how the water flows

8/8/2019 How the Water Flows

1/80

Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit

Issue Paper Series

WATER MANAGEMENT, LIVESTOCK ANDTHE OPIUM ECONOMY

How the Water Flows:A Typology of Irrigation Systems in Afghanistan

Bob Rout

June 2008


2/80


3/80

Bob Rout

Funding for this research

was provided by the

European Commission June 2008

Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit

Issue Paper Series

How the Water Flows:

A Typology of Irrigation Systems in Afghanistan

WATER MANAGEMENT, LIVESTOCK ANDTHE OPIUM ECONOMY

This report is part of AREUs three-year study, Applied Thematic Research into Water

Management, Livestock and the Opium Economy.


4/80


5/80

About the Author

Bob Rout is a specialist in irrigation and water resources management. He has worked for more than20 years in the Middle East and Africa on a range of irrigation and water resource managementprojects. His country experience includes Afghanistan, Ethiopia, Iran, Jordan, Kuwait, Mongolia,Oman and Sudan. In 2005, he worked on the Asian Development Bank-funded Western Basins Project,formulating an irrigation development programme for the Hari Rod and Murghab catchments ofwestern Afghanistan.

About the Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit

The Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit (AREU) is an independent research organisationheadquartered in Kabul. AREU's mission is to conduct high-quality research that informs andinfluences policy and practice. AREU also actively promotes a culture of research and learning bystrengthening analytical capacity in Afghanistan and facilitating reflection and debate. Fundamentalto AREUs vision is that its work should improve Afghan lives.

AREU was established in 2002 by the assistance community working in Afghanistan. Its board ofdirectors includes representatives from donors, the UN and other multilateral agencies, and NGOs.AREU has recently received funding from: the European Commission; the governments of Denmark(DANIDA), the United Kingdom (DFID), Switzerland (SDC), Norway and Sweden (SIDA); the UnitedNations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR); the Government of Afghanistans Ministry ofAgriculture, Irrigation and Livestock; the World Bank; UNICEF; Christian Aid; the Aga Khan Founda-tion; and the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM).


6/80

Acknowledgements

This work, to a large extent, is a synthesis of information from a wide a variety of sources fromboth within and outside Afghanistan. I therefore sincerely thank all those who kindly providedtime, information and guidance.

I specifically thank the following individuals and organisations: Tom Panella, ADB; John Pulsje, ADBBBIWRMP; Rob Wilken, ADBEIRRP; Alan Roe, AREU; Royce Wiles, AREU; Anja Havedal, AREU;Dadullah (Haji), DACAAR; Eng. Farooq, DACAAR; Jahangir Khan, DACAAR; Mohammed Shafi,DACAAR; Waleed K. Mahdi, FAOMEW; Sayed Sharif Shobar, FAOMEW; Ahmad Azim Khalial, FAOMEW; Mohammed Qasim Noori, FAOMEW; Nasiruddin Dareez, FAOMEW; Raju Kunwar, FAOMEW;Sardar Majhool, FAOMEW; Walter Osenberg, GAA; Joachim Boenisch, GAA; Obaidullah Hidayat,GAA; Jelle Beekma, KRBP; Nick Foster, KRBP; Lional Laurens, MRRD; Mr. Waig, MRRD; MohammedSaidur Rahman, SUSTAINAG International; Atanu DE, URD; Vincent Thomas, URD; and SylvestreParmentier, URD.

Bob Rout, June 2008


7/80

Table of Contents

Tables, Figures and Illustrations iiGlossary ivAbbreviations and Acronyms viExecutive Summary vii1. Introduction 11.1 Study scope 11.2 Methodology and sources 22. National Overview 32.1 Topography and climate 32.2 Water resources 42.3 Irrigated agriculture 73. Classifying Irrigation System Types 10 4. Typology of Informal Irrigation Systems 12 4.1 Surface water systems 134.2 Dams 324.3 Water harvesting 334.4 Groundwater systems 334.5 Karez 334.6 Springs 404.7 Wells 435. Typology of Formal Irrigation Systems 45 5.1 Key features 455.2 Location 465.3 Irrigated area 465.4 Organisation 475.5 Case examples 476. Current Initiatives and Future Direction 49 6.1 Current irrigation initiatives 496.2 Future direction 527. Recommendations 54Bibliography 56


8/80

AREU Issues Paper Series

ii

Tables, Figures and Illustrations

Table 1: River basins in Afghanistan ......................................................................... 6 Table 2: Groundwater in Afghanistan (in million m3/year) .............................................. 7Table 3: Land cover survey by water basin ................................................................. 8 Table 4: Irrigation area by water source .................................................................... 8Table 5: Surface water system organisational hierarchy ................................................ 18Table 6: Water distribution by command section ........................................................ 27Table 7: Summary of formal irrigation schemes .......................................................... 46Table 8: Current initiatives for irrigation development and rehabilitation .......................... 53Figure 1: Precipitation on irrigated lands ................................................................... 3Figure 2: Rainfall and potential evapotranspiration (monthly values) ................................. 4Figure 3: River basins, rivers and non-drainage areas .................................................... 5Figure 4: Hydrographs for four major rivers ................................................................ 6Figure 5: Irrigated area by river basin water source ...................................................... 9Figure 6: Classification of irrigation system types in Afghanistan ..................................... 11Figure 7: Percentage by system type of informal systems and total area irrigated ................ 12Figure 8: Number of surface water systems per province ............................................... 14Figure 9: Area irrigated by surface water systems per province ....................................... 15Figure 10: Hari Rod flow rates ............................................................................... 23Figure 11: Joy Naw irrigation system ....................................................................... 24Figure 12: Water distribution for Joy Naw ................................................................. 27Figure 13: Joy Naw discharge distribution ................................................................. 28Figure 14: Mean monthly flow for Kunduz River at Chardara ........................................... 30Figure 15: The Sufi-Qarayateem System ................................................................... 31Figure 16: Plan view of intake rehabilitation ............................................................. 32Figure 17: Karez types ........................................................................................ 34Figure 18: Number of karez per province .................................................................. 35Figure 19: Area irrigated by karez per province .......................................................... 35Figure 20: Karez sections ..................................................................................... 36Figure 21: Bawran Karez ...................................................................................... 38Figure 22: Access wells of Bawran Karez ................................................................... 39Figure 23: Number of spring-fed systems per province .................................................. 40Figure 24: Irrigated area of spring-fed systems per province ........................................... 41Figure 25: Location of formal irrigation schemes ......................................................... 45Illustration 1: Annual maintenance on Joy Naw main canal, Herat .................................... 20Illustration 2: Sarband spring intake ........................................................................ 25Illustration 3: Main canal after de-silting .................................................................. 25Illustration 4: Secondary canal .............................................................................. 25Illustration 5: Bifurcator ...................................................................................... 25Illustration 6: Offtake ......................................................................................... 25


9/80


iii

Illustration 7: Breach in main canal, April 2005 .......................................................... 25Illustration 8: Siphon intake .................................................................................. 26Illustration 9: Aqueduct ....................................................................................... 26Illustration 10: Foot bridge ................................................................................... 26Illustration 11: Protection structure ........................................................................ 26Illustration 12: Flood erosion ................................................................................. 29Illustration 13: Dam under construction, Golran District, Herat Province ............................ 32Illustration 14: Chesma Qulf Spring ......................................................................... 43Illustration 15: Hawz for the Chesma Qulf Spring system ............................................... 43Illustration 16: Well and handpump ......................................................................... 43Illustration 17: Internal access to well ..................................................................... 43Illustration 18: Well construction (traditional method) .................................................. 44Illustration 19: Modern well-drilling......................................................................... 44Illustration 20: Main canal, Kunduz-Khanabad ............................................................ 47Illustration 21: Diversion weir, Kunduz-Khanabad ........................................................ 47Illustration 22: Main conveyor canal, Parwan scheme ................................................... 48Illustration 23: Tertiary control gate, Parwan scheme ................................................... 48


10/80


iv

Glossary

arbab village or community leader

arhad traditional method using groundwater for irrigation of small plots, powered by animaldraft (donkey, horse, camel or ox)

badwan person responsible for operation and maintenance of intake canal

chah access well in a karez system

chak bashi water bailiff on secondary and tertiary canals (term used in Kunduz and Balkh)

chak mirab water master responsible for main and secondary canal sections (term used in Kunduzand Balkh)

darak water share controlled by a bifurcation

hashar communal, usually unpaid, labourhawz traditional water tank, accumulated pool or small reservoir at the head of an irrigation

system to permit delivery of larger unit flows or for irrigation during 12 hours ofoutflow using 24 hours of inflow

jar temporary canal or dyke in river or wash bed to harvest subsurface water or springsduring summer months (also known as chow)

jerib unit measurement of land area equivalent to 2,000 m2 (5 jerib = 1 ha)

juftgaw a variable measure of irrigated land used to allocate water according to establishedentitlements; flow share proportional to irrigated area and often estimated in jerib;reflects the area ploughed by a pair of oxen

karez underground canal system that taps aquifers by gravity through a series of subsurfacetunnels; often extends for many kilometres before surfacing to provide water fordrinking and irrigation

karezkan karez specialist usually responsible for construction and maintenance of subsurfacesections

man measurement of weight that varies regionally; equivalent to 4kg in Herat but, forexample, 7kg in Kabul, 4.5kg in Kandahar and 14kg in Balkh

mirab water master responsible for main and secondary canal sections (term used in Herat)

mirab bashi water master responsible for overall management of surface water system (term used

in Kunduz and Balkh)nawbat water turn

owkura the first point of access to water in a karez where drinking water is taken

pau a variable measure of irrigated land area used to allocate water (term used in northernregions); see juftgaw for a description of a similar system of measurement

qawala water rights or entitlement supported by ancient law

qulba a variable measure of irrigated land area used to allocate water (term used in northernregions); see juftgaw for a description of a similar system of measurement

roz day


11/80


v

saat hour

sarband intake canal for surface water irrigation systems, traditionally constructed with logs,gravel and sandbags

sarchah the point-of-source access well located most upstream in a karez system; also known asmother well

sehdarak structure for proportional water distribution in main and secondary canals

ser measure of weight often used for grain; equivalent to 7kg in Kabul and 14kg in Mazar-i-Sharif

shura local council, traditionally an assembly of clan-based, tribal or ethnic elders

wakil individual responsible for overall management of surface water system (term used in

Herat)

Technical terms

bund a dam, barrier or weir

command area gross area commanded by an irrigation system inclusive of irrigatedarea, infrastructure and non-productive areas

distribution efficiency ratio of water flowing out of an irrigation system over water coming in

ETo potential evapotranspiration

field application efficiency efficiency of on-farm distribution and application of water to meet cropwater requirements

isohyets a line drawn on a map connecting points that receive equal amounts ofprecipitation

water use efficiency ratio of unit measure of crop production per volume of system grosswater intake, typically expressed as kilograms per cubic metre

Units

cumec cubic metre per second

ha hectare (area equivalent to 10,000 m2)

km kilometre

L/s litres per second

L/s/ha litres per second per hectare

m metre

m3 cubic metres

mm millimetre

MW megawatt


12/80


vi

Abbreviations and Acronyms

ADB Asian Development Bank

ADF Abu Dhabi Fund

ADRBMP Amu Darya River Basin Management Project

AIMS Afghanistan Information Management Services

AREU Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit

BBIWRMP Balkh Basin Integrated Water Resources Management Project

CIDA Canadian International Development Agency

DACAAR Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees

DOI Department of Irrigation, Water Resources and Environment

EC European Commission

EIRP Emergency Irrigation Rehabilitation Programme

EIRRP Emergency Infrastructure Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Project

FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation

GAA German Agro-Action

JFPR Japan Fund for Poverty Reduction

KRBP Kunduz River Basin Project

MEW Ministry of Energy and Water

MRRD Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development

NSP National Solidarity Programme

RAMP Rebuilding Agricultural Markets Programme

SWMA Social Water Management in Afghanistan

UN United Nations

URD Urgence Rhabilitation Developpement


13/80


vii

This paper develops and presents a typology ofirrigation systems in Afghanistan. It is intendedto enhance knowledge of irrigation methods andmanagement with the aim of improving systemperformance and productivity. It is alsointended to provide those involved in irrigationrehab i l i t a t i on and na tu r a l r e sou r ce smanagement with a better understanding of thelink between irrigation systems and livelihoodsustainability. The importance of irrigatedagriculture is undeniable since it is the mainstayof food security and income for the majority ofthe rural population, accounting for more than70 percent of total crop production.

For the past 30 years, the rural sector has beenseverely impacted by war and civil unrest. Thestructures of irrigation systems have beendamaged directly and sometimes deliberately.While many rehabilitation efforts by necessityhave been emergency assistance, long-termstrategies to improve the performance andreliability of irrigation systems are also

required.

It is important to note that a great deal ofinformation, resources and institutional capacityfor accurate monitoring and reporting onnatural resources were lost during the years ofconflict. While significant efforts are underwayto fill the information void, many inaccuraciesand gaps remain.

National overview

The topography and climate of Afghanistan arethe principal influences on the development ofthe type, range and distribution of irrigationsystems. With predominantly dry continentalclimate, most of the countrys cultivable areareceives low or negligible rainfall during theirrigation season. Most annual precipitationoccurs at high elevations in the Hindu Kushmountain range. The quantity, timing anddistribution of precipitation chiefly determinewater availability for irrigation.

Along with land allocation, the occurrence anddistribution of water resources primarilydetermine the type and location of irrigationsystems in the country. Average annual volumeis estimated at 95 billion m3 of which 88 percentis surface water and 12 percent is groundwater.

While Afghanistan has five major river basins,nearly 60 percent of water resources come fromthe Amu Darya in the north. Surface water flowspeak in the spring and early summer followingsnowmelt. The timing and duration of theseflows presents both an opportunity to harvestwater and a challenge due to the risk of floods.

Afghanistans groundwater resources lie in anumber of aquifers from which water hastraditionally been extracted through karez andwells. To date, however, there appears to belittle detailed research conducted on thesewater resources.

The cultivable area of Afghanistan is estimated

to be 7.7 million ha, which is roughly 12 percentof the countrys area. A land use survey fromthe 1990s estimated 3.2 million ha was irrigatedof which 48 percent was intensively irrigatedand 52 percent was intermittently irrigated withone or more crops. Of the five river basins, theHelmand supports the largest irrigated area (44percent) in the country.

Irrigation Systems TypologyThis paper presents a relatively simple

classification system but one that may be auseful starting point for developing moredetailed analyses.

This classification of system types is based onthe following criteria:

origins of development, distinguishingbetween informal traditional systemsmanaged by local communities and formal

Executive Summary


14/80


viii

large-scale schemes supported by thecentral government;

water source, which is categorised intosurface water and groundwater; and

system, which is classified by infrastructurerelated to primary water source such aslarge formal government schemes as well assystems involving surface run-of-riversources, karez, springs, wells, dams andharvest; these may be further divided intosubsystems or specific schemes.

Informal systems

Traditionally developed and managed by localcommunities within the constraints of localresources, informal systems have existed forgenerations. They have undergone social andphysical changes, expanding or contracting dueto water availability or challenges arising fromyears of conflict. Informal systems account for90 percent of the countrys irrigated area.

Surf ace wat er syst ems

Surface water systems make up nearly 30percent of systems but supply 86 percent ofirrigated area in Afghanistan. Their prevalencelargely results from widespread availability ofboth water resources from rivers and streams aswell as adjacent land suitable for development,usually along river terraces and alluvial plains.These systems vary but share some commoninfrastructural, organisational and operationalfeatures.

The systems are essentially supply driven,dependent on timing, rate and duration of theannual water supply. Communities use a watermanagement strategy that maximises waterharvesting potential during peak flow.

The key infrastructure typically found in surfacewater systems includes: diversion structures(sarband); main, secondary and tertiary canals(predominantly made of unlined earth); control

structures (weirs, sehdarak bifurcators, offtakesand spillways); conveyance structures (siphons,

aqueducts, superpassages and culverts);protection structures (embankments as well asgabion and retaining walls); and access andancillary structures (water mills, bridges andaccess points).

While the process and operation of organisationsvary, surface water systems are largely locallymanaged as autonomous units. Regionalvariations in terminology exist but systemorganisation is generally is based on a hierarchyof command headed by a wakil or mirab bashi.A mirab or chak mirab is usually responsible formain canal sections and the secondary canal.Concerned communities are represented bylocal or village committees.

Water is generally distributed based on wateravailability and a complex system of waterentitlements but is also a function of waterrights and system design, infrastructure andoperation. Using proportional and rotationaldistribution is a part of system adaptation to

changes in water availability and provides someequity in allocation for irrigation needs. Systemmaintenance generally takes place in earlyspring to coincide with low or no-flow whenlabour is readily available. Under the hasharsystem, communal labour is traditionallysupplied in proportion to water entitlements.

Other schemes using surface water for irrigationinclude small retention dams and waterharvesting.

Groundwat er systemsIn Afghanistan, systems that tap into shallowgroundwater include karez, springs and wells.There is great potential to develop both shallowand deep groundwater systems for irrigation andother uses, but precaution must be taken toavoid adversely affecting users of existingsystems.


15/80


ix

KarezWith origins dating back several millennia, karez

extracts shallow groundwater by means ofsubsurface tunnels and canals to gravity-feedwater to recipient communities and commandareas. The tunnel can extend for severalkilometres and is often evident from the spoilfrom access wells (chah) for construction andmaintenance. An estimated 7,000 karez irrigatean area of 170,000 ha in Afghanistan. Averageirrigated area per karez is 25 ha but ranges fromless than 10 ha to more than 200 ha. Most karezsystems are located within the Helmand riverbasin.

The components of a typical karez include:water collection from an unconfined aquiferthrough a subsurface canal section; watertransport through a subsurface canal fortransfer of water to the surface; waterdistribution by means of a surface network ofunlined canals and conveyance structures; and,in some systems, temporary water storage(hawz) to improve distribution efficiencies.

Karez is organised and operated by localcommunities. This is traditionally under akarezkan specialist who is responsible forconstruction and maintenance of subsurfacesections; a mirab oversees surface distributionoperations.Water allocations, similar to surfacewater systems, are based on water entitlementsand rotations. Customary rules apply to therights and locations of access to water.

While karez provides sustained perennial flow

and good quality water, its systems maycommonly face problems such as vulnerability tocollapse of subsurface infrastructure, waterlosses in canals, flood damage and groundwaterdepletion.

SpringsMany rural communities depend on the nearly5,600 spring-fed systems estimated to irrigateapproximately 188,000 ha. The relatively low

flow rates of springs mean systems are oftensupplemented with diverted surface water flows

when available. The systems are commonlyfound in upper and tributary catchments andare concentrated in more mountainous centraland southeastern provinces.

Spring-fed systems share many of the surfaceinfrastructure of karez, including the use ofunlined earth canals and hawz. Limitedinformation is available on system organisationand operation. It is assumed, however, thatwater allocation is similarly based on waterentitlement and rotational allocation systems.

WellsEstimates from the late 1960s indicated thatless than 1 percent of total irrigated area issupplied by water from wells. Traditionally,shallow groundwater has been abstracted frombores and shallow hand-dug wells using humanlabour or animal draft (arhad). The capacity ofsuch systems is limited and confines theirrigable area per well to areas of less than 3ha. In recent years, however, the use of modern

well-drilling and pumping technology has beenmore widespread, considerably increasing thenumber of wells and their capacity.

Formal systemsFormal systems are large-scale irrigationschemes developed with central governmentassistance, financing, management, operationand maintenance. With additional support frombilateral and multilateral donors, most of theseschemes were developed between the late

1940s and the 1970s.

Over the past 30 years, the schemes hadbecome heavily degraded due to lack of fundingand loss of technical and institutional capacityto support operation and maintenance. They arenow operating well below capacity and requiremajor rehabilitation and investment. Since2003, a number of ongoing rehabilitationinitiatives have been launched.


16/80


17/80


xi

the equity of water allocations, anddeveloping water storage systems;

e n h a n c i n g s y s t e m o p e r a t i o n a n dmaintenance by improving the organisationof informal systems, f inancial self-sufficiency, design of structures to reducede-silting, protection against water loss,and approaches to maintenance; and

increasing sustainability of water resourcesthrough development of integratedcatchment management p lans andsustainable environmental management

RecommendationsThis study of irrigation typology is the beginningof a systematic i r r igat ion typology inAfghanistan and will hopefully provide thefoundation for future surveys, studies andinitiatives. The recommendations of this paperare:

System invent ory and dat abaseTo develop anational inventory and database of irrigation

systems to support sector planning andimplementation of interventions

Wat er ent i t lement s and management Toconduct more research on the relationshipbetween water entitlements and irrigationmanagement, which would complement currentemphasis on infrastructure rehabilitation

Social wat er managementTo further study thestructure and funct ion of local water

organisations, including variations between andamong systems and regions; this information willprovide a foundation to help integrate informalsystems into a broader management framework

System monit ori ngTo develop a system forroutine monitoring of flow rates that willprovide an indicator of system performance andannual variations in water availability

Distr ibut i on eff ic iency To research systemperformance to help identify ways that would

improve distribution and water use efficiencies

Surf ace wat er development To identifytechnically and socially appropriate ways toimprove structure type and operation forsurface water irrigation systems, includingdeveloping intake structures, which is oftenexc luded f rom ex i s t ing rehab i l i ta t ionprogrammes

Sust ainabili t y of int ervent ionsTo evaluate themaintenance requirements for typical irrigationinfrastructure and the capacity of communitiesto undertake them

Groundwater development poli cyTo promotepolicies and plans for the protection andsustainable development of groundwaterresources

Cat chment and wat er bas in s t ud ies Toconduct research on hydraulic linkages betweenirrigation systems within surface water

catchments and water basins, includingidentifying water-sharing agreements betweencommunities


18/80



19/80


1

This paper presents the findings of a study onthe typo logy o f i r r i ga t ion sys tems inAfghanistan. It is intended to contribute to theknow ledge o f i r r i ga t i on method s andmanagement as well as to eventually improveperformance and productivity. It is alsointended to prov ide organisat ions andindividuals involved in irrigation rehabilitationand natural resources management with a moreinformed understanding of irrigation systemsand their link to livelihood sustainability inAfghanistan.

Irrigated agriculture is the mainstay of foodsecurity and income for the majority of therural population in Afghanistan. It accounts formore than half of the countrys GDP1, 70percent of total crop production, and provides areliable and sustainable production base formany rural communities2. It is estimated thatapproximately 42 percent of the 7.7 millionhectares (ha) of cultivable land receives someform of irrigation. There is potential to improve

productivity in existing irrigated areas as well asto increase the amount of land receivingirrigation where water resources are sufficient.

The rural sector in particular has been severelyaffected by war and civil unrest during the past30 years. Since the fall of the Taliban in 2001,the i n te r na t i ona l r e con s t r uc t i on andrehabilitation assistance has focused a greatdeal on the agricultural sector, aiming toimprove rural productivity and livelihood

sustainability. While there is considerableongoing effort to rebuild and strengthenirrigated agriculture, most of this work bynecessity has been emergency assistance,largely designed to meet immediate needs. Inaddition to fulfilling these needs, a betterunderstanding of the physical and social

features of the variety of irrigation systems isalso required. This will enable the developmentof long-term strategies to improve theperformance and reliability of these systems,which in turn will enhance rural livelihoods.

The paper presents:

a national overview, describing the nationaland regional irrigation context that includesa summary of topography and climate,water resources, and irrigated agriculture;

a typology of irrigation systems, presentingthe classification and description of systemtypes and providing case study examples;

an outline of current irrigation initiativesand future direction; and

recommendations for future work related tothe irrigation sector.

1.1 Study ScopeThe purpose of this paper is to develop an irri-gation systems typology for Afghanistan. Thestudy defines and describes the major systemsof irrigation water management in the country,including: their geographical distribution in Af-ghanistan; infrastructure as well as functionaland social features; merits and constraints; andpotential to improve irrigation water supply andsupport agricultural development. The studyalso presents various rehabilitation and develop-

ment initiatives currently underway.This paper is largely focused at the nationallevel and water-basin level (i.e. major hydro-logical boundaries), providing an overview ofmajor system types. It is acknowledged thatconsiderable regional variations may exist

1. Introduction

1 Asian Development Bank, Afghanistan Natural Resources and Agriculture Sector Comprehensive Needs Assessment, Final Draft Report(Manila, Philippines: ADB, 2002).

2 Raj Khanal Puspa, Irrigation Systems in Afghanistan: Typology and Development Considerations, unpublished draft (Kabul: FAO, 2006).


20/80


2

within system types. Where relevant, these arehighlighted, but it is not possible to cover allexisting differences. Hopefully providing a plat-

form for future research, this paper should beviewed as a starting point for the developmentof a more detailed typology of irrigation systemsin Afghanistan.

1.2 Methodology and Sources

The methodology for this study is based on thefollowing:

a 12-day country visit (7 days in Kabul and 5days in Kunduz and Baghlan provinces) inFebruary and March 2007 involving meetingswith individuals and organisations fordiscussion and collection of information;

collation of information, reports, data,drawings and photographs from these in-country individuals and organisations as wella s o ther sources , i nc lud ing on l inepublications and published reports on workin Afghanistan, Iran and Oman;

review of relevant literature, including awide range of reports and f i les , inparticular, produced by and on behalf ofAREU, the Ministry of Energy and Water(MEW), the European Commission (EC), theEuropean Union, the Food and AgricultureOrganisation (FAO), the Asian DevelopmentBank (ADB) and the World Bank; and

subsequent analysis of abovementioned datato support types of irrigation systems,

including descriptions of case examples andproduction of maps and drawings.

One of the challenges in presenting informationon agriculture and irrigation in Afghanistan isthe reliability and accuracy of national datasets. Before 1980, data collection and reportingappears to have been reasonably systematic,with statistics published in a national yearbook.Unfortunately, a great deal of the information,resources and institutional capacity for accurate

monitoring and reporting on natural resourcesstatistics were lost during the years of conflict.

While significant efforts are underway to fill theinformation void, inaccuracies and many gaps inknowledge remain. This report has drawn onnumerous information sources; it should be keptin mind, however, that some assessments ofirrigated areas and distribution are no morethan the best possible estimate within theconstraints of available information.

Numerous organisations assisted with providinginformation inc lud ing: ADB, Aga KhanFounda t i on , A f ghan i s t an I n f o rmat i onManagement Services (AIMS), AREU, DanishCommittee for Aid to Afghan Refugees(DACAAR), FAO, German Agro-Action (GAA),Kunduz River Basin Project (KRBP) and MEW.


21/80


3

An overview of the context in which irrigationsystems are s ituated al lows for betterunderstanding of why Afghanistans particularrange of irrigation system types has developedover several millennia. Rather than give in-depth description, this section is intended to bea summary of the most relevant features oftopography and climate, water resources andirrigation development.

2.1 Topography and climate

The topography and climate of Afghanistan arethe principal influences on the development ofthe type, range and distribution of irrigationsystems. High mountain ranges characterisemuch of the topography; a quarter of thecountrys land sits at more than 2,500 m abovesea leve l . The Hindu Kush range, the

westernmost extension of the Himalaya-Pamirmountain range, divides the country from westto east while the Suleiman and Karakorammountains flank the southern border withPakistan. From these mountains, major rivervalleys radiate to the north, west and south,creating fertile valleys along which most of theagricultural and irrigation development occurs.

Afghanistan has a predominately dry continentalclimate. The quantity, timing and distribution ofprecipitation are key factors in determiningwater availability for irrigation. Over 80 percent of precipitation occurs as snow duringwinter in areas where elevation is greater than2,500 m above sea level. While annualprecipitation exceeds 1,000 mm in the uppermountains of the northwest, it is less than 400mm over 75 percent of the country and virtually

2. National Overview

Figure 1: Precipitation on irrigated lands


22/80


4

all of the cultivable lands. The timing andduration of snowmelt is a key factor in

determining the quantity and duration of wateravailability in streams and rivers for irrigation inlower valleys. Figure 1 shows the distribution ofirr igated lands and rainfal l i sohyets inAfghanistan.

During the main growing period in the latespring and summer (May to September), a gapexists between the amount of rainfall and thedemand for water, resulting in a dependence onirrigation to meet the majority of crop water

requirements. This is illustrated in Figure 2,which shows the average monthly rainfall and

potential evapotranspiration at four locationswith large irrigated areas (Herat, Kandahar,Kunduz and Mazar-i-Sharif). In the summer,irrigation demand peaks at about 250 mm to 300mm per month while there is little, if any,reliable rainfall.

2.2 Water resources

Along with land allocation, the occurrence anddistribution of water resources primarily

Source: Favre and Kamal, Watershed Atlas of Afghanistan

Figure 2: Rainfall and potential evapotranspiration (monthly values)

Herat

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Jan

Feb

Mar Ap

rMay Ju

n Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

mm/mth

Rainfall

ETo

Kandahar

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun Ju

lAu

gSe

pOc

tNo

vDe

c

mm/mth

Rainfall

ETo

Mazar-i-Sharif

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun Ju

lAu

gSe

pOc

tNo

vDe

c

mm/mth

Rainfall

ETo

Kunduz

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun Ju

lAu

gSe

pOc

tNo

vDe

c

mm/mth

Rainfall

ETo


23/80


5

3 Food and Agriculture Organisation, Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programs in Afghanistan: Water Resourcesand Irrigation (Islamabad: FAO, 1996).

4 FAO, Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programs in Afghanistan.5 Vincent W. Uhl, An Overview of Groundwater Resources and Challenges (Washington Crossing, PA, USA: Uhl, Baron & Rana Associates,Inc., 2005).

6 Estimates of average annual renewable groundwater vary from 7 to 11 billion m3 per year.

Figure 3: River basins, rivers and non-drainage areas

determine the types and locations of irrigationsystems in the country. Average annual

precipitation is estimated to be approximately180 billion m3 of which 80 percent originatesfrom snow in the Hindu Kush.3 While some ofthis water is lost to evaporation, the balancerecharges surface and groundwater systems.Estimates of annual water resources vary amongsources, which is not surprising given limitationsin collecting hydrological datasets. A reasonableestimate, however, is based on FAO4 andgroundwater studies5 that place annual volumeat 95 billion m3, which consists of approximately

88 percent (84 billion m3) surface water and 12percent (11 billion m3) groundwater6.

Surface waterAfghanistan has five major river basins HariRod-Murghab, Helmand, Kabul (Indus), Northernand Amu Darya as well as five non-drainageareas as shown in Figure 3. While thecatchments of the other four basins originateentirely within the country, the Amu Darya ispart of a larger transboundary catchment, whichincludes areas within neighbouring Uzbekistanand Tajikistan.


24/80


6

The five basins are summarised in Table 1. Thewestward-draining Helmand and Hari Rod-Murghab river basins, while comprising morethan half of the area of Afghanistan, account foronly 15 percent of mean annual volume.Conversely, the Amu Darya basin makes up only14 percent of total area but contributes 57percent of annual volume due to the highcatchment elevation and resulting perennial

flow in tributary rivers. Flow regimes for smalltributary rivers and streams in many parts of thecountry are ephemeral that is, temporarilyfollowing periods of rainfall or snowmelt. Thisoffers a relatively narrow window of wateravailability for surface water diversion. Thereis, however, sustained subsurface flow that isharvested through a temporary canal ordiversion bund, which is locally called jar.

River basin Area (%) Water (%) Rivers

Amu Darya 14 57 Amu Darya, Panj, Wakhan, Kunduz, KokchaHari Rod-Murghab 12 4 Hari Rod, Murghab, Koshk

Helmand 41 11 Helmand, Arghandab, Tarnak, Ghazni, Farah, Khash

Kabul (Indus) 11 26 Kabul, Konar, Panjshir, Ghorband, Alinigar, Logar

Northern 11 2 Balkh, Sar-i-Pul, Khulm

non-drainage area 10

Source: Favre and Kamal, Watershed Atlas of Afghanistan

Table 1: River basins in Afghanistan

Figure 4: Hydrographs for four major rivers

Source: Ministry of Energy and Water, Kabul

Harirud

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May.

Jun. Ju

l.Au

g.Se

p.Oc

t.No

v.De

c.

Flowrate(m3/s)

Mean

80%ile

Helmand River

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May.

Jun. Ju

l.Au

g.Se

p.Oc

t.No

v.De

c.

Flowrate(m3/s)

Mean

80%ile

Sare Pul

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

12.0

14.0

jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May.

Jun. Ju

l.Au

g.Se

p.Oc

t.No

v.De

c.

Flowrate(m3/s)

Average80%ile

Kunduz River

0

20

40

60

80

100

jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May.

Jun. Ju

l.Au

g.Se

p.Oc

t.No

v.De

c.

Flowrate(m3/s)

Mean80%ile


25/80


7

Groundwater

The principal aquifer systems in Afghanistan

are: quaternary deposits in the major rivervalleys, particularly in the Kabul River Basin;the river systems in the Helmand River Basin tothe east (Ghazni, Tarnak, Arghistan andArghandab); the Hari Rod and certain riversystems within the Northern and Amu DaryaBasins; the semi-consolidated Neocene Agedeposits in the Kabul River and other riverbasins; and carbonate rock aquifer systems onthe northern flank of the Hindu Kush mountainsand along parts of the Helmand River in UruzganProvince.7

Estimations of groundwater average annualrecharge and usage within the five river basinsare shown in Table 2. The total recharge forconfined and unconfined aquifers is roughly 10.6billion m3 per year while usage is 2.8 billion m3per year. Historically, usage has largely beenlimited to water from shallow unconfinedaquifers abstracted through karez as well asthrough traditional wells from which water isdrawn using animal power (arhad). More

recently, deeper confined aquifers are beingdeveloped for domestic and municipal watersupply using modern well-drilling techniques.

As will be discussed later, numerous irrigationsystems in Afghanistan depend on shallowgroundwater sources. Based on macro waterbalance estimates, water for irrigation,domestic and industrial use has potential to befurther developed. To date, however, thereappears to be little detailed research on

groundwater resources. There is a need tobetter understand major groundwater systemsas well as to develop policies and strategiesaimed at sustaining current use and meetingfuture demand.

2.3 Irrigated agriculture

The cultivable area of Afghanistan is estimated

to be 7.7 million ha, which is roughly 12 percent of the countrys area.8 Approximately 42percent is intensively or intermittentlyirrigated. Much of this land lies in the fertilealluvium of major river valleys.

Taken from an FAO satellite survey conducted inthe early 1990s, Table 3 lists irrigated landcover by river basin.9 It shows total irrigatedarea as 3.21 million ha of which 48 percent isintensively cultivated and 52 percent isintermittently cultivated with one or more cropseach year. It is assumed that the survey coversboth informal and formal irrigation systems; notlisted, however, is area used for privategardens, vineyards and fruit trees, which totalsmore than 90,000 ha and likely receives some

form of irrigation.

A survey of irrigation systems from the late1960s usefully indicates the number of systemsand water sources and is summarised in Table 4.It shows the existence of nearly 29,000 systems

7 Uhl, An Overview of Groundwater Resources and Challenges.

8 Provincial Landcover Atlas of Islamic State of Afghanistan, FAO/UNDP project AFG/90/002 (Rome: FAO, 1999).9 The irrigated areas are calculated using the AIMS dataset derived from the FAO land cover survey, which may be accessed from http://www.aims.org.af.

River Basin Recharge Usage

Kabul 1,920 530

Helmand 2,480 1,500

Hari Rod-Murghab 1,140 460

Northern 2,140 210

Amu Darya 2,970 100

Total 10,650 2,800

Table2: Groundwater in Afghanistan(in million m3/year)

Sources: Uhl, An Overview of Groundwater Re-sources and Challenges; FAO, Promotion of Agricul-tural Rehabilitation and Development Programs inAfghanistan


26/80


8

of which 27 percent drew from surface watersources (rivers and streams) and the remainderfrom groundwater sources (springs, karez andwells). While surface water systems made up

less than a third of the total number, theycovered 86 percent of the irrigated area,confirming the importance of surface water asthe main irrigation water source. Conversely,while a large number of systems are suppliedfrom groundwater, they accounted for less thanan average irrigated area of less than 20hectares per system.

Figure 5 shows irrigated area for the five riverbasins, using the above data combined with

data on formal irrigation systems as well asestimated irrigated areas for four provinces notoriginally included. Again, it highlights thedominance of both surface water systems and

the Helmand, Kabul and Northern river basins assources for irrigation.

Some obvious differences, however, existbetween this figure and the data reported in theFAO survey taken in the 1990s. In the late1960s, irrigated area by water source wasestimated to be 2.38 million ha, but this wasbased on only 28 of the 32 provinces andevidently does not include formal irrigationsystems. The total is closer to 2.9 million ha

Water basin

Areas (ha)

Total%Intensivelycultivated

(2 crops/ year)

Intensivelycultivated

(1 crop/year)

Intermittentlycultivated

Total

Amu Darya 106,200 247,800 48,100 402,100 13

Kabul 62,000 244,000 178,100 484,100 15

Helmand 95,000 380,800 900,200 1,376,000 43

Hari Rod-Murghab 34,500 138,000 128,400 300,900 9

Northern 40,000 197,800 387,000 624,800 19

non-drainage area 3,880 10,000 6,700 20,580 1

Total 341,580 1,218,400 1,648,500 3,208,480 100

Source: collated from FAO land cover survey, AIMS website (http://www.aims.org.af)

Table 3: Landcover survey by water basin

System and area Rivers and streams Springs Karez Wells(arhad) Total

systems (no. of) 7,822 5,558 6,741 8,595 28,716

systems (%) 27 19 23 30

area (ha) 2,348,000 187,000 168,000 12,000 2,715,000

area (%) 86 7 6


27/80


9

Figure 5: Irrigated area by river basin water source

after accounting for approximately 180,000 hafrom the missing four provinces (Khost,Nuristan, Paktika and Sar-i-Pul) and for formalsystems (330,000 ha). After adjusting for themissing information, the survey provides

reasonably good agreement with the FAO surveyin terms of the percentage of systems withineach water basin and province. This indicatesthat both surveys were probably reasonablyaccurate at the time they were conducted.Much of the variation in irrigated area may bedue to factors such as neglect or damage due toconflict as well as natural processes includingavailability and development of water. In somecases, estimates also take into account areduction in irrigated area during prolonged

drought conditions between 2001 and 2004.Estimates on the operational status of irrigationsystems and areas requiring rehabilitation alsovary.

Average annual water use for irrigation in 1997was estimated at 20 billion m3 of which 17billion m3 was from surface water sources and

the remainder from groundwater10. Withrehabil itation of systems and improvedmanagement, water use is estimated to increaseto 35 billion m3 per year.

Given that the last survey of irrigated area isnow more than 15 years old, there is a goodcase to update previous estimates. Current datais considerably out of date, incomplete and lackspecific details on system type, area andmanagement. A systematic inventory of systemswould provide a sound basis for the planning ofirrigation and water resource managementpolicies and programmes.

10 Based on a total irrigated area of 3.3 million ha, this is the equivalent annual application depth of 600 mm.

Source: Government of Afghanistan, 1980 Statistical Yearbook in Anderson,Rehabilitationof Informal Irrigation Systems in Afghanistan.

0

100,000

200,000

300,000

400,000

500,000

600,000

700,000

800,000

900,000

Amu Darya Kabul (Indus) Helmand Harirud-

Murghab

Northern

IrrigatedArea(ha)

Rivers

Springs

Karez

Arhad Wells


28/80


10

Given the importance of irrigation to thesustainability of rural livelihoods, there is aneed for a pragmatic and systematic approachto define system types. This would enable amore effective approach for planning researcha n d i n t e r v e n t i o n s r e l a t e d t o s y s t e mrehab i l i t a t i on and deve l opment . Theclassification proposed below is intended toprovide an objective approach to group systemsaccording to common physical and socialcharacteristics and one that may be furtherrefined in the future.

Classification systems generally follow ahierarchical approach, linking system types by aseries of criteria: physical, social, functionaland financial. The selection of criteria generallyrelates to the intended use of the classificationsystem. For example, Renault and Godaliyaddaproposed a classification for surface watersystems focused on improving operationalmanagement11.

This paper presents a relatively simpleclassification system, but one that is a usefulstarting point for developing more detailedanalyses. Well-suited to the intended audience,it provides an introduction to irrigation inAfghanistan and an understanding of therelationship between system types and theirphysical as well as social features. The adoptedapproach is similar to one presented in a recentFAO report on system typology12 but develops amore defined structure based on water source.

In particular, it draws on the link between, onthe one hand, supply availability and reliabilityof various water sources and, on the other, such

features as system infrastructure, functionalityand organisation.

As presented in the following sections, watersource is a key determinant of where and howirrigation systems developed in Afghanistan.There are major differences between surfaceand groundwater sources in terms of quantity ofsupply, timing and quality. In turn, theseinfluence: the area to be irrigated; crop typesand intensities; infrastructure for watercollection and distribution; water allocations;and, the o rgan i sa t ion , operat ion andmaintenance of systems.

F o r p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n s , t h e p r o p o s e dclassification adopts some terminology currentlyused in Afghanistan. This will enable easierunderstanding of the system types, particularlyusing informal to describe traditional,community-based systems and formal todenote central government-supported systems.

This classification of system types is based onthe following:

the origins of development, distinguishingbetween informal and formal systems;

water source, which is categorised intosurface water and groundwater; and

system, which is classified by infrastructurerelated to primary water source13 such as

large formal government schemes as well assystems involving surface run-of-riversources, karez, springs, wells, dams and

3. Classifying Irrigation System Types

11 D. Renault and G.G.A. Godaliyadda, Generic Typology for Irrigation Systems Operation, Research Report 29 (Colombo, Sri Lanka: Inter-national Water Management Institute, 1999).

12 Puspa, Irrigation Systems in Afghanistan.13 While the classification is based on primary water source, it is recognised that, in some systems, cognitive use can result from more thanone source; in particular, smaller karez and spring-fed systems may divert surface water during peak flow periods.


29/80


11

harvest14; these may be further divided into

subsystems or specific schemes.

The hierarchy of classification approximatesshare of total irrigated area for water sourcesand system types (Figure 6). It shows theimportance of informal systems, which accountfor 90 percent of irrigated area, as well as thesignificance of surface water, which supplies 86percent of irrigated area. Estimates of areasirrigated by small dams or diverted surfacewater run-off currently do not exist.

The following irrigation systems typology willhighlight key features of informal and formalsystems and case examples in Afghanistan. Thesection on informal systems covers distribution,infrastructure, organisation, operation,performance, merits, constraints and issues for

improvement; the one on formal systems is

confined to key features, location, irrigatedarea and organisation. The following detailedsections focus a great deal more on community-based informal systems, which make up themajority of systems in Afghanistan, while formalsystems supply less than 10 percent of thecountrys irrigated area.

Figure 6: Classification of irrigation system types in Afghanistan

14 Harvest includes all informal methods for diversion and spreading of surface run-off, e.g. flood spreading.

Figure 6: Classification of irrigation system types in Afghanistan (by area % )


30/80


12

Informal systems are traditionally developedand managed by local communities, largely withlocal resources and knowledge. In most cases,these systems have existed for generations andhave undergone many social and physicalchanges. They have expanded or, in somecases, contracted due to water availability orchallenges arising from the last 30 years ofconflict. Informal systems account for 90percent of irrigated area in Afghanistan andvirtually all (99 percent) of the countrysirrigation systems by number15. Nearly 29,000informal irrigation systems are estimated to bein Afghanistan16.

Contrary to their name, informal systems aregenerally well organised and have well-definedprocedures for operation and maintenance.Over time, the construction and maintenance ofthese systems have required considerable

resources , mater ia l s , l abour and thecooperation of neighbouring communities. Thesurvival of the systems and their recipientslargely depends on the ability of communities tooperate and maintain systemsusually withlimited or no outside assistance.

Within informal systems, irrigation is the mainusage of water by volume but they also serve asa source for domestic and livestock watersupply, either directly or through local rechargeof shallow wells. These multiple uses of waterare an important factor in system operation andmaintenance. In larger systems, an additionalissue is access to and across canals for themovement of people and goods by both foot andvehicle.

Construction methods vary according to localconditions. Traditionally, communities used

4. Typology of Informal Irrigation Systems

15 All estimates of the number of irrigation systems in subsequent sections are based on information presented in R. Favre, R. and G.M.Kamal, Watershed Atlas of Afghanistan (Kabul: Ministry of Irrigation, Water Resources and Environment, 2004).

16 Statistics from Yearbook (1980) in Favre and Kamal, Watershed Atlas of Afghanistan.

Figure 7: Percentage by system type of total number ofinformal systems and total area irrigated

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Surface water Karez Springs Wells

Percentage

NumberArea

Source: Statistical Yearbook 1980 in Favre and Kamal, Watershed Atlas of Afghanistan


31/80


13

methods that were within their technical andfinancial capability. Particularly since the

1970s, however, the central government,internat ional agenc ies and NGOs havecontributed to interventions. Many have beenemergency-oriented, focusing on replacing orrebuilding damaged structures. Compared tolocal approaches, the more recent design andconstruction approach usually involves moreconventional methods and are intended toprovide a more secure long-term solution.

Local communities use a variety of constructionmaterials that are available, affordable andmanageable, including dry stone, stonemasonry, brick and timber. Canals are generallybuilt with unlined earth wherever site and soilconditions are suitable and, when necessary,stone slab or stone masonry. Simple earthstructures and bunds are constructed for waterdiversion from rivers and streams. Communitiesare very adept at using readily availableresources; it is not uncommon to see war junksuch as tanks and armoured vehicles inprotection and diversion structures in rivers.

Figure 7 shows the percentage distribution ofinformal systems by area and number. Surfacewater systems make up less than 30 percent ofsystems but account for 86 percent ofAfghanistans irrigated area. While karezcomprise 23 percent of systems, they accountfor 6 percent of irrigated area. The largenumber of wells (30 percent of all systems)irrigate a far smaller share (less than 1 percent)of area. It should be noted, however, that these

estimates are more than 15 years old and anupdated inventory is required.

4.1 Surface water systems

Surface water systems are the most extensiveirrigation type in Afghanistan, estimated toaccount for 86 percent of total irrigated areaand less than 30 percent of informal systems.Their prevalence largely results from wide-spread availability of both water resources from

rivers and streams as well as adjacent landsuitable for development. While these systems

considerably vary, they share some commoninfrastructural, organisational and operationalfeatures.

Along with rivers and streams, the watersources for these systems are washes and reuseof drainage water from adjacent upstreamsystems. The availability, reliability and qualityof water source vary; the timing of peak flowand duration of flow are prime factors indetermining the supply duration for surfacewater systems. Surface water resources arelargely dependent on spring and early summersnowmelt that result in peak flows in the earlyto late spring, depending on the river morphol-ogy and location within the catchment. Particu-larly in northern catchments, perennial flowoccurs in the larger rivers. In the southern andwestern catchments as well as small streamsand washes, flow is largely confined to thespring and early summer months.

The systems are essentially driven by the

timing, rate and duration of the annual watersupply. Irrigation communities use a watermanagement strategy that maximises harvestingpotential from this variable supply. Waterdistribution and management is based on asystem of water entitlements related to irri-gated area. Using a combination of proportionaland rotational allocations, the system hasflexibility in adjusting irrigated area andcropping intensity to match water supply levels.In years of high water availability, irrigated area

is increased while, in dry years, it is reduced.

DistributionSurface water systems have existed in Afghani-stan for hundreds, if not thousands, of years.Their development is ongoing; reports ofimprovements and new systems have emergedas recently as 80 to 90 years ago. For many ruralcommunities, irrigation development is aprerequisite to community development and


32/80


14

often has been affected by conflict and migra-

tion. For example, emigration from the newly-formed Soviet bloc in the 1920s influenced theexpansion of irrigation systems in KunduzProvince.17

Systems generally develop along river terracesand alluvial plains. In some cases, small stand-alone systems are constructed, particularly inupper catchments where suitable land is limitedand because of the confined nature of the rivervalley. In the lower catchment of larger river

systems, however, infrastructure is oftenadjacent and hydrologically interlinked; drain-age water from an upstream system maydischarge directly or indirectly to downstreamcanals. This interdependence is an importantconsideration when evaluating overall irrigationand water use efficiency.

Based on a survey from the 1960s and 1970s,

Figure 8 and Figure 9 show an extensive distri-bution of surface water systems by number andirrigated area per province. Higher concentra-tions of systems are located in the central andmore mountainous provinces possibly explainedby the existence of a large number of smallsystems. The largest irrigated areas per prov-ince (greater than 200,000 ha) are found in thenorthern provinces of Kunduz and Balkh.Average irrigated area is approximately 260 ha,but systems cover a range from less than 100 ha

to more than 10,000 ha. As with data in generalon irrigation in Afghanistan, an inventory willhave to be taken to more accurately determinethe number of systems and irrigated areas.

While this study does not adopt the subdivision,a recent FAO draft typology further classifies

17 Jonathan Lee, The Performance of Community Water Management Systems (Kabul: Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit, 2007).

Figure 8: Number of surface water systems per province


33/80


15

Figure 9: Area irrigated by surface water systems per province

surface water systems into upper and lower

catchment18. The rationale for the additionalclassification rests on the differences in watersupply reliability, irrigated areas and landavailability. Upper catchment (also known asnarrow valley) systems are located in thenarrower, upper catchment tributaries wheresurface flows are less sustained and irrigableland is constrained by topography. Lowercatchment (or wide valley-flat plain) systemsare located in lower catchment reaches thatfeature large extensive irrigable areas and more

sustained surface and subsurface flow condi-tions. While the subsystems may differ in termsof size and water supply, they share manyphysical and social features; for this reason, thefollowing subsections are applicable to both. Atthis stage, there is insufficient quantitative

information on surface water subsystems to

present them as separate cases in this paper.

Infrastructure

Structures typically found in surface watersystems were traditionally the product of localknowledge and experience, built with readilyavailable and affordable construction materials.As part of emergency and rehabilitation efforts,recent interventions have introduced conven-tional engineering approaches with the aim of

improving system performance and reducingmaintenance requirements and cost. Thedescriptions of structures below are groupedaccording to function and standard engineeringclassification of canal structures. Where

18 Puspa, Irrigation Systems in Afghanistan.


34/80


16

relevant and known, a locally used name isincluded.

Diversion st ruct ureWater flow is diverted from the river or streamby a sarband, which is typically constructedfrom a combination of local materials such astimber, gravel and sand bags. The length anddimensions of a sarband are generally a functionof river morphology, system flow requirements,available materials, and labour requirements forconstruction and maintenance.

The operation and maintenance of the sarbandis critical to overall system performance andreliability, but it is, for most systems, the mostdifficult structure to maintain due to itsvulnerability to flood damage. This damage canlead to drop-off in intake flows and prematuredecline in water availability. Repairs aredifficult to undertake in high flow conditionsand are often delayed until flow recession.

More than one intake is often constructeddepending on river hydrology and flow charac-

teristics. These may include a spring intake todivert high spring flows and a summer intaketo supplement flows following the spring peak.The summer intake intercepts and diverts baseflow from the shallow gravels to prolong watersupply into the late summer months, albeit atlower supply levels.

Main canalThe main (or primary) canal conveys water fromthe intake structure to and through the com-

mand area. Depending on location and rivergradient, the main canal may extend for severalkilometres in order to command the irrigablearea. With a few exceptions, main canals arehand-dug and made of unlined earth. The initialsections from the intake frequently run along-side the river or stream due to access and slopeconstraints. These sections are vulnerable toflooding.

Water flow into the main canal is traditionallyunregulated. Depending on water source, canals

have generally high capacities for accommodat-ing large peak flows and providing a storagebuffer to allow for variations between day andnight irrigation demand. The canal serves as thewater conveyor that supplies offtakes andsecondary canals.

Secondary and tert iary canalsFrom the main canal to the farm turnout, waterflows through an extensive network of secon-dary and tertiary unlined earth canals. Typi-cally, the secondary canal is the responsibilityof a village or group of villages and the offtakerate based on established water entitlement. Itis not uncommon to see a number of secondarycanals closely aligned in parallel, supplyingseparate villages.

Cont rol st ructuresMost larger systems have a range of controlstructures for regulation and distribution ofwater from the main canal to secondary canalsand offtakes. These include:

cross regulators, which are weirs of varioustypes and construction that regulate canalwater levels, usually in conjunction withbifurcators and offtakes;

bifurcators or sehdarak, which divide flow tosecondary canals and offtakes according to aproportional distribution that serves waterentitlement and system operation;

offtakes, which are outlet structures fromprimary and secondary canals and thedimensions of which, in some cases, areproportional to the flow allocation; and

spillways, which discharge excess waterfrom the canal and protect the system andcommunity from floodingsometimes asformal structures and sometimes as breach-able sections of the main canal adjacent towashes and drains.


35/80


17

Conveyance st ruct uresFor crossing of washes and cross drainage, most

systems commonly have conveyance structures,including:

inverted siphons of various capacities forcrossing major drainage features such aswashes, canals and drains;

aqueducts, which are commonly used tocross washes and drainage features;

super-passages, a more recently developedstructure for passage of cross drainage fromwashes; and

culverts for canal cross drainage.

Prot ect ion st ructuresA range of structures are used to protectsystems from flood damage, including:

embankments, which are for protectingcanals and intakes and are constructed fromnot only stone and earth but also readily

available materials such as war junk;

gabion walls, a more recent adoption that isrelatively easy to construct using localmaterials and labour; and

retaining walls, which are large diversionstructures built with stone masonry orreinforced concrete.

Water mill s

Most medium and large systems have a numberof water mills, which are usually privatelyowned and assigned water at night or times oflow demand.

BridgesBoth foot and vehicle access across canals takeplace via a variety of bridges. Constructionmethods vary widely depending on canal widthand available materials. In their simplest form,bridges are timber and earth structures.

Public accessDomestic and livestock water users can gain

access to the canal at villages.

On-farm ir ri gat ion methodsThese methods include basin and borderirrigation for cereal crops (wheat, barley andrice) and furrow for vegetable and vine crops.

OrganisationThe organisational structure of surface watersystems varies depending on the history of thesystem, water availability and irrigated area.The size of an organisation generally relates tothe size of the system; larger systems, forexample, have larger organisations. Usuallycorresponding to system structure, managementis split between the main canal, secondarycanals and subsequent subunits. There are alsoregional differences in terminology used todescribe various levels of management.

Table 5 presents a summary of organisationalhierarchy for surface water systems. The overallorganisational structure generally reflects the

features of system infrastructure and waterdistribution. Primary structures (intake andmain canal) and secondary canals (allocations tocommand areas) are managed separately.

Overall system management is led by a seniorrepresentative called wakil (Herat) or mirabbashi (Kunduz and Balkh). This individual isusually a well-respected community memberand landowner with system experience andknowledge as well as influence on local govern-

ment. In addition to system management, healso has the broader responsibility of liaisingwith adjacent irrigation communities, particu-larly over customary rights on the location andoperation of the sarband.

In some locations, the wakil or mirab bashi maybe supported by a main canal committee whilein others by a mirab or chak bashi, but in bothcases the supporting role represents thedifferent upper, middle and lower sections of a


36/80


18

system. In larger systems, a badwan is responsi-ble for operation and maintenance of thesarband due to its importance and high mainte-nance requirements.

Through a mirab (Herat) or chak bashi (Kunduz

and Balkh) or a village committee, the recipientcommunity is usually responsible for themanagement of operation and maintenance ofall canals and structures downstream of thesecondary canals to farm turnouts. The mirab orchak mirab is typically a well-respected landlesssharecropper who has working knowledge ofsystem operation and maintenance. This officialis usually elected by water right holders(landowners) or their sharecropping representa-tives.

Surface water systems are largely managed asautonomous units. While there are variations instructure, they essentially follow similarprinciples regarding election of representatives,payment for services, and contributions tomaintenance and capital works. These organisa-

tions follow many of the concepts behind wateruser associations: stakeholder participation,community-based representation, financialindependence and hydraulic integrity. Govern-ment involvement is generally minimal andlargely confined to provision of emergencyrehabilitation, dispute resolution and, in someinstances, holding the register of water rights(Herat).

Level Title Responsibilities

system

wakil(Herat)

mirab bashi(Kunduz and Balkh)

overall management conflict resolution scheduling annual maintenance coordinating hashar and cash contributions collection of annual contributions coordinating emergency response external coordination (e.g. with Governor,

government and NGOs)

intake(sarband)

badwan(Herat)

intake construction and maintenance

maincanal

mirab(Herat)

chak bashicanal committee (Kunduzand Balkh)

managing system operation supervising annual maintenance supervising construction works collection of annual contributions

secondarycanals

mirab(Herat)

chak bashi(Kunduz and Balkh)

village committee

management of branch water allocations androtations

coordinating annual maintenance conflict resolution

tertiarycanals

canal committee orvillage elder

management of water allocations provision of hashar labour for maintenance

Table 5: Surface water system organisational hierarchy

MAINSYSTEM

SECONDARYSYSTEMS


37/80


19

Payment for the services of system representa-tives is traditionally set as a unit weight of crop

(e.g. wheat). The amount of payment receivedby an official depends on his level. Rates alsovary between systems. In the Joy Naw system inHerat, the payment for a mirab is reported tobe about 64 kg (locally, 16 man) of wheat perannum19. It is also reported that some landown-ers opt to pay the cash equivalent.

OperationWater is generally distributed according to itsavailability and established rights and entitle-ments, but the adopted method is a function ofthese factors as well as system design, infra-structure and system operation. Water distribu-tion methods include proportional, rotational,needs-based and a combination of all threemethods.20 Local and regional variations exist.

The management approach adapts to changes inavailability and provides some form of equity inallocations to meet irrigation needs. Duringperiods of high water availability, proportionaldistribution is extended down the distribution

network according to entitlements, thusoptimising the water harvesting potential of thesystem. During periods of low flow, rotationalallocations are progressively moved up thedistribution network.

Water entitlement is measured in flow unitsthat irrigate a specified area; the terminologyand values for these measures vary for differentregions. Water allocations, based on cumulativeentitlements, are distributed from the main

canal to the secondary canals by use of a flowdivider (bifurcator or sehdarak). Measures andterms for water entitlements vary betweenregions (juftgaw in Herat; pau or qulba innorthern regions). A juftgaw is a flow unit

sufficient to irrigate an area of land approxi-mated by number of jerib, which range from 40

to 120 jerib depending on differing wateravailability between the upper and lowersystem sections. The term is derived from thearea worked by a yoke of paired ploughing oxen.

In northern regions, a system of allocation issimilarly based on pau or qulba. A juftgaw isapproximated by a specific number of jerib, aunit equivalent to roughly one-fifth of a hec-tare. Sections within systems range from 40 to120 jerib (16,000 ha to 48,000 ha).

Nawbat, the rotational allocation system, isbased on water entitlements, expressed asallocation in hours (saat) per return interval(measured in days or roz). Rotational allocationis practised on the secondary and tertiary canalsand, during periods of low flow, on the maincanal. The return interval, which varies widelyamong systems, can be as short as four or fivedays but during water shortages may be morethan 20 days.

In some locations like Herat, water entitlementsare supported by ancient law recorded in aqawala or title deed.21 From the main canal toofftakes and secondary canals, the allocation ofentitlements may also be recorded by thesystem wakil or mirab bashi as well as by theDepartment of Irrigation, Water Resources andEnvironment (DOI).

There are well-established local rules on waterallocated from the rivers and streams that serve

as primary sources. Agreements betweenadjacent irrigation communities govern thelocation of the sarband. There may also be localagreements on sharing river and stream flowsduring periods of low flow, which could deter-

19 Jonathan Lee, Mirab and Water User Association Report: Western Basins Project (Kabul: ADB, 2005).20 Snowy Mountain Engineering Corporation, Survey Report on Institutional Issues, Operation and Maintenance of Traditional Canal Sys-tems in Lower Balkh Area: Balkh River Integrated Water Resources Management Project (Kabul: ADB and Ministry of Energy and Water,2006).


38/80


20

mine whether water is rotationally allocatedbetween communities or released for a speci-

fied period.

While this summarises the general approach towater management and entitlement, thecurrent literature evidently shows that theallocation and distribution of entitlementswithin systems is often complex. In somesystems, entitlements vary between upper andlower sections of the main canal as a potentialmechanism to compensate for inequities inwater distribution.22 Disputes may also ariseover allocations between communities withinsystems. There is clearly a need to betterunderstand the structure and operation of waterentitlements and allocation management as wellas their impact on system water use efficiencyand productivity.

System maintenance is a major activity thatrequires considerable organisation and mobilisa-tion of resources. For many systems, peak flowpresents a challenge to protect the system,irrigated land and village infrastructure from

flooding. Flood flows are usually heavily ladenwith silt from surface run-off. While enhancingsoil fertility, this is a major problem for canalmaintenance, making de-silting a principalactivity and cost.

Aside from de-silting, routine maintenanceincludes constructing one or more sarband andrehabilitating structures such as offtakes anddarak (a water share determined as a flow ratepassing through a sehdarak for a specified

time). While there are regional variations,maintenance is generally timed for early springduring the months of Hamal and Hut (Februaryto April) to coincide with the period of low or noflow when farm labour is readily available.23

As with other informal systems, operation andmaintenance of surface water systems are

labour intensive. Labour is traditionally suppliedfor these activities under a system locallyreferred to as hashar. Landowners and share-croppers provide labour in proportion to waterentitlements or, when they are unable tocontribute labour, the cash equivalent at a dailyrate. The availability of local labour is a keyelement for sustainability, but it may be, attimes, a constraint for landowners whenmaintenance conflicts with necessary on-farmand off-farm activities.

Main canal maintenance is organised by thewakil or mirab bashi; according to their waterentitlements, landowners and sharecropperscontribute hashar or cash in kind. The number

of labour units and duration of contribution isdetermined by a system related to either waterentitlement or nawbat. Depending on the size ofthe system, maintenance works may be sched-uled for each of the upper, middle and lower

21 Lee, The Performance of Community Water Management Systems.

22 Lee, Mirab and Water User Association Report.

23 Bob Rout, Attachment 9 in Western Basins Project: PPTA Report, (Kabul: ADB and Ministry of Irrigation, Water Resources and Environ-ment, 2005).

Illustration 1: Annual maintenance on Joy Nawmain canal, Herat (Bob Rout photograph)

Illustration 1: Annual maintenance on Joy Nawmain canal, Herat (Bob Rout photograph)


39/80


21

sections and the main intake structure, to becarried out by labour from recipient communi-

ties. Recipient landowners and communities areresponsible for maintaining the secondary totertiary canals, using contributions of labourand cash in kind for de-silting and reconstruc-tion.

PerformanceTo date, there appears to have been littleresearch conducted on the performance ofirrigation systems in Afghanistan. While rela-tively low efficiency levels have been cited inthe literature used for this study, it is oftenunclear how these values were determined or towhich efficiency element they are referring.While analysis is often based on distributionefficiency of the canals, this can be too simplis-tic an interpretation of both system perform-ance and overall efficiency of water use withinthe wider hydrology of the catchment.

The three measures relevant to system perform-ance are:

distribution efficiency, which calculates howefficiently water is distributed from sourceto farm turnout and measures the perform-ance of canals, conveyance and controlstructures in transporting water;

field application efficiency, which is theefficiency of on-farm distribution andapplication of water to meet crop waterrequirements and is a function of waterentitlement, irrigation schedule and on-farm

water distribution; and

water use efficiency, which measures cropproduction per gross unit of water intake(typically kilograms per cubic metre).

Current estimates of distribution efficiency forsurface water systems are 25 to 40 percent24

based on typical canal and system parameters.Efficiency likely varies with intake flow rates;due to a lower proportion of losses, relativelyhigh efficiencies gained during high flowdecrease as flow rates decline25.

Little is currently known about application orwater use efficiency in Afghanistan. Given thatboth distribution efficiency and production perunit area are low, however, water use effi-ciency is also likely to be low. This area requiresfurther investigation to determine the impact ofwater allocation and scheduling on crop produc-tivity and to determine variability betweenupper and lower sections.

Merits, constraints and improvementsThe principal merits of surface water systems inAfghanistan are:

the simplicity of structures and use of localmaterials and labour;

organisational independence as well as localrepresentation and community participationin both organisation and maintenance; and

the adaptability of system operations tovariable supply levels using proportionalallocation of water to maximise waterdistribution and storage as well as equity ofwater distribution.

The constraints of these systems are:

the limited durability of structures and thelack of control of peak flows;

the limitations of organisation, financing,technical support and inadequate transpar-ency in election processes;

24 I.M. Anderson, Irrigation Systems (Kabul: Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit, 2006).

25 Rout, Attachment 9.


40/80


22

high maintenance requirements for intakeand de-silting as well as the lack of flexibil-

ity in water allocation when facing changingland uses; and

high canal losses and low efficiency at timeof low flows.

There is potential for improvement in:

controls, including regulation of intakes forprotection and optimisation of waterdistribution, control gates, weirs, and checkand drops;

building better structures for flood protec-tion;

reducing maintenance costs of de-siltingstructures;

canal cleaning performance while alsoreducing cost;

the performance of canal alignment;

canal design to enhance distribution effi-ciency and sediment transport to reducesedimentation and scouring;

intake design and structure through the useof intake galleries;

organisation by upgrading skills for sustain-able financial management; and

water allocation by reviewing currentpractices.

Case example:Joy Naw, Herat Province

The Joy Naw, or new canal, is typical of lowercatchment surface irrigation systems in manylocations. Located on the right bank of the riverHari Rod in the Hari Rod-Murghab basin ofwestern Afghanistan, it is the first in a series ofintensive irrigation systems stretching over a 20km reach of the river. The Joy Naw was proba-bly built during the reign of the Timurud ruler ofHerat, Sultan Husain Baiqara (1469-1506 AD).26The canal and command areas are upstream andborder the more ancient Injil canal that flowsthrough the city of Herat.

The Joy Naw system commands approximately7,600 ha of which 5,100 ha are cultivated andthe rest falls within military camps and urbanareas. There are 20 villages within the commandarea inhabited by about 7,000 rural householdsof which 3,000 are landless.27 Land ownership isheavily skewed; approximately 15 percent ofmedium wealth households28 farm 40 percent ofthe area in small farms of roughly 2 ha. Another40 percent of the cultivated area is held in

small holdings of less than 1 ha by poor and verypoor households. Landlords rent out the remain-ing 20 percent for sharecropping to poor, verypoor and landless households.

Irrigated area varies between seasons dependingon rainfall and water availability from the HariRod but is usually between 3,000 and 4,000 ha.Winter and spring wheat are dominant crops,covering at least 70 percent of the irrigatedarea and reflecting the food needs of poor

households and the availability in the earlyspring. The remainder of the irrigated areaconsists of a combination of fodder crops (10

26 Lee, Mirab and Water User Associatio

how the water flows

Documents