The Reign of Richard III

Richard’s Usurpation

On the death of Edward, Elizabeth Woodville tried claiming the regency (probably due to her fear of Richard and other anti Woodville nobles) however the Council refused and appointed Richard (Gloucester) as protector until Edward V was crowned in a few months (as Edward was only 12 it was most likely that Gloucester would continue as protector until Edward was 16). Gloucester’s and the Woodville’s distrust of each other was equal, and on 29th April 1483 Richard and Stafford (Buckingham) intercepted a large group of Woodvilles at Stony Stratford who were taking Edward V to London. At the time, Richard claimed it was to safeguard Edward V and abide by the terms of Edward IV’s will (that Richard would become protector), however the next day Earl Rivers was arrested and dispatched to Pontefract for later execution along with Richard Grey (Edward V’s half brother) and Vaughan (Edward IV’s treasurer).

Edward IV’s policies towards the nobles meant there would be a struggle for power over his sons on his death, which would intensify factional conflict that had ravaged his council. It is important to acknowledge that Richard’s early moves were quite popular; due to the fear of the Woodvilles, people were quite happy with Richard becoming protector.

Short term causes of the usurpation

Edward’s creation of an inner circle of magnates led to dissatisfaction, with nobles such as Buckingham having no reason to be loyal to the heirs of Edward IV. These tensions between the inner circle of Richard, the Woodvilles and Hastings could not be controlled after Edward’s death. Although this created a crisis as to who would control Edward V, this did not have to end in usurpation.

It can be argued it was a mistake to give Edward V a Woodville upbringing; prominent figures such as Buckingham saw him as a pawn of the Woodvilles, and Edward V’s anger at Richard’s arrest of the Woodvilles meant Richard could expect swift revenge when Edward took the throne; defendants of Richard would suggest that to destroy the Woodville threat he had to seize the throne, however it is possible to challenge this view. If this was the case then surely Hastings too would be forced into rebellion (he was happy to remove the Woodvilles, or at least from a Woodville education) however he was not interested in removing Edward V.

Inherent Problems

The actual usurpation itself is incredibly controversial; we have a knowledge of what the key events are, however they are interpreted in different ways. Some historians have tried to absolve or at least limit the blame attached to Richard, whereas as others such as Warren suggest it was a part of a long term plan driven by “ruthless ambition”.

One of the biggest problems for historians investigating the usurpation is the limited evidence and its unreliable nature; the works of Thomas More and Polydore Vergil’s “ Historica Anglia” were both produced in the subsequent Tudor reign and thus promote Richard’s insatiable lust for power. In addition to this, as these pieces were written with the benefit of hindsight they go to great lengths to try and link Richard’s various actions together as part of

a coherent plan (when there is a strong argument that he was reacting to events as they occurred and that he did not have a systematic plan).

The key events of the usurpation

-29th April 1483 Richard and Stafford (Buckingham) intercepted a large group of Woodvilles at Stony Stratford who were taking Edward V to London. At the time, Richard claimed it was to safeguard Edward V and abide by the terms of Edward IV’s will (that Richard would become protector), however the next day Earl Rivers was arrested and dispatched to Pontefract for later execution along with Richard Grey (Edward V’s half brother) and Vaughan (Edward IV’s treasurer).

-On 22nd June Dr Ralph Shaw (under the instruction of Richard) preached at St Paul’s Cross and claimed that Edward IV’s children were illegitimate as he had allegedly ignored a pre contract to another woman, Lady Eleanor Butler. The chronicler Mancini also reports that Richard declared Edward IV illegitimate, spreading the rumour that he was the son of an archer called Blaybourne.

-This sermon was important because Richard was already protector at this point. What he was possibly trying to do was to try and win support in London for his planned usurpation (he already had considerable support in the north).

-There is evidence to suggest this was believed by many, and secured the approval from Londoners for Richard’s accession on 24th June. Two days later, Parliament offered him the throne. Whilst it could be argued that Richard’s failure to use force shows that his usurpation was relatively popular, this was only achieved through the latent threat of Richard’s northern army. When the Lords and Mps offered him the crown (which he pretended to be reluctant to take before accepting), they had little choice given Richard’s power and his cunning political manoeuvrings.

Ways in which Richard’s actions could be defended

One way of defending Richard comes in the form of the Titulus Regius, a petition that originated in the north in June 1483 and was eventually made statute (law) in 1484. The Titulus Regius (a copy of which was sent to the Calais Garrison in an attempt to secure their support) asked Richard to take the crown, suggesting that this would be conducive to good government, would be of benefit to the Common weal (the people as a whole) and would help restore law and order which had collapsed under Edward. The Titulus Regius also sought to invalidate the claims of Edward IV’s children suggesting the marriage between Edward and Elizabeth Woodvillle was made without the assent of the Lords and due to sorcery on the part of Elizabeth Woodville’s mother. The Titulus Regius demonstrates the significant support that Richard had in the north, and is used by some to suggest that he was pushed into seizing the throne by his supporters in the north. Although it is likely that Richard played some role in drawing up the Titulus Regius, the support it received demonstrates that there was significant support in the north for Richard’s usurpation, and in this area at least the usurpation was popular!

NB- the story that circulated about Edward IV being a bastard was not part of the Titulus Regius, and this rumour circulated separately.

Towards the end of his reign, Edward’s court was unpopular, with Richard withdrawing to the north (where he had a reputation for good government) in protest to the Woodville’s dominance. The fact Richard was named as Protector by the council on Edward’s death could upset people on it (as he was an outsider) giving some credibility to the argument that Richard was under threat from others.

There is some evidence that the charge of treason against Woodvilles (which was also used to implicate Hastings) has some credit, with cartloads of Woodville arms that had been brought to London (and which displayed the Woodville insignia) displayed by Richard.

How Richard attempted to secure his position having become King

Richard initially attempted to secure his position through the use of patronage, rewarding nobles such as Howard and Buckingham (and any other figures who had been wronged by either Edward or the Woodvilles) in an attempt to secure their support and widen his support base so as to include prominent figures from the south.

Buckingham was a particularly useful ally given the fact he was a southerner (most of Richard’s support came from the north) and his intense hatred of the Woodvilles; he had been forced to marry one by Edward (which he saw as marrying below his status) and saw his power reduced in Wales by Edward and the Woodvilles to the extent that he could not even get on the Council of Wales. In order to cultivate this friendship, Richard made Buckingham Chamberlain of North and South Wales, restoring much of the power he had lost.

Richard also rewarded those loyal to him; Thomas Howard was made the Earl of Surrey by Richard in 1483 and Richard continued to reward northerners such as Tyrell, and ensured that Viscount Lovel was made Lord Chamberlain in 1483.

In order to become accepted as King it was however essential that he was accepted by those not bound to him by self interest- Richard couldn’t give patronage to everybody! The Titulus Regius was clearly an attempt to win him support outside of the north, by making him look both popular ad powerful although the success of this was limited, a shown by his inability to win over the south by 1485

One of Richard’s first significant actions as king was to go on a royal progress to try and gain support. During this progress Pontefract was made a borough (given special priveleges), and Richard made a particularly grand entrance into York in order to display his regal status. Although Richard can be criticised for sticking to areas of the country in which he knew he was popular (the north and Gloucester) when in fact he should have gone to other areas to try and win support, one of the reasons for his progress was to impress the southern household men who travelled with him (who had previously been Edward’s) and threaten the south by showing the extent of his support in the north.

This progress was not however simply symbolic- it was designed to be a functioning and practical judicial progress, in which Richard invited complaints against wrongs committed by Edward’s regime. Although this was to some extent an attempt to discredit Edward it does also demonstrate the commitment of Richard towards law, order and justice (rather than win people round, it would actually anger lots of Ed Iv’s supporters, and turn them against Richard!) Richard consulted the various regional judges about defects in the law, sat in on certain trials and ensured local offenders were correctly punished. This apparent commitment of Richard to justice appears to be more than a publicity stunt, and is further reinforced by his decision to establish the court of requests (other wise known as the poor man’s court) which allowed all men to access justice. Richard was also keen to cultivate his image by promoting his Christian values (establishing charitable foundations at York minster and Middleham church) and by swearing his coronation oaths in English to appeal to the common man.

Buckingham’s Rebellion October-November 1483

This was the first rebellion that Richard faced, and it came from an unusual source, as Buckingham had previously been an ally in the usurpation. To call it “Buckingham’s” rebellion is however somewhat misleading, as the part he played was in no way as significant as others. Although he was involved in it, it was not his rebellion and was largely led by Edward IV’s ex householdmen. Despite the involvement of Henry Tudor who was touted as a potential replacement for Richard later on in the rebellion, the rebellion itself was primarily Yorkist, involving figures loyal to Edward IV and his dynasty who were worried as to the whereabouts of the princes.

Causes

Many of those who had accepted Richard as protector would not accept him as king. The usurpation had seemingly changed people’s minds on him, and although there is evidence to suggest that the pre contract story was believed in much of the north, it certainly did not convince all, particularly in the south. We have clear evidence of dissatisfaction in the south, with plans hatched to free the princes as early as July.

Key events/figures involved

The rebellion involved 33 JPs and 3 sheriffs who wanted to free the Princes, and restore the boy Edward V to the throne. These men were of relatively high status and clearly risked a lot, demonstrating the conviction they had in what they were doing and their anger towards Richard. Interestingly, many were the ex-household men of Edward, who Richard had tried to win round, showing the failure of Richard’s policies. When they learned that they then championed the claim of Henry Tudor. The fact that they were seemingly more desperate to depose Richard, rather than necessarily find a replacement is testimony to their hatred; those who accepted him as protector would not do so as King.

Buckingham was handed over by his own men after Richard III put a bounty on his head, however the rebellion was supported by many of Richard’s opponents such as the Woodvilles. Some of the figures who supported the rebellion do however show that Richard did not perhaps have as much support as he hoped wiith a former household member of Richard’s William Stonor joining the rebellion. More worrying for Richard was the involvement of his former brother in law Thomas St Leger.

Richard’s response

Richard raised an impressive army demonstrating the extent of his support in the north, and marched south forcing the rebels to disperse. He was successful in letting the commoners off, but placed prices on the heads of ringleaders, allowing him to arrest Buckingham. Buckingham was ultimately executed alongside many other southern gentry. In many ways, Richard’s response shows the power and support he had, and his swift response says quite positive things about him. The problem would be his long term responses that would really turn people against him

Effects of the rebellion

Although Henry Tudor quickly turned around when he realised the rebellion was doomed to failure, the fact that he was touted as a replacement made him a major rival. From this point onwards, Richard was terrified of the threat from henry VII. For the next two years the English defences would be on a war footing, which would greatly damage Richard’s finances. In addition to this, Richard’s fear of a future invasion from henry led to him introducing policies that made him more and more unpopular, increasing the chances of an invasion from Henry!

The aftermath

Perhaps more dangerous than the rebellion would be the methods used by Richard to maintain stability in the future which would possibly be the key cause of his eventual fall. He had lots of land to give away now (Buckingham was attainted), however he tended to give

it away to key figures such as Norfolk, Northumberland and Stanley, preventing him from significantly building up his support base. His attempts to get Henry back from Brittany failed, and the need to defend from invasion led to him limiting his planned financial reform.

His most significant action was to remove all the land from the southern ex household officials of Edward IV (as he could not count on their loyalty after Buckingham’s Rebellion), however the decision to attaint these figures without going through parliament angered people and made it hard for Richard to look like a man of justice like he tried to portray himself (possibly increase his unpopularity).

Unable to rely on the support of the nobles who had been loyal to Edward IV, Richard increasingly relied on those whose loyalty was to him. He planted many men of his ducal affinity in the south “the planting of northerners”, however this made his power base dangerously narrow. Southerners within his household were replaced by northerners, who in turn were given the land forfeited by those who had lost their positions in the south. This whole policy was incredibly unpopular in the south (there had been a long standing fear of northerners in the south stemming from 1461 when the Yorkists had been the party of the south) and began to give court an increasingly northern character.

To give the northerners standing he had to give them relatively large estates/important roles, making Marmaduke Constable (from Yorkshire) rule Tonbridge in Kent. By 1484, in the regions south of the Thames, 2/3 of sheriffs were “northern intruders”. Rather than instil the good government and law and order that Richard had promised, the Crowland Chronicle states how the people of the south “longed for the return of their old laws.”The crucial thing here is that planting northerners in the south was supposed to secure his position, however it only served to make him more unpopular in the south. When coupled with the fact that Buckingham’s Rebellion had showed the Princes were seemingly no longer alive (making Richard look like a child killer), public opinion, especially in the south was turning against him).

There were other key problems with planting northerners in the south, most notably that it made his power base dangerously narrow, ensuring that northerners did not want him to widen his power base. It also meant that Richard’s loyal supporters were far away from him at times when he needed them most. These problems were further compounded by the fact that Richard spent most of his time in Nottingham, away from the main seat of government in London.

Richard’s policies

A favourite of examiners is to ask how successful Richard was in achieving his aims as king. When answering such a question, you need to think about his aims. When looking at his legal reforms for example you need to consider what he was trying to do. If he brought in this legal reforms to get support he failed. If however his aim was to increase the rights of the common man and provide them with access to law and order then he succeeded.

Richard tried promoting himself as a god fearing and pious monarch, a stark contrast to his over indulgent brother Edward. He set up charitable foundations at both Middleham and York Minster, and publicly exhumed the body of Henry VI and re buried it in St George’s Chapel at Windsor (to try and win round Lancastrians). Although these can be dismissed as publicity stunts (he did in fact have an illegitimate son) Richard policies are not entirely typical of a King of this period.

Law and order under Richard

In 1483 Richard had a proclamation read out in Kent after Buckingham’s Rebellion in which he stressed his determination “to see due administration of justice” throughout the country. This could have been an exercise in public relations, however it is likely that he did have an interest in maintaining law and order, even if only to gain public acceptance. In many respects, Richard remains a man of contradictions- he was loyal to his brother yet deposed his children; he tried cultivating an image of piety, yet fathered an illegitimate child and accused his own mother of adultery. After Buckingham’s rebellion he seized land without passing an act of attainder, however in spite of this there remains a case that he wanted to spread the benefit of law to his subjects.

One area in which Richard received plaudits was his encouragement of people to bring bills of complaint to him. He encouraged this on his initial progress, and went on to make John Harrington clerk of Council of Requests, a significant development which for the first time

gave access to law for those who could not afford it. Richard’s commitment to law and order seems to be further demonstrated by the introduction of legislation which prevented those accused of crimes from losing their property before conviction, as well as introducing the principle of bail. His attempts to end benevolences, which had long been seen as exploitation on the part of the monarch seemed to suggest he was willing to curb some of his own priviledges, however he had to make an embarrassing U turn in this respect later on.

According to the Rous Rolls (notoriously pro Yorkist) “his law and judges sat in every place”, and that by punishing those who broke his laws and oppressed the commons he received “the love of all his subjects rich and poor”. Although the Roux Rolls can be heavily criticised, it is likely that Richard wanted to take his kingly duties seriously, particularly given how much his usurpation had cost him. Part of his interest in pursuing law and order was undoubtedly to service his own needs as by encouraging petitions from those wronged by Edward and the Woodvilles (the Woodvilles had dominated the Council of Wales and had excluded previously prominent nobles) he could try and win around those isolated by his brother. The problem with this policy was that it meant that he isolated those Yorkists who had supported Edward IV . His concern however for enclosure in Wales (this was something which affected the common man as opposed to the landowner) does however suggest that his interest in law and order was to a large extent aimed at helping others.

The Council of the North

One of Richard’s most far sighted moves (copied by Henry VII) was to establish the Council of the North, which would work along the lines of the Council of Wales set up by Edward. On the surface this aimed to improve law and order in the region by ensuring that Richard’s laws were implemented and obeyed in what had, in the past been a remote region run by overmighty nobles who had been largely immune to the monarch’s legislation. By installing a council instead of relying on a powerful magnate such as Northumberland, Richard could extend his authority without having to worry about increasing the power of a potentially dangerous noble (this shows his fear of making certain nobles too powerful). The Council of the North was in part motivated by a desire to centralise (e.g. make sure power rested with the king rather than a particular noble), however it is more likely that his primary motive was to reduce the power held by the Earl of Northumberland in the region. The fact that the President of the Council of the North was Norfolk whose power base was not in the region was a wise plan, however this further demonstrated Richard’s suspicion when it came to the nobles. The Council of the North was a good idea, however it possibly angered Northumberland, who resented his decreased power (look at his actions at Bosworth).

Richard and finance

Richard was accused by the Crowland chronicler of frittering away the money that Edward had left, however the amount that Edward left was significantly reduced as a result of his war with Scotland to the extent that he only left £1200 in the treasury on his death.

Richard’s actual financial policies were quite sensible; he revived chamber finance and benefited from a number of attainders, particularly following Buckingham’s Rebellion. He gave land to supporters but was reluctant to grant titles (as shown when he rewarded figures

such as Ratcliffe and Catesby). This helped him financially as it meant he didn’t need to give away quite as much land. He also continued with some of Edward’s more successful financial policies of his second reign by insisting on annual rent on crown land and chasing up feudal dues more assertively. In addition to this he attempted to curb corruption wherever possible, which further increased his income from crown lands.

In spite of this, he suffered major cash shortages, largely because of his decision to keep the defences on a war footing, which cost huge amounts of money. This reveals one of Richard’s major problems; he knew he was unpopular, yet his fear of being usurped lead to him introducing measures that only served to make him more unpopular!

Richard’s financial desperation is shown by his decision to devalue the coinage, leading to increased inflation. Customs revenue also dropped under Richard, with the net result that he was only able to pay off his debts, rather than build a hansom profit. The fact that he had to borrow money from London merchants and foreign financers was nothing new, however it should not really have had to be something a king was forced into doing.

He did however lose a great deal of credibility when forced in 1485 to request loans from his subjects. Although these were not really benevolences (which he had outlawed) they seemed incredibly similar, making Richard look hypocritical. This again shows how Richard’s attempts to secure his position (benevolences were designed to fund his defences) turned people against him. Interestingly, when Richard died he was solvent, despite having to spend large sums of money defending himself from invasion; there is every likelihood that had he reigned for longer he could have stabilised the finances even further. In spite of this, rather than win him supporters (which he hoped would happen with the abolition of benevolences) his general shortage of cash and subsequent introduction of increased taxation brought tax riots in the south and general unpopularity.

Richards Foreign Policy

England was diplomatically isolated in 1483 as demonstrated by the fact that no European powers were willing to involve themselves on the side of the Princes. Richard’s subsequent usurpation gave other monarchs further ammunition against him and compounded his isolation. Richard’s initial foreign policy was poor, as rather than seeking peace with Scotland he backed Albany again with an invasion that went wrong at a time when he could not afford it. This, coupled with expected invasion from Henry put huge demands on his purse strings.

In 1484 a three year truce was agreed with the Scots; however they still retained the “Auld Alliance” with France. He did however follow a more sensible policy with regard to Brittany, adopting a carrot and stick approach in an attempt to persuade the Duke of Brittany to give Henry up. Richard encouraged his navy to prey on Breton ships in an attempt to show their power, however he also offered to make Duke Francis the Earl of Richmond (according to Vergil) as well as offering him an anti French alliance. At one point, Duke Francis fell ill (preventing him from protecting Henry) however just at the point at which he was to be handed over he was tipped off and fled to France. Although Richard’s policy in this regard could not really be faulted, he had now forced him into the hands of France, a much more dangerous and powerful adversary! Having offered to support Brittany against the French the French now had all the excuse they needed to use Henry against Richard!

Richard’s policy towards the nobles

Unlike his brother, Richard remained quite fearful of the nobility, as demonstrated by his reluctance to grant titles. Although he gave significant patronage to Stanley, Northumberland and Norfolk, in the case of the first two, this was motivated by a necessity to keep their support, rather than out of a genuine desire to reward them. Many of Richard’s policies reflect his fear of the nobility (as a usurper it is likely he feared potential opposition), most notably the introduction of the Council of the North. It would however appear that this move angered Northumberland, and may have been an influence behind his decision not to help Richard at Bosworth.

In addition to this, his legal reforms sought to further reduce the power of the nobles by giving the commoners access to the law through the Court of Requests. This possibly angered nobles who had been able to exploit the system of law and order under Edward. He did however lack some of his brother’s pragmatism, as demonstrated to side with John Harrington over Stanley when the two were locked in a land dispute. Although it would be overly simplistic to suggest that this was the reason Stanley turned against him at Bosworth, Edward IV had realised the Stanley’s worth, and so had thus sided with the more powerful Stanley family.

Although Richard was willing to grant patronage, he was reluctant to give ennoblement. Even when he gave land to what would equate to lower peerages (e.g to Ratcliffe and Catesby) he did not give titles, with most land given to Stanley, Norfolk and Northumberland. Rather than giving it to such a small a group Richard would have benefitted from giving it to a wider group and significantly building up the power of nobles he knew he could trust (like Edward IV’s promotion of figures such as Herbert and Hastings). This was demonstrated by the fact that at Bosworth only 10 peers out of around 40 supported him. Of these, all were either Viscounts or Barons (lower ranks of nobility and therefore not very powerful) with the exception of Norfolk, Nottingham and Berkeley.

Richard III and Parliament

Although Richard only held one session of parliament (it opened on 23rd January 1484, having been postponed from 6th November 1483 as a result of Buckingham's rebellion), the high percentage of acts passed by this parliament that tried to improve conditions for ordinary people have led to great praise from certain corners. On the other hand, it is also possible to argue that Richard sought to use Parliament in order to allow him to reward and secure the

loyalty of supporters, rather than being motivated by improving conditions for the ordinary people of the realm.

The main matters before the assembly in 1484 were the ratification of the new king's title, which was accomplished by the passage of the Titulus regius, and the attainder of the rebels involved in Buckingham’s Rebellion. Richard has however been criticised for failing to do this in the proper manner, as rather than go through parliament straight away, he attainted them without the consent of Parliament in 1483, and only sought their approval in 1484.Richard also needed money as he had been ruling for half a year and put down Buckingham’s Rebellion without being granted any extra ordinary revenue. This financial situation was acknowledged by the unprecedented grant to Richard of the customs for his life in his first parliament (e.g. all the projected sums he was going to get from customs dues were given to him in his first year). In addition to this there were twenty-one private acts. These were primarily acts which benefited particular individuals such as Lord Lovell, or settled the descent of particular lands such as those of the duchy of Exeter. Richard can however be criticised for allowing Parliament to be used to benefit his loyal supporters such as Lovel, as it may suggest he was attempting to buy support.

Other decisions made by the Parliament

-Legislation (laws) were introduced to make fraud more difficult. In the past, landowners had previously given their land to trustees in order to avoid paying their full dues, however Richard made this process more difficult.

- Legal changes were brought in by parliament, most notably the introduction of bail. In addition to this, those accused of a crime were to have their possessions protected until they were actually found guilty of the crime of which they were accused. Richard also brought in legislation stating that jurors should only be appointed if they earned over 20 shillings a year. This was supposedly an attempt to make it more difficult to bribe juries.

-An act was also brought in to correct dishonest officials at “piepowder courts” (these regulated local markets and fairs), suggesting that Richard was keen to protect some of his poorest subjects.

- Stricter laws were brought in against “aliens” (non English people e.g. foreign merchants). Alien merchants were ordered to spend the profits of their sales on English goods, and it was made difficult for them to take non-English apprentices. These acts, like the end to benevolences were extremely popular and did win Richard support in London. It was perhaps partly a reward for London's assistance during Richard's accession.

Much of this is not new to you, and it has been covered when we looked at Richard’s legislation. When looking at his use of Parliament, the crucial thing to remember is that although he only called it once, he made great use of it. All of these laws went through parliament, and although he can be criticised for failing to go through parliament when passing Acts of Attainder, aside from this he did seem relatively keen to use parliament to improve the lives of his subjects. This contrasts with other monarchs who would only call parliament when they needed money.

Why was Henry VII Triumphant at Bosworth?

1 Richard’s unpopularity

When considering his unpopularity, it is worth giving attention to:

His unpopularity amongst the nobles

His unpopularity abroad (particularly France)

His general unpopularity in England (especially in the south- he was still relatively popular in the north)

This general unpopularity made the whole usurpation by Henry possible. The unpopularity of Richard’s seizure of the throne was shown by Buckingham’s Rebellion, and Richards’s response to this (planting northerners and passing acts of attainder) made him even more unpopular at a time when he needed to cultivate popularity! The disappearance of the princes was also key as this seemingly showed Richard to be a merciless, child killing usurper. Even though Buckingham’s Rebellion had failed, Richard was right to feel insecure as he couldn’t rely on support of nobles who had been loyal to Ed IV given how Richard had split the Yorkists. Having isolated himself from traditional Yorkist supporters, he increasingly relied on those whose loyalty was to him not the house of York by “planting” many men of his ducal affinity in the south. It is noticeable that when Henry Tudor landed, he got a great deal of support from the south, with Richard struggling to mobilise many southern supporters.

The whole policy of planting northerners in the south meant his power base was dangerously narrow. In addition to increasing resentment to Richard in the south, his northern supporters remained opposed to him widening his power base as they may lose out. It was also rumoured he wanted to marry Elizabeth of York (Elizabeth Woodville’s and Edward IV’s daughter) following the death of his wife Margaret, however his northern supporters would not allow it. The death of his son Edward further called his dynasty into question, and with no wife and no child he now seemed particularly vulnerable. .

2 Henry fleeing abroad

The obscure Henry Tudor had become the new focus for opposition during Buckingham’s Rebellion, and clearly identified him as a rival claimant. Although Henry had quickly turned back and fled, his involvement had been extremely positive in a public relations sense.

Richard’s policy was sensible, and he pursued a Carrot and stick policy aimed at getting him back from Brittany. Duke Francis was promised the Earldom of Richmond (and possibly an anti French alliance) if he gave surrendered Henry, however at the same time the English Merchant fleet preyed on Breton ships to demonstrate England and Richard’s power. Richard can not be criticised for his policies here, however due to his rigorous policies (the Bretons were probably just about to give him up as Duke Francis had been taken ill, allowing others to act behind his back) he then fled to France. This would in fact prove far more dangerous, with France being a much more powerful nation. France did not like Richard’s attempts to

ally with Brittany, and due to France’s power and wealth, they could provide Henry with more money and men than the Bretons could. Henry himself carried out actions that increased his profile, swearing in 1483 at Vannes Cathedral that if he became King he would marry Elizabeth of York in an attempt to unite he two houses.

3 Henry’s delays/good fortune

Henry’s first invasion attempt had to be abandoned after storms damaged a number of his ships. The longer Henry was able to delay for, the more money Richard had to waste garrisoning men in the south east.

When Henry did invade, he opted to land in Wales, where he was able to proceed unopposed. Large parts of this were however due to good fortune, with James Tyrell (the main Yorkist Lord) in South West Wales dealing with disturbances elsewhere. Henry on the other hand was quickly able to secure the support of the local noble Rhys Ap-Thomas.

4 Poor Patronage

Although Richard was willing to grant patronage, he was reluctant to give ennoblement. Even when he gave land to what would equate to lower peerages (e.g to Ratcliffe and Catesby) he did not give titles as he was possibly fearful of upstarts. Building up the power of his own supporters could have been a key way of protecting himself and his rule.

He did however have a lot of land to give away after Buckingham’s rebellion, but he tended to give it away to the three key nobles, Norfolk, Northumberland and Stanley. Rather than giving it to such a small a group Richard would have benefitted from giving it to a wider group. This was demonstrated by the fact that at Bosworth only 10 peers out of around 40 supported him. Of these, all were either Viscounts or Barons with the exception of Norfolk, Nottingham and Berkely.

It is difficult to see the desertion of Stanley at Bosworth as being a direct result of Richard’s policy of patronage, as he had looked to reward Stanley (he was made Constable of England). The fact that Richard had kept his son hostage in order to ensure that he remained loyal on the battlefield shows that he clearly did not trust him, and that he felt family ties would overcome his ties to the King.

5 Disloyalty/events on the battlefield

Of the three key nobles who commanded sections of Richard’s army at Bosworth, only one, John Howard actually fought for Richard. Northumberland held back (possibly because the way the fighting developed prevented him from being able to involve his troops in events, or possibly because he had not liked Richard’s dominance in the north) and Stanley switched his support to his stepson Henry. The fact that Richard had Stanley’s son hostage (Richard’s own men refused to execute him) suggests he was deeply suspicious as to his loyalty, however he can be criticised for continuing to trust him with troops. Richard clearly knew he could not trust him).

Richard’s decisions on the battlefield

At Bosworth, Richard had a greater force than Henry, however there were rumours of treason afoot which possibly influenced Richard’s course of action. Unsure as to whether he would get support from Northumberland and Stanley, and fearful of treachery, Richard sought a swift end and charged at Henry accompanied by just his household and bodyguard. At this point, Stanley committed his forces and a mixture of these, and Henry’s Swiss pike men cut Richard down. In this sense, the battle was lost by Richard rather than won by Henry.

Although it is easy to look at the treachery, treason and lack of commitment, it was Richard’s gamble that must be blamed. He was however an experienced campaigner given the battles he had fought for Edward in Scotland in the late 1470’s, and his gamble was probably due to uncertainties as to who was loyal to him. As a result, it is extremely important that we do not see the events on the battlefield as being detached from his wider policies. It was Richard’s failure to cultivate any real popularity and his lack of trust which forced him into using this particular tactic.