HSC Option

Focus Question:

What ethical issues are related to improving performance?

Improving Performance

Ergogenic aidsAn ergogenic aid is any procedure, process or substance that enhances performance (or is perceived to enhance performance). An ergogenic aid can have one or more of the following effects: delay the onset and perception of fatigue, act directly on muscle fibres, supply fuel for muscular contraction, act on the heart and circulatory system, affect respiration, mask pain and hasten recovery.

Ergogenic aids are not only drugs. There are five classes of performance-enhancing aids. They are:

• mechanical aids (equipment, skill development and biomechanics)

• pharmacological aids (drugs)

• nutritional aids (dietary manipulation)

• psychological aids (mental rehearsal, goal-setting and hypnosis)

• physiological aids (blood-doping, training, recovery procedures and oxygen uptake).

Use of drugs

(Taken from http://www.rugbycoach.com/club/

club.htm, 10/08/09)

Most of these aids are accepted as legal and safe methods of improving athletic performance; however, some are illegal. Ergogenic aids that pose ethical, clinical or legal questions are banned from use in athletic events. Certain techniques are continually modified and improved to enhance performance in a fair manner. These include:

• carbohydrate-loading

• water, vitamin and mineral consumption

• training techniques

• warm-up techniques

• improved equipment

• mental rehearsal.

Use of drugs

The use of drugs to enhance performance has occurred throughout the history of sport. Success and fame have brought rich rewards from a variety of sources, and competition for a portion of these is intense. The intrinsic desire to win and the lure of millions of dollars in prize money, and more than this again in sponsorships and endorsements, cause some athletes to take any measure to improve their performance. The use of illegal performance enhancing drugs and methods is a significant problem in modern sport.

The International Olympic Committee (IOC) has developed a list of banned substances and practices in sport. The IOC believes that doping…contravenes the ethics of sport and medical science. Doping consists of the administration of substances belonging to prohibited classes of pharmacological agents and/or the use of various prohibited methods.

The Australian Sports Drug Agency tests athletes in Australia for the presence of doping agents. Various methods are used in order to gain a vital edge over an opponent. While some are safe and within the rules of the sport it is the illegal performance enhancing drugs and methods that are the focus of sporting bodies. The classes of substances that are prohibited are stimulants; narcotics; anabolic steroids; diuretics; and peptide hormones, mimetics and analogues.

The methods that are prohibited include blood-doping and pharmacological, chemical and physical manipulation. Some drugs are subject to certain restrictions. These drugs are alcohol, cannabis, local anaesthetics, corticosteroids and beta-blockers.

The use of ergogenic aids, many of which are prohibited by sporting bodies, can be seen to be a major temptation to gain an edge over competitors. For some, the risk may seem to be worth it given the relatively small penalties for illegal use (maybe as little as six months suspension), the effectiveness and more undetectable nature of modern drugs, and the low rate of testing outside the immediate top competitors in many countries; especially when compared with the prospect of being rewarded with a multi-million-dollar lifestyle. At risk, however, is not only the health and general well-being of the athlete but also the true spirit of sport, the rights of hard-working athletes and the perception of certain sports by the general public. Athletes from many sports succumb to the temptation and may then suffer devastating consequences (see the article on Dwain Chambers on page 392). There is also an opposing point of view that by legalising the use of drugs the potential harms will be lessened as the drugs can then be taken under medical supervision. Those holding this view claim that such legalisation would also ‘level the playing field’ and provide an even competition.

Harms of performance enhancing drug use

Physical effects

Athletes take drugs to make their muscles bigger, recover from hard training sessions much more rapidly, increase blood volume and oxygen-carrying capacity, reduce pain and speed up or slow down the central nervous system.

The aggressive feelings that come from taking certain drugs may also make them appealing to various athletes. While giving the athlete unfair advantages over others there are many physical harms that come from the use of these drugs. As many athletes may take these drugs at doses that are significantly higher than those prescribed for medical reasons, the harmful effects can be magnified.

Reputation

Sport is considered to be an important part of life. Many countries have built their reputation around the sporting success of teams and individuals. Sport is also considered to be enjoyable and fair. When the aim is about winning at all costs the reputation of countries, individuals and the sport itself can be tarnished. Already, certain sports such as weightlifting, cycling and athletics

have achieved this unwanted status. Improved performances and victories may be tainted by questions raised about the legitimacy of the athletes. As many athletes are considered role models around the world, implicated athletes lose the respect oftheir peers and the spectators and may be vilified by the media. This may, in turn, affect the athlete’s own psychology.

Sponsorship and income

Millions of dollars are invested in sports by governments and sponsors. The suspicion of illegal drug use in a sport may so tarnish the reputation of the sport and associated individuals that funding and sponsorship are withdrawn. This can result in the sport finding it difficult to grow and even the honest competitors may lose income. Cycling has found itself in this situation where its premier event, the Tour de France, has been tarnished by riders using a variety of drugs to gain an advantage. Whole teams have folded after sponsorship has been removed as the result of just one rider on the team testing positive to drugs. Teams have also found it difficult to attract sponsorship as companies maintain that cycling teams are ‘a marketing nightmare’.

Drug use for strengthIncreased muscle size provides additional strength for an athlete, which provides an advantage over opponents. Athletes use various training methods to achieve this. However, some athletes may look to drugs to assist with this gain in strength. The two most commonly used drugs for this purpose are human growth hormone and anabolic steroids.

Drug or method Description Possible harm

Anabolic steroids Synthetic derivative of testosteroneAnabolic (muscle-building) effectAndrogenic (promotes male secondary sex characteristics) effectCommonly used in strength and power events

Liver dysfunctionCancerInfertilityShrinking of testes in malesMenstrual dysfunction in femalesDevelopment of male secondary sexcharacteristics in femalesIncreased acneIncrease in heart problems

Analgesics Depress the central nervous systemReduce painReduce inflammationCan be used in most events

Liver problemsMask real injuriesSlow the healing processOften used without medical advice

Beta-blockers Slow down heart rateCommonly used in shooting sports (in which competitors fi re between heartbeats)

Decreased heart rateDecreased blood pressureDrowsiness

Blood-doping (blood is drawn fromthe athlete, stored and reinfused at alater date)

Increased blood volumeIncreased oxygen-carrying capacityCommonly used in endurance events

Blood incompatibilities (if not ownblood)Disease transmissionBlood infectionAir embolismBlood clotDecreased training after blood isremoved

Diuretics Increased fluid released from bodyCan be used to mask anabolic steroidsCommonly used in sports with weight restrictions (jockeys, boxing)

Kidney damageDehydration and electrolyte loss

Erythropoietin (a naturally occurringhormone that stimulates productionof red blood cells; made synthetically, and then injected)

Increases oxygen-carrying capacityUsed in endurance events

Thickens blood (can lead to heartattack, clots or stroke)Disease transmission via injectionsDetermining amount to inject isdifficult

Human growth hormone (occursnaturally, but is availablesynthetically)

Decreased body fatCommonly used to increase size,strength and power

Similar to anabolic steroidsAcromegaly (enlarged hands, feet and face)Increased risk of heart diseaseAdverse, irreversible eff ects on growth

Human growth hormone Human growth hormone (HGH) is a powerful anabolic hormone that occurs naturally in the human body. It is produced by the pituitary gland in the brain and stimulates the growth of muscle, cartilage and bone. A sportsperson is likely to take HGH to increase muscle size. Because there is a close relationship between muscle size and strength, competitors in events that require power and short bursts of explosive strength would benefit the most. It also allows muscles to recover more quickly, therefore allowing the athlete to train harder and more often. HGH also increases the number of red blood cells, boosts heart function and makes more energy available by stimulating the breakdown of fat. This can provide some benefit to endurance athletes. Strengthening of connective tissue is reported to reduce injury.

There are, however, many potential health risks. One of the most common side effects of HGH misuse is acromegaly. The major symptoms of this are swelling of the hands and feet and a coarsened facial appearance, such as protruding jaw and eyebrow bones. Organs such as the heart, liver and kidneys will also undergo excessive growth, leading to potentially life-threatening problems. The most common of these problems is cardiomyopathy, where the heart loses its ability to pump blood and the rhythm becomes irregular. Hypertension and diabetes may also occur. There is also a risk of menstrual irregularities and impotence as well as an increased risk of cancer due to the abnormal growth of cells.

Anabolic steroids

Anabolic steroids are drugs that resemble testosterone, a hormone that is produced in the testes of males and, to a much lesser extent, in the ovaries of females. Testosterone is partially responsible for the developmental changes that occur during puberty and adolescence and is also involved in controlling the development of all tissues, including muscle. Because testosterone and related drugs affect muscle growth, raising their levels in the blood can help athletes increase muscle size and strength. This is known as the anabolic effect and allows the athletes to train harder and longer, with improved recovery from training sessions.

Athletes who use anabolic steroids also claim that they reduce body fat and recovery time after injury. Steroids may also promote increased aggression and competitiveness in athletes. Anabolic steroids are often taken in cycles during training prior to competition and then stopped for several weeks before a competition to reduce the likelihood of positive testing. Testosterone is responsible for stimulating development of male sexual characteristics (androgenic effect) as well as the build-up of muscle tissue (anabolic effect). Effects such as increased body hair and a deepening of the voice are not always desirable, particularly in women. To counteract these side effects, manufacturers of anabolic steroids aim to minimise the androgenic effects and maximise the anabolic effects. As anabolic steroids mimic naturally occurring hormones they can interfere with normal hormone function. This may result in a wide range of harmful side effects, such as increased risk of liver and cardiovascular diseases (particularly hypertension), acne, male and female infertility, abnormal menstrual cycles, shrinking testicles, stunted growth in teenagers as a result of premature closure of the growth plates of the bones, premature baldness, increased aggression and mood swings. They may also produce psychological dependence.

Drug use for aerobic performance

Manufactured naturally by the kidneys, erythropoietin (EPO) is a peptide hormone that acts on bone marrow to stimulate the production of red blood cells and regulates the concentration of red blood cells and haemoglobin in the blood. EPO can be produced artificially using DNA technology. By injecting EPO, athletes aim to gain a benefit by increasing their concentration of red blood cells, which are responsible for supplying oxygen to the cells, including muscle cells, and consequently, increasing their aerobic capacity. EPO may also increase the body’s capacity to buffer lactic acid. There are various health risks associated with the use of EPO. If EPO levels are too high the body will produce too many red blood cells. This can lead to thickening of the blood, which clogs capillaries, causing blood clotting, heart attack and stroke. It can also place the user at increased risk of contracting infectious diseases, such as hepatitis and HIV/AIDS. Users of EPO are also at risk of having an autoimmune reaction whereby EPO antibodies destroy the EPO that is produced naturally by the body, which then leads to anaemia. In fact, EPO has been implicated in the deaths of several athletes.

Drug use to mask other drugs

With increased use of drug testing and severe penalties for those caught, athletes will look for ways to avoid detection. There are drugs available that may assist the athlete in returning a negative test. Two commonly used drugs to mask other drugs are diuretics and alcohol.

Diuretics

Diuretics are agents that reduce the amount of fluid in the body by increasing the amount of urine produced. Athletes may use these substances to conceal prohibited substances (for example, anabolic steroids) by diluting their urine in an attempt to mask a drug test. Drug tests require a minimum concentration in order to detect the presence of a substance. The increased urine produced reduces the concentration of other matter. However, the detection of a diuretic in a urine drug test constitutes a positive test. Side effects from the use of diuretics include dizziness or even fainting; electrolyte imbalance and dehydration; muscle cramps; a drop in blood pressure; loss of coordination and balance; inability of the body to regulate temperature; confusion, mental changes or moodiness; and cardiac disorders.

Alcohol

Alcohol is a diuretic. It actively encourages the body to lose more water than it takes on by halting the production of the body’s anti-diuretic hormone. This speeds up the loss of fluid from the body, which may mask drugs in a test or assist in removing traces of drugs taken before a test. Alcohol use is banned in- competition in certain sports as it can increase self-confidence, which may result in the person taking risks that he or she would not normally take. It may also cause loss of coordination and balance and, through dehydration, the inability of the body to regulate temperature. Generally, though, it reduces athletic performance and is not widely used.

Benefits and limitations of drug testing

Drug-testing procedures are highly sophisticated and reliable. However, the people who manufacture and use banned substances or practices are often able to stay ahead of testing procedures by authorities. The Australian Sports Drug Agency (ASDA) is responsible for drug testing in Australia. Drug testing involves the testing of urine of athletes. This can be done:

• randomly

• in bulk (a large number of athletes at once)

• according to their finishing positions.

The drug tests are designed to detect and deter abuse of performance enhancing drugs by competitors. This is deemed to ensure a fair competition where the characteristics and training of an athlete are the factors that produce the winner. It also benefits the athletes by promoting good health above the desire to win at all costs and protects athletes from the inherent harms of many drugs. The testing procedures for drug abuse in sports are strict and the testing procedure must be closely adhered to so that all athletes receive the same treatment. Yet, at times, some athletes deem tests to be unfair. Athletes may suggest a test is unfair because the athletes themselves are responsible for knowing what is banned, despite the fact that additions are made almost daily to the list of banned substances. As such, the best possible solution for an athlete is to avoid the use of any drugs unless listed on the allowed substance list.

For the testing procedure to be of benefit it is vital to ensure that the sample actually comes from the athlete, so the testing officer must be able to see the urine flow from the athlete into the bottle. Male athletes are required to strip to their waist and lower their shorts to their knees to ensure no devices may be used to transfer foreign material. Female athletes must also be observed very closely while they produce a sample. While necessary, this procedure can be very awkward and embarrassing. For young athletes, producing a urine sample under these conditions can be traumatising. For many people, irrespective of age, being observed while giving a urine sample is not a comfortable situation. The testing procedure can be further complicated if the athlete involved has been taking part in an endurance sport and is dehydrated and therefore unable to comply. Drug testing is no longer restricted to being done at competitions but is now carried out year round, with random tests occurring any time, any place. The athlete is notified of the requirement for a test by phone, in person or by letter. This benefits the authorities as this year-round short-notice and no-notice testing is seen as the most effective means to reduce the use of ‘training drugs’, such as steroids.

The purpose is to make the athlete feel at constant risk of being tested and hence avoid taking any banned drugs. However, some athletes will try to beat the testing. Some athletes may try to predict when a drug test will occur and prepare for it by cycling their drug taking or attempt to neutralise the effects of testing for drugs and/or masking agents. Tens of millions of dollars are spent on drug testing yearly, yet the effect of this may be limited as drug manufacturers are constantly researching new and improved drugs that are less detectable. Other drugs occur as natural substances in the body and so tests for them may lack validity. Recent developments in terms of blood testing and the requirement that manufacturers place certain markers in drugs may prove to be of benefit to sporting authorities.

(For Activity)

Arguments for and against drug testing

On one hand, we have athletes who are criticising drug testing because it invades their privacy and makes them feel like criminals. The test results are also questionable since drug testing is random and new designer drugs are always being invented. We also have sports commentators, administrators, players and the public calling for a level playing field in sports competition.

On the other hand, we have an argument to honour the privacy of athletes and the sanctity of rights. So, there are two options for sport: to test or not to test.

Arguments against testing include the following:• Drug testing is hopeless, unjust, or a failure.• The cat-and-mouse game of ‘new drug followed by new test’ is never

ending.• Genetic engineering may not be really testable.• Drug tests invade the privacy of athletes, especially in the case of

recreational drugs.• Authorities should not have the right to police our private lives.• Policies on drug testing differ from sport to sport.Arguments for testing include the following:• Performance-enhancing substances allow athletes to go beyond their

‘natural’ abilities.• Drugs give cheating athletes an unfair advantage.• The long-term health of the athlete is put at risk by taking performance

enhancing drugs.• Drug-taking undermines the purity of the competition.

(For Activity)

Coaches have at their disposal a number of techniques that can aid training, skill development and performance. Some are ground-breaking technological developments, whereas others are ‘tried and true’ and inexpensive. These various aids are designed to correct technique, create resistance, offer support or padding and improve performance. Many of them have revolutionised how sports are played and trained. Most have made the work of coaches easier because they enable coaches to more closely simulate game or competition situations or to evaluate athletic performance. Some are as simple as socks that absorb moisture. Others are high-tech $5-million pursuit bicycles. Whether simple or complex, sports technology presents numerous opportunities and dilemmas. The tools of the athlete’s trade are now stronger, faster, lighter and better designed than they were even a few years ago. Science and technology are advancing at a rapid rate in every sphere of life, including sport.

The use of technology

Training innovationAstute coaches keep abreast of training advances in their sport. They can do this by reading, watching others and attending seminars. Various sources provide information about current coaching techniques, equipment, psychological techniques, nutrition, testing, coaching aids and technology. Some technological innovations that have improved sports performance include:

• clothing (type of material, swimsuits, aerodynamics, shoes)

• protective equipment (tackle suits and bags, helmets, mouthguards, shin pads, shoulder pads, head gear)

Training innovation• computer programs and software (statistics, performance simulators)

• the Internet (interactive sports websites)

• electronic scoreboards and score sheets

• engineering technology at sporting venues (retractable roofs, modern seating, replay screens)

• equipment modifications (such as in cycling, surfing, sailing, cricket, tennis)

• testing procedures (max VO2, float tanks, wind tunnels, sprint gates, beep tests)

• nutrition (high-energy food and drinks)

• heart-rate monitors and biofeedback (lactate threshold testing)

• training facilities (non-wave pools, specialised playing surfaces)

• video analysis and photographic equipment

• assignment of specific tasks to coaching staff , such as doctors, physiotherapists, psychologists and tacticians

• match performance analysis sheets

Training innovation• fitness equipment (treadmills, weight machines, sprinting sleds)

• rehabilitation equipment (artificial joints, ligaments and tendons, ultrasound, laser)

• media technologies (globalisation of sports, television, multimedia marketing companies)

• drugs (improving performance, avoiding testing)

• alternative therapies.

(For Activity)

These training innovations have enabled athletes to go faster and higher, and be stronger. World records are frequently broken these days; rarely do records stand for a number of years, as used to be the case. Winning performances depend on technology; but is the athlete or the technology responsible for the win? Perhaps the real competitors are the manufacturing companies, and the athletes are a means by which these companies compete against each other.

(For Activity)

Lactate threshold testing

Lactate analysis has been used by many athletes and physiologists over the last decade as a tool for predicting endurance performance. Specifically, the higher the percentage of max VO2, or the higher the pace at which the lactate threshold occurs, the fitter the athlete. The maximal lactate steady state (or lactate threshold) is the best indicator of endurance performance as, generally, the athlete who achieves this at the higher eff ort level will be faster in an endurance event. Increases in the maximal lactate steady state are almost always accompanied by improvements in race performance for endurance events.

(For Activity)

Frequent lactate threshold testing is an effective measure of improvements due to training. With proper protocols a portable lactate analyser enables the coach to measure both the aerobic and anaerobic conditioning of an athlete. Information about both is necessary for the coach to optimise the conditioning of each athlete, whether he or she is a 50-metre freestyle swimmer (about 22 seconds plus per race) or an Ironman triathlete (over 8 hours per race for the world’s best). With information the coach can plan, control and monitor the training of athletes with a precision not available before. Lactate testing provides the important information that enables the coach to individualise the intensity of each athlete’s workout and control the training so the athlete is able to reach performance objectives.

Biomechanical analysis

Many coaches film the performances of athletes and teams so that they can evaluate the performance of individuals later using biomechanical analysis. This also allows the coach to concentrate more fully during the actual competition. Some coaches have assistants who analyse these recordings; others perform the analysis themselves. By using visual recordings, the coach is able to replay movements, correct techniques and evaluate performance. The coach is also able to assess the performance of the opposition. Visual recordings provide valuable information to coaches and athletes about past performances, and provide similarly valuable information for planning future performances.

Data can be gathered during the performance, and afterwards by replaying the footage. Coaches, assistants and other athletes can watch the performance of certain individuals and complete a data sheet on them. They can record how many tackles an individual made, how much ground was made, how many successful kicks were made, and so on. The strengths and weaknesses of the opposition can also be evaluated. This type of statistical information is used to evaluate performances, isolate weaknesses and strengths and improve future performances. When used together, visual recordings and data analysis are valuable coaching tools.

(For Activity)Equipment advances

Swimsuits

Significant progress has been made in swimsuit development since the 1980s. It has reached a stage where questions are being asked about the influence of this technology on the athlete’s performance. Light, thin and extremely close fitting swimsuits were designed in the 1980s to minimise contact area with the water and even repel water. After the 1992 Olympic Games contrasting stripes were printed onto close-fitting swimsuits to generate two currents: one slow, one fast. When the fast and slow currents interact, vertical vortexes or spirals are formed. As a result, the speed of water flow increases and stays closer to the body longer. By the 2000 Olympics, swimsuit designers had created a swimsuit that imitated the skin of a shark. The cut and seams on the suit were designed to cover the whole body without impeding the swimmer. Body scanning took measurements to design individual suits, which improved streamlining. The most recent developments have produced widespread calls for the total banning of high tech swimwear. ‘Bodysuits’ have always had performance enhancing qualities.

(For Activity)

However, the Speedo LZR exponentially increased this and more recently at the 2009World Championships a new range of suits by Adidas, Arena and Jaked, saw an unprecedented 46 world records broken. These suits are made from a special ultra-lightweight water-repellent material that, through compression, reduces skin vibration and offers low drag friction while improving buoyancy. Internal stabiliser supports hold the swimmer in the best position in the water and overall the design optimises the shape of the swimmer.

Technological advances in these designs have seen the question raised as to the advantage swimmers receive from the suit and even caused many swimmers and coaches to call for restrictions in technological advances. From January 2010 these suits will be restricted by the issuing of new rules that restrict body coverage, buoyancy levels and the actual materials used. Rules will also put a stop to custom suits for individual athletes.

(For Activity)

Golf ball

Golf balls no longer curve as much as they used to. Players can just swing as hard as they want at the ball and it goes straight at the flag. Research developed a new golf ball, introduced in the mid-1990s, which achieved the unimaginable: it merged a high-spinning, soft-feeling Balata type of ball (with a rubber-band-wound core) with the low-spinning, long-flying and durable distance ball into a whole new class of product, which allowed distance and control. A few years later, the original breakthrough was improved upon by making the urethane outer covers of the balls more durable and thinner and firmer for added distance. At the same time, advances in rubber systems allowed ball makers to design cores that were more energetic or ‘faster’. This provided even more distance on shots hit with the longer clubs, while maintaining a soft feel.Further improvements to the core and cover have reduced spin on drives to increase distance and allow greater control.

(For Activity)

SPORT EQUIPMENT ADVANCES IMPLICATIONS

High jump High jump mats used instead of sand Techniques like the Fosbury flop instead of the scissors

Heights cleared by athletes are increased because landing on their back is now possible.

Pole vault Carbon fibre poles Material allows greater flex and therefore increased vertical propulsion over the bar.

Running Lightweight nylon used in spikes Lycra clothing

Weight and air resistance effects on times are reduced, and comfort for the athlete is increased.

Swimming Bodysuits Caps Goggles Breaststroke whip kick Underwater dolphin movement in backstroke and butterfly

Drag component is reduced. Streamlining is improved. Swimmer achieves greater propulsion through water. Swimmer produces more efficient and powerful force.

Golf Synthetic fibres (for example, tungsten used in golf balls) Graphite shafts Metal alloy heads on driving clubs

Balls respond better for distance, spin and control. Durability is improved. Dimples vary to give balls different characteristics (for example, distance or spin). More variation in ‘flex’ creates a higher ‘whipping’ action for extra distance. Greater area of contact results in high level of result (that is, less margin for error). Accuracy is increased. Lighter material allows more mass at the point of contact, creating greater distance.

Cycling Carbon fibre components Helmets Suspension on mountain bikes

Frames, pedals, wheels, gears, etc. weigh less, so create less resistance. The efficiency of the cyclist’s effort is increased. The shapes and designs of components are more aerodynamically sound. Cyclists can ride more extreme country safely. The stress on cyclists’ bodies is reduced, so energy is focused on creating forward motion.

Sprint running Crouch start versus standing start

Biomechanical efficiency is increased and quadriceps are able to create greater forward force out of the blocks.

Discus/ shot-put

Rotation (spin) delivery Velocity of projectile is increased at point of release. Momentum is increased as a result of the combined muscle actions involved.

Athletics Rubber compound used in tracks and runways

Tracks respond to effort, so the efficiency of an athlete’s output is increased. There is a high reaction component for jumps and forward motion.

Australian football

Configuration of studs used in football boots

There is less stress on players’ feet because boots are like running shoes; agility is increased.