple uses: cutting, Multiple uses: cutting,

piercing, choppingpiercing, chopping

Homo heidelbergensisHomo heidelbergensis (a.k.a. (a.k.a. “Archaic” “Archaic” Homo sapiensHomo sapiens

Note the following:Note the following: Brow ridges much reducedBrow ridges much reduced Forehead is higher, though slopingForehead is higher, though sloping Reduced prognathismReduced prognathism Cranial capacity 1200 cc. Cranial capacity 1200 cc. Artist’s conception shows closer Artist’s conception shows closer

similarities to ourselves similarities to ourselves

Manufacturing Levallois Cores Manufacturing Levallois Cores and Flakesand Flakes

Knappers:Knappers: Selects the appropriate core, Selects the appropriate core,

up to a pound of stoneup to a pound of stone Strikes the edge of the coreStrikes the edge of the core Knaps the surface of the Knaps the surface of the

intended flakeintended flake Knocks off the flakeKnocks off the flake Retouches the flake to Retouches the flake to

desired shapedesired shape May knap four to five flakesMay knap four to five flakes

Homo neanderthalensisHomo neanderthalensis and and H. H. sapienssapiens skull skull

Note the following for “Classic” NeanderthalNote the following for “Classic” Neanderthal Greater prognathism; humans lower jaw is straightGreater prognathism; humans lower jaw is straight Absence of chin that humans have.Absence of chin that humans have. Presence of brow ridge; human has none, has higher foreheadPresence of brow ridge; human has none, has higher forehead Presence of occipital bunPresence of occipital bun Larger cranial capacity: 1450 cc vs. 1400 cc in humansLarger cranial capacity: 1450 cc vs. 1400 cc in humans Also note: Also note: Artist’s conception of Neanderthal childArtist’s conception of Neanderthal child

Homo neanderthalensisHomo neanderthalensis and and H. H. sapienssapiens: Postcranial Skeletons: Postcranial Skeletons

Note the following for Note the following for Neanderthals:Neanderthals:

Heavier brow ridge and sloping Heavier brow ridge and sloping foreheadforehead

Bones generally more robustBones generally more robust Larger rib cageLarger rib cage Broader pelvisBroader pelvis Shorter forearmShorter forearm Shorter tibiaShorter tibia Larger ankle jointLarger ankle joint

Neanderthal Tools: Mousterian and Neanderthal Tools: Mousterian and Châtelperronian TraditionsChâtelperronian Traditions

Mousterian (top)Mousterian (top) Bordes: 63 typesBordes: 63 types Burins (engravers) Burins (engravers) Scrapers and knivesScrapers and knives Even a type of handaxeEven a type of handaxe Part of the Part of the MesolithicMesolithic Châtelperronian (bottom)Châtelperronian (bottom) First blades—by NeanderthalsFirst blades—by Neanderthals Definition: flakes twice as wide Definition: flakes twice as wide

as they are longas they are long Initiated the Initiated the Upper PaleolithicUpper Paleolithic

Upper Paleolithic: Modern Upper Paleolithic: Modern Human Tool TraditionsHuman Tool Traditions. .

Commonalities of Tools:Commonalities of Tools: Blades: Ever thinner and Blades: Ever thinner and

smallersmaller Increased tool specializationIncreased tool specialization Other material: bone, ivory, Other material: bone, ivory,

antlerantler Other DevelopmentsOther Developments Artwork (such as this mural at Artwork (such as this mural at

Altamira, Spain)Altamira, Spain) Ornamentation (Venus Ornamentation (Venus

statuettes)statuettes)

Review and ConclusionReview and Conclusion We have. . . We have. . . Looked at the biological bases of culture: for Looked at the biological bases of culture: for

language, toolmaking, and bipedalismlanguage, toolmaking, and bipedalism Compared our anatomy with chimps, our closest Compared our anatomy with chimps, our closest

relativesrelatives Discussed evolutionary change based on natural Discussed evolutionary change based on natural

selection and mutationselection and mutation Looked at our ancestors and the tools they made Looked at our ancestors and the tools they made

The Territory AheadThe Territory Ahead Nonhuman Primate Behavior: Nonhuman Primate Behavior: How close in behavior are How close in behavior are

our cousins?our cousins? Language: Language: The medium of cultureThe medium of culture Making a Living: Making a Living: Industrial societies are not the only cultures Industrial societies are not the only cultures

in the worldin the world Sex, Family, and Its Extensions: Sex, Family, and Its Extensions: The world’s first social The world’s first social

organizationsorganizations Economics: Economics: How goods and services are providedHow goods and services are provided Social Control: Social Control: Governance and lawGovernance and law Psychology: Psychology: Freud didn’t start it allFreud didn’t start it all The Supernatural: The Supernatural: Were there gods before God?Were there gods before God? Culture Change and Globalization: Culture Change and Globalization: Is there life outside Is there life outside

corporations?corporations?