how to census marine life: ocean realm field projects · ocean realm field projects. what lives in...

OCEAN REALM FIELD PROJECTS. WHATLIVES IN THE OCEANS NOW?

In each realm described in Yarincik and O’Dor(2005) and on the Census of Marine Life (COML)web portal (www.coml.org), one or more field proj-

ects are developing an efficient approach to explo-ration. Regional and national implementation com-mittees will broaden their coverage of realms byencouraging and promoting investment by founda-tions, governments and international agencies.Common approaches globally ensure that results

HOW TO CENSUS MARINE LIFE 181

SCI. MAR., 69 (Suppl. 1): 181-199 SCIENTIA MARINA 2005

PROMOTING MARINE SCIENCE: CONTRIBUTIONS TO CELEBRATE THE 50TH ANNIVERSARY OF SCIENTIA MARINA. C. MARRASÉ and P. ABELLÓ (eds.)

How to Census Marine Life: ocean realm field projects

RON O’DOR1 and VÍCTOR ARIEL GALLARDO2

1 Consortium for Oceanographic Research and Education, Suite 420, 1201 New York Ave. NW,Washington, DC 20005. E-mail [email protected]

2 COML Scientific Steering Committee, Centro de Investigación Oceanográfica en el Pacífico Sur-Oriental,Universidad de Concepción, Chile.

SUMMARY: COML field projects will extend our understanding of ocean diversity, distribution and abundance from thenearshore to the abyssal plains. In nearshore, coastal and the upper ocean zones where diversity is reasonably well known itwill add details about ranges, migrations and population size, but in the deep ocean there are still likely millions of newspecies to be described. Global coverage with standard, economical protocols is the goal in the shallow zones, but demon-strating and calibrating efficient new technologies in the deeps may be all that is possible in the 10 year life of the program.Representative sampling from such challenging habitats as the continental margins, abyssal plains, seamounts, deep seavents, ice-covered oceans and kilometers deep mid-waters is planned. There is even a plan to reveal the four billion years ofevolution in the microbial oceans, but strong global cooperation, participation and investment will be require to make thethese vast hidden realms as well know as the human edges. There is great interest and international teams supporting theCOML now and its legacy in Ocean Biogeographic Information System (OBIS) and Global Biodiversity Information Facility(GBIF) will be the foundation of future monitoring and assessment of ocean life.

Keywords: oceans, species, biogeography, biohistory, diversity.

RESUMEN: CÓMO CENSAR LA VIDA MARINA: PROYECTOS DE CAMPO EN EL REINO OCEÁNICO. – Los proyectos de campo delPrograma Censo de la Vida Marina, aumentarán nuestra comprensión de la diversidad en el océano, su distribución y abun-dancia, desde el litoral hasta las planicies abisales. En las zonas costeras y en las zonas superficiales del océano, donde exis-te un conocimiento razonable de la diversidad, el programa agregará detalles sobre los rangos de distribución, las migracio-nes y los tamaños poblacionales, pero en el océano profundo probablemente existen millones de nuevas especies por descri-bir. En las zonas someras la meta es lograr una cobertura global, aplicando protocolos estándares de bajo costo. En las pro-fundidades, sin embargo, en los diez años que durará el programa, las metas son más modestas y se centrarán principalmen-te en la puesta a punto y calibración de tecnologías innovadoras. Existen planes para muestrear representativamente hábitatstan difíciles de acceso como los márgenes continentales, las planicies abisales, los montes submarinos, los océanos cubier-tos de hielos y las aguas intermedias de miles de kilómetros de profundidad. El programa incluye un plan para desvelar loscuatro mil millones de años de evolución de los microorganismos que pueblan los océanos, pero se requerirá la cooperaciónglobal, la participación y la inversión de importantes recursos financieros para hacer que estos vastos dominios sean tan bienconocidos como las orillas habitadas del océano. El Programa Censo de la Vida Marina y su herencia constituida por elOcean Biogeographic Information System (OBIS) y la Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) reciben en la acuta-lidad un gran interés y el apoyo de numerosos grupos internacionales de investigación.

Palabras clave: océanos, especies, biogeografía, biohistoria, diversidad.

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exploit the opportunity to visualize global patternsand thus test global hypotheses. Each project pur-sues a goal that is an adaptation to its realm of theCOML goal of assessment and explanation. All proj-ects will incorporate their data in OBIS.

HUMAN EDGES

In Figure 2 of Yarincik and O’Dor (2005), pinkcontinental shelves, only 10% of ocean area, containmost known biodiversity. Shelves, most importantto and impacted by humanity, lie mostly within theexclusive economic zones (EEZs) of nations. TheseHuman Edges are divided into nearshore and coastalzones.

Nearshore

The accessible nearshore has been studied inminute detail in many locales. The nearshore, how-ever, stretches millions of kilometers around alloceans, across latitude, and across climates. Further,because the locales of the nearshore are linked,spawning in adjacent or even remote bays influencesrecruitment in other bays. Testing nearshore ecologyhypotheses requires similarly linked researchersacross latitude, climate, and ecosystems, the essen-tials of COML.

Natural Geography in Shore Areas (NaGISA) goal

From a beginning around the Pacific Rim, linkresearchers across latitude and climate in all oceansto assess and then visualize and explain nearshorebiodiversity patterns.

By 2005 Accepted by the SSC in 2002, NaGISA

is demonstrating on the Pacific Rim the power ofinternational collaboration to sample along the elon-gated nearshore. From its inception, NaGISA usedinternational workshops to create simple, efficientstandards for running and recording transects fromshore to 10 meters depth using SCUBA and mini-mally destructive manual sampling techniquesfocused on the benthos. These protocols are readilyavailable on the web through the COML portal.NaGISA produces an extensive, consistent databaseon nearshore biodiversity to supplement andenhance intensive, idiosyncratic ones focused onlocal problems.

Building on site-selection criteria and samplingprotocols developed during the InternationalBiodiversity Observation Year (IBOY), NaGISAaims to achieve wide coverage with standardizedtechniques for future comparisons. Figure 1 showsthe span of the project, 360 degrees around the equa-tor through the Pacific, Indian and Atlantic Oceansand north-south, over 160 degrees from the ArcticOcean to McMurdo Sound in Antarctica’s SouthernOcean.

NaGISA means “coastal environment” inJapanese, and a center at Kyoto University coordi-nates the project. NaGISA initially focused on bio-diversity gradients along the western Pacific coast-line, but now it has established sampling sites inseven countries and four oceans from Alaska toIndonesia to Florida. Scientists and funding is com-mitted to complete initial sampling in a dozen 20-degree squares. Training for field sampling and sort-ing is underway throughout Asia, and experts forexplorations are identified. The NaGISA approachhas attracted scientists in more than thirty countries,who committed to using NaGISA protocols and rais-ing local funds. South American and European

182 R. O’DOR and V. A. GALLARDO

FIG. 1. – (Left) NaGISA aims to sample at least three sites from high tide to 10m depth in each of these 20-degree squares using its regionalcenters (dots) to build up a global map of low-tech biodiversity. Areas in grey are in planning for 2006 (right). The current sampling areas

in Alaska. More sampling and more complex protocols are encouraged, but global coverage is the principal goal. (Shirayama et al., 2002)

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NaGISA initiatives are completing the Pacific circleand will eventually encircle the Atlantic.

2005-9 NaGISA will begin east-west patterncomparisons for major taxonomic groups by 2006.The Web site that provides the essential communi-cation link amongst participants, and the NaGISAdatabase will contribute to OBIS as samples areprocessed. Comparisons between basins should bepossible by 2010.

NaGISA’s feasibility is proven, and it is com-mitted to establishing at least three sites in the13020-degree squares on the planet that contain shore-line (Fig. 1). Its Japanese center will complete thePacific rim first, and the European center makes itlikely that the North Atlantic will be next, followedby South America, Africa, the Indian Ocean andOceania. The methods require no sophisticated orexpensive ships or equipment, allowing scientistsin developing countries or supervised volunteers torun them. They can be easily incorporated intoexisting protocols, adding capacity for large-scalecomparisons to any nearshore experiment or mosteffectively be incorporated into monitoring of localareas, thus allowing current project managers tobenefit from international taxonomic expertise.Protocols for macrophyte and seagrass habitatswill work on selected coastlines from Arctic toAntarctic to provide a baseline for testing hypothe-ses about latitudinal variation in marine biodiversi-ty. Additional protocols can add rocky and sandyshores, and NaGISA will work closely with thecoral reef project.

2010 NaGISA seems poised to be the first fullyglobal marine census completed. By 2010 the sam-ples from the Pacific Rim should be in place for test-ing hypotheses explaining differences in diversityfrom north-to-south, east-to-west and between basins.Although NaGISA emphasizes wide-scale, one-timeglobal sampling in seasons of maximum diversity inareas of minimum human impact, it will bequeath alegacy of baselines for long-term monitoring by localand seasonal transects. Japan plans to repeat samplingevery five years for 50 years, so global warming canbe expected to create a natural experiment to studythe impacts of temperature on large-scale biodiversi-ty patterns along the north-south gradient.

Global Census of Coral Reef Ecosystems (GCCRE)goal

To link researchers across latitude and climatewith standardized approaches for the complex habi-

tats created by corals, analogous to those ofNaGISA, to assess, visualize, and explain diversitypatterns before they are further affected by globalchanges.

By 2005 In 2003, COML endorsed the develop-ment of a global Ocean Realm Project on coralreefs. At the national (Australia, USA), regional(Caribbean) and international level, leading coralreef scientists have convened to identify the majorgoals of a coral reef project: 1) collection and syn-thesis of existing taxonomic and ecological informa-tion on coral reef organisms, 2) development of newtechnologies, particularly DNA-based, to greatlyspeed up characterization and understanding of coralreef biodiversity, 3) new initiatives in the taxonomyof diverse but under-studied groups—especiallysponges, octocorals, mollusks, echinoderms,decapods, polychaetes, tunicates, seaweeds—, 4)assessment of sampling devices to characterize thediversity and resilience of reefs that differ in humandisturbance intensity, 5) populating OBIS with newlycollected and synthesized data, 6) estimating risks tobiodiversity associated with various scenarios forfuture reef health (Fig. 2), and 7) establishing a well-funded global coral reef initiative to address keyknowledge gaps.

2005-9 Although scientists who study coral reefshave had several opportunities to meet and agree onthe goals and structure of a COML field project,major international workshops are still needed to out-line specific activities and engage data holders aroundthe world. These will take place in 2005, and the reefproject will establish its organizational structure, gov-ernance, schedules for research and reporting, andobtain its initial key financial commitments.

Field expeditions in 2005-7 will tentatively sam-ple sites in Mexico, the Philippines, Heron Island,Hawaii, Okinawa, and Puerto Rico. Collections willbe made, photographed and vouchered includingDNA samples for barcoding. Existing checklists anddistribution data will be utilized and verified to pro-duce a journal review of coral reef ecosystem biodi-versity. Sampling devices will be deployed ondegraded and healthy reefs at each of the sites toassess diversity and resilience (as measured byrecruitment) and censuses for invasive species willbe made. Technology development will be a majorfocus, using laser scanning, barcoding and otherDNA-based technologies, to determine reef health,species and abundances. Finally, workshops will beheld to synthesize all of the information for use inmodels and distribution via OBIS.


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2010 Reef biodiversity will be summarizedbased on globally consistent approaches in a reefecosystem synthesis publication. OBIS will providean ongoing framework for frequent reporting onthese rapidly changing zones.

Coastal

Because 90 % of the ocean harvest comes fromthe coastal shelves between the nearshore and thecontinental margins, studies have concentrated onthem. For a few hundred commercial species,national agencies have long surveyed fisheries, andthe FAO has collated the catch globally. Recentcrises in fisheries forced a reexamination of themanagement of single species and evolution of new

strategies for management, including transboundaryspecies in most coastal nations. Governmental agen-cies recognized at an early stage the potential con-tributions that the Census of Marine Life couldmake as an independent research program. COMLrecognized that its program for assessing andexplaining diversity, distribution, and abundance—especially of noncommercial species—could accel-erate and increase knowledge for management ofcommercial species at the same time it added tomuseum collections and subtracted from samplingcost. COML initiated two coastal Projects, one inthe Gulf of Maine distinguished by assessment fromseabirds above down to clams at the bottom and theother in the Northeast Pacific distinguished by track-ing migrations along the shelf.


FIG. 2. – The area optimal for coral growth in terms of ocean chemistry, controlled by atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and temperature,has already dropped to a third of preindustrial levels. Most regions become marginal for coral growth in models of the future, which could

be crucial to future management of biodiversity (Buddemeier, 2002).

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Gulf of Maine Area Program (GOMA) goal

On a coastal shelf where interests, scientists, andresources congregate, identify and collect the bio-logical knowledge necessary for ecosystem-basedmanagement in a large marine environment. GOMAwill advance knowledge of both biodiversity andecological processes over a range of trophic levels –plankton to whales and even birds – and habitats.

By 2005 In 1999, COML initiated the Gulf ofMaine Area Project with a series of workshops andmeetings focused on assessing biodiversity, whichwas surprisingly poorly known despite or because ofthe concentration of commercial species. In 2002, theprogram expanded to encompass oceanographic,physiological, ecological, and population dynamics toexplain the patterns of biodiversity and predict theirchange. It also expanded to applying discovery to pro-tect the Gulf ecosystem by improved management.

GOMA integrates policy and science perspec-tives and represents a bi-national collaboration withthe Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans(DFO) and the U.S. National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration (NOAA) Fisheriessupporting the effort, including sharing costs anddata to create the Gulf of Maine BiogeographicInformation System (GMBIS). GMBIS is nowonline as the first regional component of OBIS,interoperable with historical data from HMAP andserving data from trawl surveys, pelagic and benth-ic habitat characterization and high-resolutionbathymetry allowing the development of the firstbiophysical maps of the Gulf.

In the water column fishers contribute fish-find-er records. The GOMA project and the Gulf ofMaine Ocean Observation System (GOMOOS) pro-vide continuous information about ocean physicsthat allows relation of biological samples both togeographic location and to concurrent observationsof water temperature, salinity, currents, etc. Relatingbiology to water conditions is crucial because mostocean life is associated with a water mass, not aplace. All GOMA sampling is being evaluated in thecontext of GOMOOS to ensure that the techniquesstandardized by the COML can contribute to OBIS’role as a key biological data framework for GOOS(Fig. 3).

Although much sampling in the Gulf can be donein association with routine fisheries surveys con-ducted by two cooperating national agencies,extending the study to the New England SeamountChain added a GOMA exploration. Two NOAAOcean Exploration cruises have done biologicalsampling for GOMA, while testing gear for MAR-ECO. Published species lists from Bear Seamountinclude 183 species of fishes (including at least onenew species), 33 species of cephalopods, and 152other invertebrates. An interesting pattern is emerg-ing of endemic species and long-range migrants, butmany more Gulf cruises are needed to understand itstrue diversity.

2005-9 GOMA will develop both historicalreconstruction and predictive tools through twofunded projects: HMAP and FMAP in the Gulf ofMaine. GMBIS will continue to integrate existinglocal datasets, through a new Gulf of Maine Ocean


FIG. 3. – (Left) The Gulf of Maine Ocean Observation System is one of the most advance operational oceanography systems. Combined withthe advanced technology from nearby research centers (Right), this makes the Gulf an ideal spot to test the limits of all aspects of the marinecensus approach, a test bed for linking physical and biological sampling in GOOS and for developing ecosystem management approaches.

(WHOI Graphic Services and Foote, 2002)

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Data Partnership, and evolve into a dynamic digitalatlas including access to remote data providers.Further field expeditions will contribute to the atlas.Observations in a “Biodiversity Corridor” along theCanada-US border stretching from the shore to thenearest seamounts will focus effort and captivate thepublic.

The U.S. Implementation Committee for COMLhas made development of integrated GOMA-likeprojects in the Gulfs of Mexico and Alaska a priori-ty. In both cases ocean observation systems aredeveloping in parallel, so this will not only buildnew research capacity, but also further illustrate howcoastal monitoring systems can develop internation-ally. GOMA will serve as an example for regionalecosystem surveys.

2010 GOMA will deliver its Dynamic Atlas, plusthe results of HMAP and FMAP work, and a “state-of-the-ecosystem” report for the Gulf of Maine. Thelegacy includes a tested model of a regional ecosys-tem survey. The practical consequence of the modelis a sediments-to-seabirds ecosystem managementplan and a cleaner, more sustainable and productiveGulf.

Pacific Ocean Shelf Tracking (POST) goal

Build a permanent acoustic tracking array forjuvenile Pacific salmon and other species as small as10 g along the west coast of North America as a pro-totype for other coasts.

By 2005 Scientists from Canada’s DFO and theU.S. NOAA initiated POST, and in 2001 the SSCaccepted it. Based at the Vancouver Aquarium,POST’s new management board is chaired by theCanadian Commissioner to both the Pacific Salmonand North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commissions.Its membership encompasses both federal and stateor provincial branches of Canadian and US govern-ments, as well as foundations, fisheries commis-sions, and NGOs. POST’s scientific steering group(SSG) is drawn from North American salmonexperts as well as others from Australia and theNorth Atlantic.

The high survival observed during field studiesin 2002-3 showed that the survival problem forsalmon is likely not close to the river mouths andtherefore calls for the deployment of a more exten-sive acoustic array. This demonstration of successfultagging and detection with strategically placed linesencouraged assembling a consortium of researchersfrom many sectors for the next phase. They envision

the continental scale array of tracking stations inFigure 4. Because the West Coast shelf is often nar-rower than 20 km, a string of 20-30 acousticreceivers across the shelf should detect all taggedanimals crossing each line. With over 90% efficien-cy, these acoustic curtains have tracked and identi-fied smolts, immature or maturing shelf-residentsalmon and sturgeon stocks passing them.

A focused array was built in the large “SalishSea” enclosed by Vancouver Island. The Salish Seatracking demonstrated detailed measurements ofresidence timing, movement, and marine survivalfor multiple species of salmon within the GeorgiaStrait ecosystem and then along the open continen-tal shelf. Within Georgia Strait, two smaller arraysin Howe Sound and Saanich Inlet tested POST’s ear-lier findings that after leaving freshwater salmonsurvival is initially high. Confirming this is impor-tant because it will encourage development of theextensive array envisioned in Figure 4. With furthercollaborators, POST deployed an array in 2004 insouth Puget Sound, which will soon be followed bythe Hood Canal region and along the coastal shelfnorth of the Columbia River.

2005-9 Tracking of a spectrum of animals fromsquid to eels to whales implanted with acoustic tagsis planned for 2005 in a skeleton continental-scaleacoustic array from Washington to Alaska to demon-strate effective monitoring of several types of large-scale migrations.

A permanent seabed node to host multiple instru-ments is being developed and tested to make theexisting deployment strategy for the acousticreceivers less costly and laborious and more reli-able. POST is collaborating with commercial manu-facturers to develop these seabed receivers, whichwill be capable of remotely uploading the collecteddata using underwater acoustic modems, much theway early computers were linked acousticallythrough telephone lines.

During 2005-6, in co-operation with the NeptuneNorth cabled undersea observatory, POST will buildone or two lines of additional acoustic receiversusing fiber optic lines across the Straits of Georgiaand Juan de Fuca. This collaboration will supple-ment the Salish array and access a refined data man-agement system to provide a continuous datastream. Still other collaborators plan arrays inMonterey Bay, California. In Australia a similarSouth West Pacific system is developing.Compatible satellite-linked acoustic receivers arealso being deployed on fish aggregating devices in


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mid-ocean, so these systems may eventually belinked. Data on the migrations of a wide variety ofspecies will eventually be compiled and made avail-able in OBIS.

2010 POST will have tested and demonstratedcontinental-scale acoustic tracking by a consortiumof salmon researchers, as well as applying the arrayto other species during their coastal migrations. Itwill establish the time and locations of oceanicsalmon mortality and clues to its cause. It will enterthe accumulated migratory tracks in OBIS and con-tribute to the COML dynamic atlas. POST’s legacywill be an international network of listeningdevices stretching from the shore to the edge of theshelf and stretching along a continent, and willhave stimulated similar systems on many of theother shelves. The POST arrays will be a coastalcomponent of GOOS.

HIDDEN BOUNDARIES

Continental margins

Although their distance from shore and depthinhibited exploration of the margins until recently, wenow know that the sloping margins are often unstableand changing. Improving technologies for fishing andoil exploration have pushed down the slopes to revealchallenges few imagined a decade ago. Sonar andseismic images of the lower margins reveal thatapparently uniform slopes hide mixtures of rock,sand, mud, and methane hydrates. Underwater land-

slides that alter local habitats and powerful currentsmix water layers and scrub the bottom. These energy-rich areas likely have high biodiversity, but have beenpoorly sampled until recently.

Continental Margin Ecosystems (CoMargE) goal

Establish biodiversity baselines in areas stilluntouched by commercial exploitation, collectingevidence of changes from such activities in vastareas of margins, and learning the slope’s role in theevolution and distribution of species in zones aboveand below.

By 2005 A ‘known-unknown-unknowable’ work-shop in August 2003 developed basic informationand concepts, which contributed to the developmentof the Hotspot Ecosystem Research on the Marginsof European Seas (HERMES), recently fundedEuropean 6th Framework Programme. IFREMER inFrance, a HERMES partner, will host CoMargEwith strong partnerships in other regions. There isvaluable synergy between the participants and inter-ests of CoMargE and other COML projects, includ-ing ChEss, CeDAMar and ICOMM, which will helpto identify and describe the many new species to befound in this poorly studied realm. Indeed, manyfundamental questions about marine biodiversityhinge on the interactions of these realms. The majorinterest in and access to the margins stems from oilexploration. Thus, the initial focus is on benthicdiversity, but great potential for new species alsoexists in the highly productive near-bottom watersand the mid-waters above, as demonstrated byincreasing fishing activity.

2005-9 By May 2005, the CoMargE will haveestablished its organizational structure, governance,schedules for research and reporting, and obtainedits initial key financial commitments. Figure 5shows the planned cruise schedule for HERMES.An early Margins SSG goal will be to identify par-allel opportunities in other regions to provide a com-parative database. Commercial activity may returnfar more samples from the Margins than researchcruises, so aggressive efforts will be made to assurea quick flow of such samples. OBIS will play a keyrole in integrating data, and regions where ChEssand CeDAMar are already active have a prioritybecause the margins are thought to be sources of thebiodiversity in these other realms.

2010 CoMargE will provide the first global bio-geography of this realm, describing both the knownand the unknown, which will remain large in this


FIG. 4. – One-third of this array of “listening curtains” was in placein 2004, from the Columbia River to the Alaska panhandle. It mon-itored the migrations of over a thousand salmon smolts, as well assome unexpected sturgeon that had been tagged in local studies inCalifornia rivers. The insets show a schematic the overlapping radiiof a line of acoustic receivers (bottom left) and the surgical implant-ing of an acoustic tag that can produce a quarter-million differentcodes and be placed in an animal as small as 10 g (top right).

(Welch et al., 2002)

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time frame. Nevertheless, there are opportunities forthe OBIS database to serve as a management tool ashuman exploration has increasing impact on thispreviously dark and mysterious realm.

Abyssal Plain

Census of Diversity of Abyssal Marine Life(CeDAMar) goal

Describe the actual species diversity of theabyssal plains and learn what factors cause it to varyin time and space in and on the sediments.

By 2005 Coordinated from the SenckenbergResearch Institute’s German Centre for MarineBiodiversity Research (DZMB), CeDAMar is adynamic part of COML contributing impressively toworkshops and program development. CeDAMarhas a global SSG that has successfully unified sig-nificant abyssal projects in major ocean basins. It

has taxonomists for the most common abyssal faunain two oceans and has developed a fellowship pro-gram for other taxa and other oceans. This networksupports and benefits from projects like NaGISA,ChEss, ArcOD, ICOMM, and CenSeam that sampleorganisms in sediments.

CeDAMar has now completed two abyssal plainsampling cruises using benthic grabs and sleds inthree oceans, DIVA and BIOZAIRE in the SouthAtlantic, ANDEEP I, II and III in the SouthernOcean and KAPLAN and NODINAUT in the NorthPacific (Fig. 6). Results from these cruises wereintegrated at two workshops and have producedmore than 70 publications. DZMB’s establishedspecimen sorting center has added hundreds of newspecies to its archives and will soon add them toOBIS. Five additional cruises are funded for theNorth Atlantic, Southern Ocean and Indian Ocean.

2005-9 Deep-sea sampling is costly. Volunteerobserving ships sample millions of liters of surface


FIG. 5. – Regions for COML collaboration with the new European HERMES project will provide key initial sampling for CoMargE (modified from Weaver et al., 2004)

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water for plankton for not much more than the cost ofnetting. A couple of liters of mud from the Antarcticabyssal plain, however, can cost $100,000 for salariesand steaming time. Thus, building a global network toexploit samples of the abyssal plain widely and inmany ways is critical. The CeDAMar network isfocusing on capturing and coordinating as much sam-pling as possible to create a global synthesis in thisdifficult-to-explore realm at the bottom of the ocean.To test hypotheses about such factors as productivityand latitude causing high biodiversity in the abyssalsediments, CeDAMar must first perform the chal-lenging task of sampling the abyssal plain at severallocalities. This local sampling is aimed at revealingthe distribution of seemingly widespread species.This knowledge of global patterns of abyssal diversi-ty will be related to conditions in the overlying waterzones. Funding in deep-sea sampling ranges frommeasuring carbon fluxes into sediments to geologicaldrilling studies to nodule mining.

Crustaceans are numerous in both the abyss andthe light zone, so there are synergies between thegenetically-oriented CMarZ and CeDAMar.Comparisons between biodiversity encouraged bylatitudinal and productivity differences in the plank-ton of the light zone and in the realm of the abyssalplain could give new insights into vertical transfer ofenergy and carbon between the water column andthe bottom. Genetic comparisons between light zoneand abyssal crustaceans could reveal interestingevolutionary patterns. CeDAMar will furnish sam-ples for ICOMM.

2010 CeDAMar will make one of the largestadditions to known species in the 2010 report fromits unknown realm, but it certainly will not haveexhausted the potential for discovery among rarespecies. The central unknown the abyssal will revealis whether its common species are truly cosmopoli-tan and globally distributed. CeDAMar willbequeath a legacy of a global network of expertswith the habit of exploiting costly abyssal samples.

CENTRAL WATERS

Light Zone (drifters and swimmers)

At least 40% of the world’s primary productionof biomass occurs in the open ocean, and much ofthis production is consumed by a community domi-nated by planktonic crustaceans. These organismsare relatively well studied and many are assumed to

be cosmopolitan. The focus among the light driftersis on the question of whether this community is con-sistent globally, or merely convergent in a zone thatrequires highly constrained lifestyles. This questionrequires molecular tools and global assessment ofpopulations throughout the ocean.

In contrast, there is now no question about thebasinwide or even global connections among thelarge pelagic animals in this zone. Individual recog-nition, tagging and now real-time tracking of manyspecies leaves no doubt of the scale on which thesetop predators must be studied. We cannot sum thewhale counts in Alaska and Mexico or the tunacounts in Mexico and Japan to get a census – theyare all the same individuals! New technologies arenow making it possible to provide realistic estimatesof the global distribution and abundance in thisrealm. Even animals themselves are identifying the“ocean oases” where they concentrate to feed onsmaller species taking advantage of these produc-tion hotspots.

Census of Marine Zooplankton (CMarZ) goal

Global-scale analysis of all marine zooplanktongroups using new and emerging technologiesincluding molecular, optical, and acoustical imag-


FIG. 6. – CeDAMar sites. Comparing benthic biodiversity in thePacific (top, Adrian Glover and Craig Smith, unpublished) and

Atlantic and Southern Oceans (bottom).

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ing, and remote detection, initially focused on DNAbarcoding of existing specimen collections to identi-fy cryptic species among cosmopolitan groups.

By 2005 A ‘known-unknown-unknowable’ work-shop in early 2004 brought together an internationalpartnership using ships of opportunity and a coordi-nated international network of technicians, taxo-nomic experts, and biological oceanographers. Theproject conceived there includes centers in German,Japan and the USA and draws on a wide variety ofresearch platforms globally, including the ships ofopportunity of the Sir Alister Hardy Foundation forOcean Science. CMarZ has nine cooperating proj-ects – including six oceanographic cruises – launch-ing in the first year. DNA barcoding is underway inCMarz laboratories in Japan and the USA. CMarZ iscoordinating globally synoptic sampling, withstrategic and statistical advice from FMAP.

2005-9 Field collections, taxonomic analysis anddata analysis will be carried out by cooperating proj-ects, ranging from annual surveys in the US EEZ bythe NOAA Fisheries to three months in the WeddellSea on the Polarstern. Training workshops willincrease taxonomic capacity, ensuring accurate andconsistent identification of specimens. This coordi-nated multinational effort seeks to complete mor-phological and DNA barcode analysis of at least theapproximately 6,800 described species of marinemetazoan and protozoan plankton by 2010. TheCMarZ database will integrate with OBIS. Newcooperating projects will be added as opportunitiesand funding arise to expand sampling to less knownrealms and use advanced sampling technologies(e.g., remote, autonomous, and manned sub-mersibles). CMarZ will analyze collections fromother COML projects sampling the pelagic realm.

2010 CMarZ will provide the first global synthe-sis of the biodiversity and biogeography of thespecies that make up the greatest animal biomass onthe planet like that in Figure 7. It is likely to doublethe number of known zooplankton and will provideDNA barcodes for reliable, fast identification ofzooplankton species. It will provide accurate andcomprehensive assessment of relationships amonglight zone plankton in the world ocean, reveal newrelationships to those that live in the dark zone, andinform studies of marine food webs, in which zoo-plankton play a pivotal role.

Tagging of Pacific Pelagics (TOPP) goal

To ally with animals as observers to create a viewof vast open ocean habitats as seen by the animalsthemselves, especially top predators. Knowing thebehavior of the top predators allows inferencesabout the distribution and abundance of much elsethat lives in the ocean, for example, where preyspecies accumulate. Beginning in the North Pacific,the project provides an example and advice for sim-ilar collaborations in other regions.

By 2005 Headquartered in California’s MontereyBay (Hopkins Marine Station, Monterey BayAquarium, and the University of California) andguided by an international SSG, TOPP scientistshave tagged 19 species from albatross to albacore toelephant seals (Fig. 8). More than 40 investigatorsconduct projects in eight countries. By October2004, over 1500 electronic tags of various designswere deployed, and methods developed to capture,handle, and attach a number of different tag types topelagic allies, including Humboldt squid, a previ-ously untagged species.


FIG. 7. – Global patterns of diversity of planktonic foraminifera (modified from Rutherford et al. 1999).

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While performance of electronics is critical, suc-cess also requires reliable attachment of tags, andhigh levels of retention and recovery. Researchersworking with leatherback sea turtles in Costa Ricadeveloped attachment methods for new tags toensure long-term retention, expanding the taggingoptions and providing more environmental data.Another key is to tag sufficient numbers of animalsto allow statistical analysis of patterns and modelingof movements. Net pen and bait boat releasesdeployed 131 tagged Pacific bluefin in just four daysin early 2003. Archival tags recovered yieldedextensive data on tuna movements and the structureof the California Current.

Performance tests of electronic tags in the field,including double tag studies on salmon sharks, com-pared different geolocation methods: day length toestimate latitude and longitude against Argos satel-lite transmitters. A new generation of ocean sensortags has been deployed, improving salinity, light,temperature and depth measurements. Adding TOPPanimal’s salinity data to North Pacific physical char-acteristics will improve ocean dynamic models, andeveryone from students to scientists will be able toexplore their journeys on an enhanced website.

2005-9 TOPP Phase II will continue with inten-sive deployment of tags on the 19 species alreadytagged and a few new ones, focused on theCalifornia Current boundary. The major challenge inthis period is integrating and presenting the vastquantity of data effectively. TOPP data are not atfixed locations, are not gridded in time or location,do not have predictable delivery or location qualities

and require new data management tools. A datamanagement system is being designed to ingest dataand facilitate interactive handling. Low bandwidthand intermittent connectivity must be managed andgenerally hidden from end users. Automated post-processing is fundamental to correct tag data for cal-ibration and coherency. To apply TOPP data to awide variety of analyses, including integration withmodels and oceanographic data sets, its server mustfacilitate these analyses and provide automated noti-fication and transmission of new data. TOPP isworking closely with OBIS-SEAMAP and FMAPon these issues

This data management and server capacity will helpTOPP to focus the entire global telemetry community.Many new projects adopting the TOPP model areunder development beyond current efforts in the Northand South Pacific. These include: 1) Novel Explorationof the Ocean (NEO), a consortium of European biolo-gists, oceanographers, engineers, and businessesfocused on bio-logging, 2) the Marine ConservationCorridor Initiative in the tropical Pacific, 3) Japan’sDeep Sea Look project and 4) Southern Ocean TOPP,an idea developed at the International Bio-loggingConference in Tokyo, March 2003. Antarctic pro-grams, already using bio-logging technology, will takeadvantage of TOPP’s data systems to oversee nationalAntarctic research programs. Such data integration willfacilitate management of these vast ocean areas andwill be linked to the Census of Antarctic Marine Life(CAML) project.

2010 TOPP will produce a unique, integratedoverview of open ocean biology in the Pacific, and


FIG. 8. – The 2002-3 tracks of nine of the 22 species tagged by TOPP to define oceanic habitat use. (Block et al., 2002) Background is spring sea surface temperature.

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will have aided efforts around the world. TOPP willalso be an operational element of GOOS, supple-menting data from autonomous underwater vehicleswith focused biologically relevant data from collab-orating species.

Dark Zone (mid-water and bottom-water)

Patterns and Processes of Ecosystems in theNorthern Mid-Atlantic (MAR-ECO) goal

Explore and understand the distribution, abun-dance and trophic relationships of the organismsinhabiting the middle and deep waters of the mid-oceanic North Atlantic, and identify and model eco-logical processes that cause variability in these pat-terns. Focus on pelagic and benthic macrofauna,using innovative methods and up-to-date technologyto map distributions, analyze community structure,study life histories, and model trophic relationships.

By 2005 A multidisciplinary transatlantic team ofresearchers, led by a steering group with representa-tives from USA, Germany, the United Kingdom,Iceland, Portugal, France and Norway, has initiatedthe field phase of MAR-ECO and has already car-ried out investigations between Iceland and theAzores using ships and submersibles. The Instituteof Marine Research and the University of Bergen inNorway coordinate the efforts. The focus is theNorth Atlantic section of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.Experiences here and the technological solutionsfound will be useful for biodiversity studies initiat-ed by other teams on other ridges around the world.

In 2003 field sampling and observations weremade from several platforms from Iceland, Russia,Germany and Portugal. The Icelandic vessel RVArni Fridriksson conducted studies and sampling ofmesopelagic fish and zooplankton in the northernend of the study area, the Reykjanes Ridge. TheRussian vessel RV Smolensk and the German vesselRV Walther Herwig also conducted some samplingin the northern area. These efforts were extensionsof an ICES co-ordinated survey of redfish (Sebastessp.) in the Irminger Sea.

Perhaps the most remarkable effort was made bythe Russian RV MstislavKeldysh and its mannedsubmersibles Mir-1 and Mir–2. This was a Russia-US collaboration, and scientists from both countriesmade two double dives in the Charlie-GibbsFracture Zone to depths of 3000-4500m, an areanever before visited by man. Analyses of the obser-vations and samples obtained are ongoing, and

detailed results will be presented elsewhere.However, preliminary analyses of the footage fromthe dives document occurrence of many fish species,cephalopods, and swimming holothurians, as well asa diverse sessile macro- and megafauna dominatedby suspension feeder. The density of “marine snow”and phyto-detritus on the bottom appeared higherthan expected, and a particularly interesting findingwas high densities of juvenile macrourid fish andholothurians.

In mid-2004, the international MAR-ECOteam studied and sampled the entire study area fortwo months aboard the new Norwegian RV G.O.Sars (Fig. 9). This is the most comprehensive sur-vey of this region to date, which utilized trawlsand traditional sampling techniques as well as avariety of novel acoustical and optical approach-es. Sampling yielded 45-50 squid species (2potentially new to science) and 80,000 fish speci-mens that are still undergoing identification,although many are estimated to be new to scienceor new to the North Atlantic Other interestingfindings included jellyfish segregating in depthlayers, strange dash-line patterns of bioturbation,and amazing diversity and density of fauna asso-ciated with deep coral banks.

In the southern end of the area, MAR-ECO ben-efits from activities of a German-led EC fundedproject OASIS focusing on seamount ecosystems.Several cruises were made by Portuguese, Germanand UK vessels to the Sedlo seamount just south ofthe southern MAR-ECO Sub-area. Of particularinterest were efforts to sample and study macrofau-na by the Portuguese vessel RV Archipelago of theAzores also in 2004. This vessel operates longlinesand provides samples for studies of trophic ecology,fish genetics, hydrography, etc.

2005-9 The field phase of the Mid-AtlanticRidge study will continue through 2007, althoughthe analytical phase will overlap. The MAR-ECOresearchers will complete the identification of expe-dition collections, publish the synthesized findingsand contribute data to OBIS through 2008. A wealthof information enhancing our understanding of thespecies, communities and ecosystems of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and associated waters is expected.This will enhance the knowledgebase for advisorybodies, e.g. ICES and NAFO, and managementauthorities such as OSPAR, NEAFC and nationalgovernments. MAR-ECO addresses many issueslisted by OSPAR as biological “uncertainties”(OSPAR, 2000).


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2010 MAR-ECO will provide a comprehensivechapter on mid-oceanic species, communities andecosystems to the final report, and its new informa-tion on known and new species will increase OBIS’third, vertical dimension (i.e. depth). It is not yet pos-sible to predict how much of the biota of the total vol-ume of the world’s ocean will be investigated, butdemonstrated success should invite imitation to gaina global view. Globalizing MAR-ECO ridge studiesis a great challenge to the Census because of the vastvolume involved and costly cutting-edge technologyrequired. For this project in particular, major commit-ments from governments beyond the present MAR-ECO network would be required, but the researchnetwork of the Census could make it happen.

ACTIVE GEOLOGY

As volcanic cones and eruptions plus earth-quakes testify on land, seamounts, vents, and seeps

testify to active geology under the ocean. Althoughrelatively few seamounts are erupting, we groupthese ghost volcanoes under active geology.

Biogeography of Chemosynthetic Ecosystems(ChEss) goal

Discover new hydrothermal vents and coldseeps, assess the diversity, distribution, and abun-dance of their fauna in relation to other chemosyn-thetic ecosystems such as whale falls, sunken wood,or oxygen minimum ecosystem, perhaps remnantsof Precambrian oceans, to explain the differencesand similarities at the global scale.

By 2005 In January 2003 the ChEss scientificsteering group convened at the Scripps Institution ofOceanography (SIO) to identify targets that wouldexplain the biogeography of deep-water chemosyn-thetic ecosystems. The preliminary target areas weresubsequently endorsed by the international researchcommunity and include three major priority regions


FIG. 9. – (Left) The focal areas for MAR-ECO along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Bergstad and Godø, 2002). (Right) A typical G.O Sars 3-kmdeep acoustic image of the layers of life in the water column as recorded by SIMRAD EK60, 18 KHz echo sounder, indicating where phys-ical samples were collected to confirm species and abundance. The vertical noise lines are typical for this frequency during steaming or bad

weather.

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and a number of specific locations (Fig. 10). In par-allel, ChEss developed a database on deep-waterchemosynthetic species.

The major aim of the planning phase is to designand initiate the ChEss field phase. To this end, anumber of additional research and education pro-posals are being submitted to various national, andinternational funding bodies to address the ChEssscope, aims, and protocols. ChEss will establishclose collaboration with other ocean science pro-grams that will for other reasons venture to sites ofvents to make future research and explorationaffordable. Key among these is the EuroDEEP col-laborative research program for the EuropeanScience Foundation. The ChEss office is at theSouthampton Oceanography Center (SOC).

2005-9 Develop the three main field programs:-Equatorial Atlantic Belt. This area extends on a

longitudinal gradient, including the following keysites: Costa Rica cold seeps, Gulf of Mexico coldseeps, Cayman Trough, Barbados AccretionaryPrism, hydrothermal vents on the Mid-AtlanticRidge north and south of the Equatorial FractureZones, and cold seeps on the continental margin ofwest Africa. The aim is to understand connectivityand isolation of geographically distant chemosyn-thetic ecosystems. ChEss offers to act as the umbrel-la program for a number of cruises funded throughnational programs that are already under way.Coordinated efforts amongst scientists and laborato-ries from the different countries involved will joinefforts and ensure a maximum return from the ongo-ing science to benefit the community as a whole.The SOC in the UK and IFREMER in France arecoordinating the umbrella project.

-Southeast Pacific region. This area enclosesactive vents on the Chile Rise, cold seeps on theChile margin, a well-established OMZ on the Peru-Chile margin, and high potential for whale falls andsunken wood along the margin, all in close geo-graphical proximity. The aim is to investigate thephylogenetic relationships of species where distanceis not a barrier for dispersal and colonization. AWorldwide University Network international GrandChallenge program is being developed, led by SOC,SIO, and the Center for Oceanographic Research inthe Eastern South Pacific (COPAS) at the Universityof Concepción in Chile.

-New Zealand region. This area also encompassesall chemosynthetic systems of interest to ChEss inclose geographical proximity offering a good com-parison site for the Southeast Pacific to investigaterelationships across ocean basins. There are vents onthe Kermadec arc, seeps on the east margins of thenorth and south island, an important whale migrationroute and potential for sunken wood on the southernfjords. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution(WHOI), University of Hawaii and New Zealand’sNational Institute of Water and Atmosphere Researh(NIWA) coordinate this program.

2010 ChEss will have substantially increased thenumber of known vents and seeps. It will have dis-covered new species in the chemosynthetic environ-ments and entered assessments of their new andknown species diversity, distribution, and abun-dance into OBIS. Beyond these contributions,ChEss will bequeath its example and methods foreffective international assessment and explanationof marine life in a peculiar realm.

Census of Seamounts (CenSeam) goal

To synthesize existing biodiversity knowledgeand direct future field efforts towards a comparativeecology of seamounts, categorizing communitiesand developing proxies for generalized models. Thecapacity to predict properties of unexploredseamounts is an important scientific tool for urgent-ly needed policy decisions.

By 2005 The SeamountsOnline database pro-vides for data assembly in OBIS, and both com-mercial and scientific sampling on seamountsglobally is rapidly expanding (Fig. 11). A globalnetwork of seamount researchers defined this proj-ect at a ‘known-unknown-unknowable’ workshopin August 2003. Its leaders reported outcomes tothe FAO-initiated Deep Sea Conference in New


FIG. 10. – Target areas selected for ChEss where specific scientificquestions relevant to biogeographical issues will be answered.Category I, combined areas for seeps, vents, and falls: Area A:Equatorial Atlantic Belt region; Area B: Southeast Pacific region;Area C: New Zealand region. Category II, specific vent areas: 1 –Ice-covered Gakkel Ridge, 2 – Ultra-slow ridges of the Norwegian-Greenland Sea, 3 – Northern MAR between the Iceland and Azoreshot spots; 4 – Brazilian continental margin, 5 – East Scotia Ridgeand Bransfield Strait, 6 – Southwest Indian FIG. 1. – Central Indian

Ridge. (Tyler et al., 2002)

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Zealand in December 2003. Key questions identi-fied include:

-What factors drive seamount community struc-ture, diversity, and endemism, both at the scale ofwhole seamounts and individual habitats withinseamounts?

-What key processes operate to cause differencesbetween seamounts, and between seamount andnon-seamount regions?

-What are the impacts of fisheries on seamountcommunity structure and function?

A workshop with FMAP in September 2004began defining the most efficient sampling strate-gies to answer these questions and targeted addi-tional existing data resources to be brought intoSeamountsOnline to guide planning for newresearch cruises during the field phase. TheCenSeam Secretariat is hosted by NIWA in NewZealand and data management will continue throughthe San Diego Supercomputer Center.

In addition to updating as much species informa-tion as possible, assembling a set of physical infor-mation to provide a biologically meaningfuldescription or categorization scheme for seamountsis important. Factors to consider include physicaland geological setting (age, substrate type), geogra-phy (latitude, ocean basin, distance from nearestcontinental margin), size, depth, shape, and phys-iography, productivity of the overlying water col-umn and its associated hydrographic characteristics

(localized upwelling, presence of Taylor columns,and relationships to mesoscale oceanographic fea-tures). The work would involve an iterative processof categorizing communities, relating them to vari-ous factors, developing hypotheses about importantfactors/proxy variables, testing those ideas withexisting or newly gathered data, and using theresults to refine community categorizations.Improved fishery distribution and intensity informa-tion will also be a priority to link with the biologicalknowledge and provide scientific input to globalconcerns about the management of fisheries onseamount habitat.

2005-9 Although bringing together fragmentedwork on seamount ecology and biogeography is nec-essary, given how few seamounts have beenexplored, new field research will be essential.Supporting and coordinating existing efforts anddeveloping new field projects will be priorities dur-ing this phase. Partnerships with other COML proj-ects, particularly MAR-ECO and GOMA, and morethan 20 other programs visiting seamounts in everyocean will be developed to maximize appropriatebiological sampling opportunities. Details awaitmodel analysis, but there will be an active fieldphase because of high global interest.

2010 The roles seamounts play in the biogeogra-phy, biodiversity, productivity, and evolution ofmarine organisms and their effect on the globaloceanic ecosystem should be clarified and quanti-


FIG. 11. – Distribution of seamounts and sampling. Small black points indicate the predicted locations of 14,300 seamounts from Kitchingmanand Lai (2004). Squares indicate seamounts with data in SeamountsOnline (http://seamounts.sdsc.edu) that have received taxonomicallybroad sampling, circles indicate seamounts with some level of data, and triangles indicate seamounts that have been sampled biologically but

for which data are not available in SeamountsOnline.

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fied. The question whether seamount communitiesdiffer in ecological structure and function should beanswered as well as whether seamounts act as cen-ters of speciation, as refugia for relict populations,and/or to what extent they serve as stepping-stonesfor trans-oceanic dispersal. This will be a key chap-ter in the Census and a contribution to global effortsto manage marine resources.

ICE OCEANS - ARCTIC AND ANTARCTIC

At the ocean surface, seawater solidifies between-1.5 and -2.0oC creating new transient solid habitatsat each pole. Climate change appears to be raisingtemperatures globally and altering the sites andnature of polar life for marine species and humans.Historically such changes seem to occur faster thanthe movements of continents, so they provide inter-esting case studies in evolution, and the two polesprovide an interesting contrast. Research in theseregions requires special techniques and icebreakingvessels, so cruises must be carefully coordinated tosample all habitats and all scales of life.

Arctic Ocean Diversity (ArcOD) goal

Assemble existing knowledge of biodiversity inthe least known ocean, direct new international

explorations using new technology, and create aframework for understanding and predicting biolog-ical correlates with expected climatic changes in thisrapidly changing ocean.

By 2005 The Arctic is the most extreme oceanin seasonality of light and in its year-round icecover. It is also the ocean where climate changemay be most strongly expressed. The tremendousongoing changes make the effort to identify thediversity of life in the realms of sea ice, water col-umn, and sea floor urgent. An Arctic Biodiversity‘known-unknown-unknowable’ workshop in April2003 defined the problems and gaps, linking sci-entists from countries with essential icebreakercapacity. A SCOR symposium in Moscow inSeptember 2003 also focused on potential Russiancontributions to an Arctic census and led to aRussian workshop in 2004. Current knowledgeindicates that the Arctic seas hold a multitude ofunique life forms adapted to the extremes. ArcODwill document the present Arctic biodiversity froman international Pan-Arctic view with an office atthe University of Alaska Fairbanks and taxonomiccenters in St. Petersburg and Moscow. The SSGwill identify available data for entry into OBIS.Because of unique vessel requirements, the SSG iscarefully cross-linked to other projects and has astrong focus on identifying cruises andInternational Polar Year (IPY) planning. The


FIG. 12. – Some current models for climate change predict the complete disappearance of the permanent Arctic ice (red zone, left panel, vonQuillfeldt, 1996) by 2030. ArcOD will chart the biodiversity of the currently ice-covered ecosystems, to better understand and predict the

consequence of these changes on species and humans living there.

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RUSALCA cruise to the Chukchi Sea in August2004 explored the unknown Herald Canyon,reviving Russia-US collaboration.

2005-9 The core phase will compile existing dataand make full taxonomic use of collected butunprocessed samples. Geographic, taxonomic andtemporal gaps will be filled through new collectionsemphasizing active participation in the IPY activi-ties. These will be coordinated with CAML. Russianpartners will create a geo-referenced list of speciesof Arctic marine free-living invertebrates, recordRussian expeditions and stations taken in the Arcticfrom 1800, and catalog some 500 Russian publica-tions on marine Arctic fauna.

2010 The synthesis phase will integrate newlyaccumulated data fully into OBIS to be synthesized,published and presented at international meetingsand used within HMAP and FMAP, as well as pro-viding the Census “chapter” on the biogeography ofthe Arctic.

Census of Antarctic Marine Life (CAML) goal

To assemble the rich biological data on theSouthern Ocean currently distributed widely inter-nationally, to encourage biodiversity sampling on all

cruises in the region, particularly during the focalperiod of the International Polar Year, 2007-8, and tocouple this new understanding of biology to thecomplex current dynamics there that control geneflow through all the world’s oceans.

By 2005 CAML, led by the Australian AntarcticDivision, with a SCAR-appointed SSG represent-ing seven major nations with research interests inthe region, was endorsed by the Life ScienceScientific Standing Group of SCAR. SCAR alsosupports the Marine Biodiversity InformationNetwork (MarBIN) to consolidate data from theregion in a database compatible with OBIS andGBIF. Increased commitment of existing data froma workshop in Curitiba, Brazil, in July 2005, link-ing MarBIN with the South American OBIS Node,will encourage South American countries to partic-ipate in IPY projects in benthic biology. Fourteennations have already indicated an interest in pro-viding ship time in Antarctic waters during IPY forbiodiversity sampling. SCAR and SCOR are work-ing together to coordinate cruise activity to provideinterdisciplinary sampling opportunities as well asmaximum coverage during IPY. The region’s com-plex oceanography (Fig. 13) gives it a special rolein distributing biodiversity.


FIG. 13. – This three-dimensional representation of flows among ocean basins shows how central the Antarctic Circumpolar Current System (ACCS) is and has been to movements of marine species around the planet, in contrast to the isolated Arctic (modified from Schmitz, 1995)

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2005-9 Information assembly in MarBIN willmake it possible to identify key areas for newexploratory sampling as well as areas where biolog-ical coverage is good, but some crucial details arelacking. Because the major field activities of CAMLwill take place during the IPY in 2007-2009, one ofthe complications of IPY is that key platforms suchas icebreaking vessels will be required at both poles.COML will organize meetings between its two polarprojects to ensure comparability between data setsand optimized use of people and equipment.

A major SCAR goal in IPY will be high-resolu-tion benthic mapping, a tremendous asset for thebenthic biology community and future ocean con-servation. Combining these physical maps withcomprehensive biological data will support applica-tion of benthic surveys developed in GOMA.

2010 Given the scheduling for IPY it will be dif-ficult to provide a fully developed biodiversity atlasfor the Antarctic by 2010, but advanced data man-agement techniques, including integration ofMarBIN with OBIS, should make it possible.

THE MICROSCOPIC

International Census of Marine Microbes(ICOMM) goal

To develop a highly resolved biodiversity data-base for marine microbes and to understand howmicrobial populations evolve, interact, and redistrib-

ute on a global scale. The definitions of biodiversityamong microbes will be based largely on the appli-cation of molecular techniques.

By 2005 Early in the year, the SSG for ICOMMmet in Amsterdam with ICOMM organizers andchairs of working groups to review documents gen-erated by the groups and to develop a plan for abroader community meeting. This plan mustinclude discussion of opportunities to acquire sam-ples and to link the information in a speciallydesigned microbial genetic database (MICROBIS)to other web portals. MICROBIS will be subject tocritical review by working groups, SSG, OBIS, andcollaborators. Later in this year a meeting will behosted for representatives of the marine microbialcommunity to address funding and identify sam-pling opportunities within and outside the existingCOML projects, describe common technologyissues, database content including communityinput, and confirm potential pilot projects thatcould shape future funding initiatives. Examples ofquestions that ICOMM will address include: (1)What governs the evolution of marine microbiallineages within complex marine communities? (2)Why do marine microbial consortia retain func-tionally equivalent but genetically distinct lineag-es? (3) Is there a marine microbial biogeographyand if so, what are the principal drivers or restric-tors? (4) How does genotypic diversity shape phe-notypic diversity, and how does this diversity influ-ence the functioning of marine ecosystems?

2005-9 Education and outreach resources will bedeveloped. Pilot projects will be initiated and com-pleted by 2006. In 2006, progress will be reviewedby the working groups, ICOMM organizers andSSG will review progress and synthesize a finalstrategy document addressing funding opportunities,technical issues relating to sampling, sample pro-cessing, MICROBIS standards, scientific priorities,and long-term funding opportunities. These willdetermine the scale of the DNA sequencingapproach possible and the number of samples fromother COML project collections that can beprocessed and integrated into analyses.

2010 The “chapter” on the biogeography ofmarine microbes will potentially redefine our under-standing of biodiversity at this level. The projectexplores both new regions and new concepts. Theimage-rich MICROBIS will provide a uniqueresource with cross-compatibility between biogeo-graphic databases like OBIS and GBIF and geneticdatabases like GenBank.


FIG. 14. – Oceans apart. Automated DNA sequencing provides anew way of exploring the record of life all the way back to its ori-gins in the sea 4 billion years ago. Unlike barcoding, which looks atpartial sequences from larger genomes in plants and animals, entiremicrobial genomes can be reconstructed (modified from Falkowski

and de Vargas, 2004).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Odd Aksel Bergstad, Bodil Bluhm, Ann Bucklin,Richard Chinman, Malcolm Clark, Lew Incze,Donald Kohrs Nancy Knowlton, Dale Langford,Pedro Martínez, Eva Ramírez, Robin Rigby,Myriam Sibuet, Mitch Sogin, Michael Stoddart,Karen Stocks, Paul E Waggoner, Kristen Yarincik

REFERENCES

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Block, B.A., D.P. Costa, G.W. Boehlert, R.E. Kochevar. – 2002.Revealing pelagic habitat use: the tagging of Pacific pelagicsprogram. Ocean. Acta, 25: 255-266.

Buddemeier, R.W. – 2002. http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Hexacoral/Products/products.htm#present

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OSPAR. – 2000. Quality Status Report 2000, Region V - WiderAtlantic, OSPAR Commission, London, 110 pp

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