DEDICATION

ToSarah

CONTENTS

DEDICATION

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

INTRODUCTION

1 DivineHumansinAncientGreeceandRome

2 DivineHumansinAncientJudaism

3 DidJesusThinkHeWasGod?

4 TheResurrectionofJesus:WhatWeCannotKnow

5 TheResurrectionofJesus:WhatWeCanKnow

6 TheBeginningofChristology:ChristasExaltedtoHeaven

7 JesusasGodonEarth:EarlyIncarnationChristologies

8 AftertheNewTestament:ChristologicalDeadEndsoftheSecondandThirdCenturies

9 Ortho-ParadoxesontheRoadtoNicea

EPILOGUE:JesusasGod:TheAftermath

NOTES

SCRIPTUREINDEX

SUBJECTANDAUTHORINDEX

ABOUTTHEAUTHOR

ALSOBYBARTD.EHRMAN

CREDITS

COPYRIGHT

ABOUTTHEPUBLISHER

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

IWOULDLIKETOACKNOWLEDGEthescholarswhohaveassistedmebyreadinganearlierdraftofthisbookandprovidingextensiveandhelpfulcomments. Ifeveryonehadsuch insightfulandgenerousfriends and colleagues, the world would be a much happier place. My readers have been MariaDoerfler, a remarkable and wide-ranging scholar just now starting to teach church history as anassistant professor at Duke Divinity School; Joel Marcus, professor of New Testament at DukeDivinitySchool,who fornearly thirtyyearshasgenerously readmyworkandconsistentlyspilledlots of red ink all over it;DaleMartin, professorofNewTestament atYale,myoldest friend andcolleagueinthefield,whosecriticalinsightshaveforverymanyyearshelpedshapemeasascholar;andMichaelPeppard,assistantprofessorofNewTestamentatFordhamUniversity,whomIhaveonlyrecentlycometoknowandwhohaswrittenabook,whichIciteinthecourseofmystudy,thathadasignificanteffectonmythinking.

I also thank the entire crewatHarperOne, especiallyMarkTauber, publisher;ClaudiaBoutote,associatepublisher;JulieBaker,mytalentedandenergeticpublicist;andaboveallRogerFreet,myperceptiveandunusuallyhelpfuleditor,whohashelpedmakethisabetterbook.

Iamdedicatingthebooktomybrilliantandscintillatingwife,SarahBeckwith.Idedicatedanotherbook to her years ago, but since I continuously rededicate my life to her, I think it is time torededicateabooktoher.SheisthemostamazingpersonIknow.

INTRODUCTION

JESUSWASALOWER-CLASSJewishpreacherfromthebackwatersofruralGalileewhowascondemnedfor illegal activities and crucified for crimes against the state. Yet not long after his death, hisfollowerswereclaimingthathewasadivinebeing.Eventuallytheywentevenfurther,declaringthathewas none other thanGod,Lord of heaven and earth.And so the question:Howdid a crucifiedpeasantcometobethoughtofastheLordwhocreatedallthings?HowdidJesusbecomeGod?

Thefullironyofthisquestiondidnotstrikemeuntilrecently,whenIwastakingalongwalkwithoneofmyclosestfriends.Aswetalked,wecoveredanumberoffamiliartopics:bookswehadbeenreading,movieswehadseen,philosophicalviewswewerethinkingabout.Eventuallywegotaroundto talkingabout religion.Unlikeme,my friendcontinues to identifyherself as aChristian.Atonepoint,Iaskedherwhatsheconsideredtobethecoreofherbeliefs.Heranswergavemepause.Shesaidthat,forher,theheartofreligionwastheideathatinJesus,Godhadbecomeaman.

OneofthereasonsIwastakenabackbyherresponsewasthatthisusedtobeoneofmybeliefsaswell—eventhoughithasn’tbeenforyears.Asfarbackashighschool,Ihadponderedlongandhardthis“mysteryoffaith,”asfound,forexample,inJohn1:1–2,14:“IntheBeginningwastheWord,andtheWordwaswithGod,andtheWordwasGod....AndtheWordbecamefleshanddweltamongus,andwe have beheld his glory, glory as of the only Son from the Father.” Even before that, I hadopenlyandwholeheartedlyconfessed theChristological statementsof theNiceneCreed, thatChristwas

theonlySonofGod,eternallybegottenoftheFather,GodfromGod,LightfromLight,trueGodfromtrueGod,begotten,notmade,ofoneBeingwiththeFather.Throughhimallthingsweremade.Forusandforoursalvationhecamedownfromheaven;bythepoweroftheHolySpirithebecameincarnatefromtheVirginMary,andwasmademan.

ButIhadchangedovertheyears,andnowinmiddleageIamnolongerabeliever.Instead,IamahistorianofearlyChristianity,whofornearly threedecadeshasstudiedtheNewTestamentandtheriseoftheChristianreligionfromahistoricalperspective.Andnowmyquestion,insomeways,isthe precise opposite of my friend’s. As a historian I am no longer obsessed with the theologicalquestionofhowGodbecameaman,butwiththehistoricalquestionofhowamanbecameGod.

Thetraditionalanswertothisquestion,ofcourse,isthatJesusinfactwasGod,andsoofcoursehetaughtthathewasGodandwasalwaysbelievedtobeGod.ButalongstreamofhistorianssincethelateeighteenthcenturyhavemaintainedthatthisisnotthecorrectunderstandingofthehistoricalJesus,andtheyhavemarshaledmanyandcompellingargumentsinsupportoftheirposition.Iftheyare right, we are left with the puzzle: How did it happen?Why did Jesus’s early followers startconsideringhimtobeGod?

InthisbookIhavetriedtoapproachthisquestioninawaythatwillbeusefulnotonlyforsecularhistoriansofreligionlikeme,butalsoforbelieverslikemyfriendwhocontinuetothinkthatJesusis,infact,God.Asaresult,IdonottakeastandonthetheologicalquestionofJesus’sdivinestatus.Iam instead interested in the historical development that led to the affirmation that he isGod. Thishistoricaldevelopmentcertainlytranspiredinonewayoranother,andwhatpeoplepersonallybelieveaboutChristshouldnot,intheory,affecttheconclusionstheydrawhistorically.

TheideathatJesusisGodisnotaninventionofmoderntimes,ofcourse.AsIwillshowinmydiscussion,itwastheviewoftheveryearliestChristianssoonafterJesus’sdeath.OneofourdrivingquestionsthroughoutthisstudywillalwaysbewhattheseChristiansmeantbysaying“JesusisGod.”Aswewillsee,differentChristiansmeantdifferentthingsbyit.Moreover,tounderstandthisclaiminanysenseatallwillrequireustoknowwhatpeopleintheancientworldgenerallymeantwhentheythoughtthataparticularhumanwasagod—orthatagodhadbecomeahuman.ThisclaimwasnotuniquetoChristians.EventhoughJesusmaybetheonlymiracle-workingSonofGodthatweknowaboutinourworld,numerouspeopleinantiquity,amongbothpagansandJews,werethoughttohavebeenbothhumananddivine.

Itisimportantalreadyatthisstagetostressafundamental,historicalpointabouthowweimaginethe “divine realm.” By divine realm, I mean that “world” that is inhabited by superhuman, divinebeings—God,or thegods,orothersuperhumanforces.Formostpeople today,divinity isablack-and-whiteissue.AbeingiseitherGodornotGod.Godis“upthere”intheheavenlyrealm,andweare“downhere” in thisrealm.Andthere isanunbridgeablechasmbetweenthese tworealms.Withthiskindofassumptionfirmlyentrenched inour thinking, it isveryhard to imaginehowapersoncouldbebothGodandhumanatonce.

Moreover,whenput in theseblack-and-white terms, it is relativelyeasy to say, as Iused to saybeforedoingtheresearchforthisbook,thattheearlyGospelsofMatthew,Mark,andLuke—inwhichJesusnevermakesexplicitdivineclaimsabouthimself—portrayJesusasahumanbutnotasGod,whereastheGospelofJohn—inwhichJesusdoesmakesuchdivineclaims—doesindeedportrayhimasGod.YetotherscholarsforcefullydisagreewiththisviewandarguethatJesusisportrayedasGodeven in theseearlierGospels.Asa result, therearemanydebatesoverwhatscholarshavecalleda“highChristology,”inwhichJesusisthoughtofasadivinebeing(thisiscalled“high”becauseChristoriginates“upthere,”withGod;thetermChristologyliterallymeans“understandingofChrist”)andwhat they have called a “lowChristology,” inwhich Jesus is thought of as a human being (“low”becauseheoriginates“downhere,”withus).Giventhisperspective,inwhichwayisJesusportrayedintheGospels—asGodorashuman?

WhatIhavecometosee is thatscholarshavesuchdisagreements inpartbecause theytypicallyanswerthequestionofhighorlowChristologyonthebasisoftheparadigmIhavejustdescribed—thatthedivineandhumanrealmsarecategoricallydistinct,withagreatchasmseparatingthetwo.Theproblem is that most ancient people—whether Christian, Jewish, or pagan—did not have thisparadigm.Forthem,thehumanrealmwasnotanabsolutecategoryseparatedfromthedivinerealmby an enormous and unbridgeable crevasse. On the contrary, the human and divine were twocontinuumsthatcould,anddid,overlap.

Intheancientworlditwaspossibletobelieveinanumberofwaysthatahumanwasdivine.Hereare twomajorways it could happen, as attested inChristian, Jewish, and pagan sources (Iwill bediscussingotherwaysinthecourseofthebook):

Byadoptionorexaltation.Ahumanbeing(say,agreatrulerorwarriororholyperson)couldbemadedivinebyanactofGodoragod,bybeingelevatedtoalevelofdivinitythatsheorhedidnotpreviouslyhave.By nature or incarnation.A divine being (say, an angel or one of the gods) could becomehuman,eitherpermanentlyor,morecommonly,temporarily.

OneofmytheseswillbethataChristiantextsuchastheGospelofMarkunderstandsJesusinthefirstway,asahumanwhocametobemadedivine.TheGospelofJohnunderstandshiminthesecondway,asadivinebeingwhobecamehuman.BothofthemseeJesusasdivine,butindifferentways.

Thus,beforediscussingthedifferentearlyChristianviewsofwhatitmeanttocallJesusGod,Isetthestagebyconsideringhowancientpeopleunderstoodtheintersectingrealmsofthedivineandthehuman.InChapter1IdiscusstheviewsthatwerewidelyheldintheGreekandRomanworldsoutsideboth JudaismandChristianity.Therewewill see that indeedakindofcontinuumwithin thedivinerealmallowedsomeoverlapbetweendivinebeingsandhumans—amatterofnosurpriseforreadersfamiliar with ancient mythologies in which the gods became (temporarily) human and humansbecame(permanently)gods.

Somewhatmoresurprisingmaybe thediscussionofChapter2, inwhichIshowthatanalogousunderstandings existed even within the world of ancient Judaism. This will be of particularimportance since Jesus and his earliest followerswere thoroughly Jewish in everyway.And as itturnsout,manyancientJews,too,believednotonlythatdivinebeings(suchasangels)couldbecomehuman,butthathumanbeingscouldbecomedivine.SomehumanswereactuallycalledGod.Thisistruenotonly indocuments fromoutside theBible,butalso—evenmoresurprising—indocumentswithinit.

AfterIhaveestablishedtheviewsofbothpagansandJews,wecanmoveinChapter3toconsiderthelifeofthehistoricalJesus.HeremyfocusisonthequestionofwhetherJesustalkedabouthimselfasGod.Itisadifficultquestiontoanswer,innosmallmeasurebecauseofthesourcesofinformationatourdisposalforknowinganythingatallaboutthelifeandteachingsofJesus.AndsoIbeginthechapterbydiscussing theproblems thatour surviving sources—especially theGospelsof theNewTestament—pose foruswhenwewant toknowhistoricallywhathappenedduringJesus’sministry.Among other things, I show why the majority of critical scholars for more than a century havearguedthatJesusisbestunderstoodasanapocalypticprophetwhopredictedthattheendoftheagewassoontoarrive,whenGodwouldinterveneinhistoryandoverthrowtheforcesofeviltobringinhisgoodkingdom.OncethebasictenorofJesus’spublicministryisset,ImovetoadiscussionoftheeventsthatleduptohiscrucifixionatthehandsoftheRomangovernorofJudea,PontiusPilate.Ateverypointwewillbeintentonouroneleadingquestionforthischapter:HowdidJesusunderstandanddescribehimself?Didhetalkabouthimselfasadivinebeing?Iwillarguethathedidnot.

Thesefirstthreechapterscanbeseenasthebackdroptoourultimateconcern:howJesuscametobeconsideredGod.Theshortansweristhatitallhadtodowithhisfollowers’beliefthathehadbeenraisedfromthedead.

AgreatdealiswrittentodayaboutJesus’sresurrection,bothbyscholarswhoaretruebelieversandapologists,whoarguethathistorianscan“prove”thatJesuswasraised,andbyskepticswhodon’tbelieve it for a second. It is obviously a fundamental issue for our deliberations. If the earlyChristiansdidnotbelievethatJesushadbeenraisedfromthedead,theywouldnothavethoughtthathewasdifferentfromanyotherunfortunateprophetwhoendeduponthewrongsideofthelawand

wasexecutedforhistroubles.ButChristiansdidthinkJesuswasraised,and,asIargue,thatchangedeverything.

Fromahistoricalperspectivethereisanobviousquestion:What,actually,canweknowabouttheresurrection?Hereweenterintohighlycontroversialtopics,someofwhichIhavechangedmymindaboutinthecourseofdoingmyresearchforthisbook.ForyearsIhadthoughtthatwhateverelsewemightthinkaboutthestoriesofJesus’sresurrection,wecouldberelativelycertainthatimmediatelyafterhisdeathhewasgivenadecentburialbyJosephofArimatheaandthatonthethirddaysomeofhis female followers found his tomb empty. I no longer think that these are relatively certainhistoricaldata;onthecontrary,Ithinkbothviews(hisburialandhisemptytomb)areunlikely.Andso, inChapter 4 I dealwithwhat I thinkwe as historians simply cannot know about the traditionssurroundingJesus’sresurrection.

InChapter5IturntowhatIthinkwealmostcertainlycanknow.HereIarguethattheevidenceisunambiguousandcompelling:someofJesus’sdisciplesclaimedthattheysawhimaliveafterhehaddied. But how many of his disciples had these “visions” of Jesus? (I leave open the question ofwhether theyhad thesevisionsbecause Jesus really appeared to themorbecause theywerehavinghallucinations—for reasons I explain in the chapter.)Whendid theyhave them?Andhowdid theyinterpretthem?

Myoverarchingcontentionisthatbeliefintheresurrection—basedonvisionaryexperiences—iswhatinitiallyledthefollowersofJesus(allofthem?someofthem?)tobelievethatJesushadbeenexaltedtoheavenandmadetositattherighthandofGodashisuniqueSon.ThesebeliefswerethefirstChristologies—thefirstunderstandingsthatJesuswasadivinebeing.Iexplorethese“exaltation”viewsofourearliestsurvivingsourcesinChapter6.

In Chapter 7 I move to a different set of Christological views that developed later and thatmaintained that Jesuswas not simply a humanwho had been exalted to the level of divinity, but apreexistentdivinebeingwithGodbeforehecametoearthasahuman.Ishowthekeysimilaritiesanddifferences between this “incarnation” view of Christ (in which he “became flesh”—the literalmeaningofthewordincarnation)withtheearlier“exaltation”Christologies.Moreover,IexplorekeypassagesthatembodyunderstandingsoftheincarnationinsuchbooksastheGospelofJohn,thelastofthecanonicalGospelstobewritten.

InthefollowingchapterswewillseethatChristianslivingaftertheNewTestamentwaswritten—into the second, third, and fourth centuries—developed views of Christ even further, with someChristians taking positions that were eventually denounced as “heresies” (or “false”) and othersasserting views that were accepted as “orthodox” (or “right”). Chapter 8 deals with some of theheretical“deadends”takenbyChristiantheologiansofthesecondandthirdcenturies.Someofthesethinkers claimed that Jesuswas fullyhumanbutnotdivine;others saidhewas fullydivinebutnothuman;yetotherssaidthatJesusChristwasinfacttwobeings,onedivineandtheotherhuman,onlytemporarilyunitedduringJesus’sministry.Alloftheseviewscametobedeclaredas“heresies,”asdidyetotherviewsthatwereputforwardbyChristianleaderswho,ironically,wantednothingmorethantoembraceideasthatwere“orthodox.”

ThedebatesoverthenatureofChristwerenotresolvedbytheendofthethirdcenturybutcametoahead in theearly fourthcenturyafter theconversionof theemperorConstantine to theChristianfaith.By then, the vastmajority ofChristians firmly believed that JesuswasGod, but the questionremained, “inwhat sense?” It is in this early fourth-century context that battleswerewaged in the“Arian controversy,” which I explore in Chapter 9. The controversy is named after Arius, an

influentialChristianteacherofAlexandria,Egypt,whoheldtoa“subordinationist”viewofChrist—thatis,JesuswasGod,buthewasasubordinatedeitywhowasnotatthesamelevelofgloryasGodtheFather;moreover, hehadnot always existedwith theFather.The alternativepoint of viewwasespousedbyArius’sownbishop,Alexander,whomaintainedthatChristwasabeingwhohadalwaysexistedwithGodand that hewas, bynature, equalwithGod.TheultimatedenunciationofArius’sviewledtotheformationoftheNiceneCreed,whichisstillrecitedinchurchestoday.

Finally,intheepilogue,Idealwiththeconsequencesoftheseparticulartheologicaldisputesaftertheywere resolved.OnceChristians far andwide accepted the view that Jesus had been fullyGodfrom eternity, equal with the Father, how did this affect the various disputes Christians had, forexample, with the Romans who had earlier persecuted them and whose emperor had been widelybelieved to be a god?Orwith Jewswhowere now accused not just of killingChrist, but even ofkilling God? Or with one another as debates over the nature of Christ continued apace, withincreasinglygreaternuance,foraverylongtimeindeed?

These later debates are intriguing, and highly significant, in their own right. But my strongcontentionisthattheycannotbeunderstoodwithoutgraspingthehistoryofwhatwentbefore.AndsoinourhistoricalsketchwewillbeparticularlyinterestedinthekeyChristologicalquestionofthemall:HowisitthatthefollowersofJesuscametounderstandhimasdivineinanysenseoftheterm?WhatmadethemthinkthatJesus,thecrucifiedpreacherfromGalilee,wasGod?

CHAPTER1

DivineHumansinAncientGreeceandRome

WHEN I TEACH MY introductory course on the New Testament, I tell my students that it is verydifficulttoknowwheretobeginourexploration.IsitbesttostartwithourearliestauthoroftheNewTestament, the Apostle Paul, who wrote more of the books of the New Testament than any otherauthor?OrisitbesttostartwiththeGospels,which,whilewrittenafterPaul,discussthelifeofJesus,who lived before Paulwrote his letters? In the end I tell them that probably it is best to begin bytelling thestoryofahighlyunusualmanwhowasborn in the firstcentury ina remotepartof theRomanempire,whoselifewasdescribedbyhislaterfollowersasaltogethermiraculous.1

OneRemarkableLifeBEFOREHEWASBORN,hismotherhadavisitorfromheavenwhotoldherthathersonwouldnotbeameremortalbut in factwouldbedivine.Hisbirthwasaccompaniedbyunusualdivinesigns in theheavens.As an adult he left his home to engage on an itinerant preachingministry.Hewent fromvillagetotown,tellingallwhowouldlistenthattheyshouldnotbeconcernedabouttheirearthlylivesandtheirmaterialgoods;theyshouldliveforwhatwasspiritualandeternal.Hegatheredanumberoffollowersaroundhimwhobecameconvincedthathewasnoordinaryhuman,butthathewastheSonofGod.Andhedidmiraclestoconfirmthemintheirbeliefs:hecouldhealthesick,castoutdemons,andraisethedead.AttheendofhislifehearousedoppositionamongtherulingauthoritiesofRomeandwasputontrial.Buttheycouldnotkillhissoul.Heascendedtoheavenandcontinuestolivetheretillthisday.Toprovethathelivedonafterleavingthisearthlyorb,heappearedagaintoatleastoneofhis doubting followers,whobecameconvinced that in fact he remainswithus evennow.Later,someofhisfollowerswrotebooksabouthim,andwecanstillreadabouthimtoday.Butveryfewofyouwillhaveever seen thesebooks.And I imaginemostofyoudonotevenknowwho thisgreatmiracle-workingSonofGodwas.IhavebeenreferringtoamannamedApollonius,whocamefromthetownofTyana.Hewasapagan—thatis,apolytheisticworshiperofthemanyRomangods—andarenownedphilosopherofhisday.His followers thoughthewas immortal.WehaveabookwrittenabouthimbyhislaterdevoteePhilostratus.

Philostratus’sbookwaswrittenineightvolumesintheearlythirdcentury,possiblyaround220or230CE.He had done considerable research for his book, and his stories, he tells us,were largelybasedontheaccountsrecordedbyaneyewitnessandcompanionofApolloniushimself.Apolloniuslived some years after a similar miracle-working Son of God in a different remote part of theempire,JesusofNazareth.Laterfollowersofthesetwodivinemensawthemasbeingincompetitionwithoneanother.Thiscompetitionwaspartofabiggerstruggleatthetimebetweenpaganism—theformsofreligionsupportedbythevastmajorityofeveryonewholivedinantiquity,whoembracedavarietyofpolytheisticreligions—andChristianity,anewcomeronthereligiousscene,whichinsistedthattherewasonlyoneGodandthatJesuswashisSon.ChristianfollowersofJesuswhoknewabout

Apollonius maintained that he was a charlatan and a fraud; in response, the pagan followers ofApollonius asserted that Jesus was the charlatan and fraud. Both groups could point to theauthoritativewrittenaccountsoftheirleader ’slifetoscoretheirdebatingpoints.

TheHistoricalandLegendaryApolloniusScholarshavehad to investigate theGospelsof theNewTestamentwithacriticaleye todeterminewhichstories,andwhichpartsofstories,arehistoricallyaccuratewithrespecttothehistoricalJesus,and which represent later embellishments by his devoted followers. In a similar way, scholars ofancient Roman religion have had to analyze the writings of Philostratus with a keen sense ofskepticisminordertoweedthroughthelaterlegendaryaccretionstouncoverwhatwecansayaboutthe historicalApollonius.Generally it is agreed that hewas a Pythagorean philosopher—that is, aproponentof theviewsof the fifth-centuryBCEGreekphilosopherPythagoras.He livedduring thesecond half of the first century (Jesus lived during the first half).Apollonius traveled through theeasternpartsoftheRomanempireasamoralandreligiouspreacher.Heoftenlivedintemplesandwasfreewithhisadvicetoreligiousandcityofficials.Hehadnumerouspupilsandwaswellreceivedamongmany of the Roman elite in the places where he stayed. He was especially concerned thatpeopleabandontheirrampantmaterialismandliveforwhatmattered,thatis,theaffairsofthesoul.

Forthecurrentstudy,whatismoreimportantthanthelifeofthehistoricalApolloniusisthesetoflegendsthatsprangupabouthimandthatwerewidelybelievedamongpeopleofthetime.Hisgreatphilosophical insights eventually led many people to assume that he could not have been a meremortal,butthathewashimselfagodstridingtheearth.Justoveracenturyafterhisdeath,Apolloniuswas awarded a holy shrine in his home city of Tyana, dedicated by none other than the RomanemperorCaracalla,whoruledfrom198to217CE.WearetoldthattheemperorAlexanderSeverus(222–235CE) kept an image of Apollonius among his various household gods. And the emperorAurelian(270–275CE),anardentworshiperoftheSunGod,alsoreveredhimasdivine.

The story of Apollonius’s birth, as recounted in Philostratus’s Life of Apollonius of Tyana, isparticularly worth our consideration. The “annunciation” story is both like and unlike the storyearlierfoundintheGospelofLuke(1:26–38).WhenApollonius’smotherwaspregnantwithhim,shehad a vision of a divine being, the Egyptian god named Proteus, renowned for his greatwisdom.When she asked who her child would be, the god answered, “Myself.” The birth was similarlymiraculous.Themotherwastoldtogowithherservantgirlsintoafield,whereshefellasleeponthegrass,onlytoawaketothesoundofswansflappingtheirwings.Sheprematurelythengavebirth.Thelocalpeoplesaid thataboltof lightningappeared in theskyat just thatmoment,and justas itwasabouttostriketheearth,it“hungpoisedintheairandthendisappearedupwards”(LifeofApollonius1.5).Thepeopleconcluded:“Nodoubtthegodsweregivingasignalandanomenofhisbrilliance,hisexaltationaboveearthlythings,hisclosenesstoheaven,andalltheMaster ’sotherqualities”(1.5).Thissign isobviouslydifferentfromastar that ledagroupofwisementoachild,but it is in thesamecelestialballpark.ThelocalpeopleconcludedthatApolloniuswas,infact,theSonofZeus.

At the end of his life Apollonius was brought up on charges before the emperor Domitian.Amongotherthings,hewasaccusedofreceivingtheworshipthatisdueonlytothegods.Again,theparallelstothestoryofJesusarepatent:hetoowasbroughtbeforeofficials(inhiscase,theleadersof theJewsand then theRomangovernorPilate)andwassaid tohaveentertainedexaltedviewsofhimself, calling himself theSon ofGod and the king of the Jews. In both cases the officialswerepersuadedthattheseclaimsofself-exaltationwereathreattothewell-beingofthestate,andforboth

men,readerswereassuredthatinfacttheseself-claimswerecompletelyjustified.PhilostratusindicatesthatthereweredifferentreportsofApollonius’s“death.”Inoneversionhe

issaidtohavediedontheislandofCrete.Hehadallegedlygonetoasanctuarydedicatedtoalocalgod thatwasguardedby agroupof viciouswatchdogs.But rather than raising a ruckus, thedogsgreetedApollonius inafriendlymanner.Thesanctuaryofficialsdiscoveredhimandplacedhiminchains,thinkinghemusthaveusedsorcerytogetbythedogs.ButatmidnightApolloniussethimselffree,callingtothejailerstowatchwhatwastohappennext.Heranuptothedoorsofthesanctuary,whichflewopenoftheirownaccord.Hethenenteredthesanctuary,thedoorsshutbythemselves,andfrominsidethe(otherwiseempty)sanctuarywereheardthevoicesofgirlssinging:“Proceedfromearth!Proceedtoheaven!Proceed!”Apolloniuswasbeingtold,inotherwords,toascendtotherealmofthegods.Heevidentlydidso,ashewasnomoretobefoundonearth.Hereagain,theparallelstothe stories of Jesus are clear: at the endof his life Jesus caused a disturbance in a temple, hewasarrestedandbroughtuponcharges,andafterleavingthisearthlyrealmheascendedtoheaven,wherehecontinuestolive.

AsaphilosopherApollonius taught that thehumansoul is immortal; the fleshmaydie,but thepersonliveson.Noteveryonebelievedhim.Butafterhedepartedtoheavenheappearedinavisiontoafollowerwhodoubtedhim.Apolloniusconvincedthisfollowerthathewasstillaliveandwasstillpresent among them. Jesus too, of course, appeared to his disciples after his resurrection andconvincedthem,includingdoubtingThomas,ofhisongoingrealityandlifeinheaven.

ApolloniusandJesusModern scholars have debated the significance of the obvious connections between Jesus andApollonius,butitisnotmerelyarecentdebate.IntheearlyfourthcenturyCE,apaganauthornamedHierocleswrote a book calledThe Lover of Truth that contained a comparison between these twoallegedSonsofGodandcelebratedthesuperiorityofthepaganversion.Wenolongerhavethebookin its entirety. But some years after it was written, it was explicitly refuted in the writings of thefourth-centurychurchfatherEusebius—sometimesknownasthe“fatherofchurchhistory”becausehewasthefirsttoproduceahistoryofChristianityfromthetimeofJesusuptohisownday.AnotherofEusebius’sbookswasdirectedagainstHieroclesandhiscelebrationofApollonius.Luckilyforuslatter-dayreaders,Eusebiusquotesinplacestheactualwordsofhisopponent.Neartheoutsetofhisbook,forexample,Hierocleswrote:

In their anxiety to exalt Jesus, they run up and down prating of how hemade the blind to see andworked certain othermiraclesofthekind....Letusnote,however,howmuchbetterandmoresensibleistheviewwhichwetakeofsuchmatters,and explain the conceptionwhichwe entertain ofmen giftedwith remarkable powers. . . .During the reign ofNero thereflourishedApolloniusofTyana...[who]workedanynumberofmiracles,ofwhichIwillomitthegreaternumberandonlymentionafew.(LifeofApollonius2)2

Hierocles mocks the Gospels of the New Testament, as they contain tales of Jesus that were“vamped up by Peter and Paul and a few others of the kind—menwhowere liars and devoid ofeducationandwizards.”ReportsaboutApollonius,ontheotherhand,werewrittenbyhighlyeducatedauthors(notlower-classpeasants)andeyewitnessestothethingstheysaw.Becauseofhismagnificentlife,andthemannerofhis“death”—as“hewenttoheaveninhisphysicalbodyaccompaniedbythegods”—“we must surely class the man among the gods.” The Christian Eusebius’s response wasdirect and vitriolic. Apollonius was not divine, but evil; he was not a son of God, but a man

empoweredbyademon.Ifthislittledebateislookedatfromahistoricalperspective,therecanbelittledoubtthatEusebius

ended upwinning.But thatwould not have been a foregone conclusionwhenHierocleswrote hisbook,beforeChristianityhadbecomemorepowerful.ApolloniusandJesuswereseenascompetitorsfor divine honors: one a paganworshiper ofmanygods, the other a Jewishworshiper of the oneGod;oneapromoterofpaganphilosophy, theother the founderof theChristian religion.Bothofthemwere declared to beGod on earth, even though they bothwere also, obviously, human. In asense,theywerethoughtofasdivinemen.3

Whatisstrikingisthat theywerenottheonlytwo.EventhoughJesusmaybetheonlymiracle-workingSonofGodthatpeopleknowabouttoday,therewerelotsofpeoplelikethisintheancientworld.Weshouldnot thinkofJesusas“unique,” ifby that termwemean thathewas theonlyone“likethat”—thatis,ahumanwhowasfaraboveandverydifferentfromtherestofusmeremortals,amanwhowasalso insomesensedivine.Therewerenumerousdivinehumans inantiquity.Aswillbecomeclear,I’mnotdealingwithwhetherornottheywerereallydivine;I’msayingthat’showtheywereunderstood.RecognizinghowthiscouldbesoisthefirststepinseeinghowJesuscametobethoughtof in these terms.Butaswewill see, Jesuswasnotoriginally thoughtof in thisway—anymorethanApolloniuswasduringhislifetime.ItwasonlyafterhisdeaththatthemanJesuscametobethoughtofasGodonearth.Howdidthathappen?Theplacetostartiswithanunderstandingofhowotherhumanscametobeconsidereddivineintheancientworld.

ThreeModelsoftheDivineHumanCHRISTIANITYAROSEINTHERomanempireimmediatelyafterthedeathofJesusaroundtheyear30CE.The eastern half of the empire was thoroughly infused with Greek culture—so much so that thecommonlanguageoftheeasternempire,thelanguageinfactinwhichtheentireNewTestamentwaswritten,wasGreek.AndsotounderstandtheviewsoftheearlyChristiansweneedtosituatethemintheirhistoricalandculturalcontexts,whichmeansintheGreekandRomanworlds.Jewsofthetimehadmanydistinctiveviewsoftheirown(seethenextchapter),butinmanykeyrespectsofconcernfor our study, they shared (in their own ways) many of the views of their Roman friends andneighbors. This is important to know because Jesus himself was a Jew, as were his immediatefollowers—includingtheoneswhofirstproclaimedthathewasnotameremortal,butwasactuallyGod.

ButhowwasitpossibleforGod,oragod,tobecome,ortoappeartobecome,ahuman?WehaveseenonewaywithApolloniusofTyana.Inhiscase,hismotherwastoldbeforehisbirththathewouldbetheincarnation—the“comingintheflesh”—ofapreexistentdivinebeing,thegodProteus.Thisisverysimilar tolater theological interpretationofJesus—thathewasGodwhobecameincarnatebybeingbornofhismotherMary.Idon’tknowofanyothercasesinancientGreekorRomanthoughtof this kind of “god-man,”where an already existing divine being is said to be born of amortalwoman.But there are other conceptions that are close to this view, and herewe consider three ofthem.

GodsWhoTemporarilyBecomeHumanOneofthegreatestRomanpoetswasOvid,anoldercontemporaryofJesus(hisdates:43BCE–17CE).

His most famous work is his fifteen-volume Metamorphoses, which celebrates changes ortransformationsdescribedinancientmythology.Sometimesthesechangesinvolvegodswhotakeonhumanforminordertointeract,foratime,withmortals.

One of the most intriguing tales found in Ovid involves two elderly peasants, Philemon andBaucis,wholiveinPhrygia(aregionofwhatisnowTurkey).Inthisshortaccount,thegodsJupiterandMercuryaretravelingintheregiondisguisedasmortals.Despitecomingtoathousandhomes,theycanfindnoonewhowilltakethemintogivethemamealandallowthemtorest.TheyfinallyhappenuponthepoorcottageofPhilemonandBaucis,whobeartheirpovertywell,“thinkingitnoshame.”Theelderlycouplebidthevisitorswelcome,invitethemintotheirpoorhome,prepareforthemthebestmealtheycan,andbathetheirwearyfeetwithwarmwater.Inresponse,thegratefulgodsensurethatthewinebowlisneverempty;asmuchastheyalldrink,itremainsfull.

Then thegodsmake theirannouncement:“We twoaregods.”4 In response to their treatment inPhrygia,thegodsdeclare:

ThiswickedneighborhoodshallpayJustpunishment;buttoyouthereshallbegivenExemptionfromthisevil.

Jupiterasksthecouplewhattheymostdesire.Aftertheytalkitover,Philemontellsthekingofthegodsthatheandhiswifewanttobemadepriestswhowillguardthegods’shrine,andwhenitistimeforthemtodie,theywanttodietogether:

Sinceinconcordwehavespentouryears,Grantthattheselfsamehourmaytakeusboth,ThatImyconsort’stombmayneversee,Normayitfalltohertoburyme.

Jupitergrantstheirwishes.Theneighborhoodisdestroyed.Theshrineappears,andPhilemonandBaucisbecomeitsguardians.Whenitcomestimeforthemtodie,thetwoaresimultaneouslyturnedintotwotreesthatgrowfromonetrunk,sothatjustastheyhadlongharmoniouslivesasacouple,sotheyarejoinedindeath.Laterworshipersat theshrinenotonlyacknowledgetheongoing“life”ofthepair,buttheyalsobelievethatthetwohaveineffectbeendivinizedanddeservetobeworshiped:

Theynowaregods,whoservedtheGods;Tothemwhoworshipgaveisworshipgiven.

Thisbeautifulandmoving taleof love in lifeanddeath isalsoa taleofgodswho temporarilybecome—orappeartobecome—human,andhumanswhobecomegods.WhenPhilemonandBaucisareworshipedasgods,itisnotbecausetheyarenowasmightyasgreatJupiterandMercury.Theyarethoughtofasverylow-leveldivinities,mortalswhohavebeenelevatedtothedivineplane.Butdivinetheyare.Thisisakeyandimportantlessonforus.Divinitycameinmanyshapesandsizes;thedivinerealmhadmanylevels.

Today,wethinkoftherealmofdivinity,therealmofGod,ascompletelyOtherandseparatefromourhumanrealm.Godisupthereinheaven,wearedownhereonearth,andthereisaninfinitegulfbetweenus.Butmost ancientpeopledidnot see thedivineandearthly realms thisway.Thedivine

realmhadnumerousstrata.Somegodsweregreater,onemightsay“moredivine,”thanothers,andhumanssometimescouldbeelevatedtotheranksofthosegods.Moreover,thegodsthemselvescouldandoccasionallydidcomedowntospendtimewithusmeremortals.Whentheydidso,itcouldleadtointerestingorevendisastrousconsequences,astheinhospitableinhabitantsofPhrygialearnedtotheirgreatdiscomfort.

Thelessonwasnotlostonlaterinhabitantsoftheregion,aswelearnfromthepagesoftheNewTestamentitself.InthebookofActswehaveanaccountoftheApostlePaulonamissionaryjourneywithhis companionBarnabas in this same region, visiting the townofLystra (Acts 14:8–18).Paulseesamanwhoiscrippled,andthroughthepowerofGodhehealshim.Thecrowdswhohaveseenthismiracledrawwhat for themis thenaturalconclusion:“Thegodshavecomedowntous in thelikenessofmen”(Acts14:11).ItisstrikingthattheycallBarnabasZeusandPaul—theonewhohasbeen doing all the talking—Hermes. These identifications are no accident. Zeus was the GreekcounterpartoftheRomanJupiter,andHermeswasthecounterpartofMercury.ThepeopleinLystraknowthetaleofPhilemonandBaucisandthinkthatthetwogodshaveappearedonceagainintheirmidst.SoconvincedaretheyofthisthatthelocalpriestofZeusbringsoutoxenandgarlandstooffersacrificestothetwoapostles,whohaveaverydifficulttimepersuadingeveryonethattheyareonlyhuman, “of like nature with you.” Paul uses the occasion, as was his wont, to preach his gospelmessageinordertoconvertthepeople.Evenso,noteveryonewasconvinced:“Withthesewordstheyscarcelyrestrainedthepeoplefromofferingsacrificetothem”(14:18).

It is no wonder these worshipers of Zeus at Lystra were so eager to recognize that the godstemporarily become human among them; they rememberedwellwhat happened another time theyrefusedtoofferworshipwhereworshipwasdue.WhetherthestoryinActsisahistoricalrecollectionofPaul’smissionaryactivitiesorsimplyanintriguinglegendthatsprangupinlatertimes(likethestoryofPhilemonandBaucisitself)isimmaterialforourconsiderationhere:intheRomanworlditwaswidelythoughtthatgodscouldtakeonhumanguise,suchthatsomeofthepeopleonemightmeetonoccasionmaywellindeedbedivine.TheancientGreekandRomanmythologiesarefullofsuchstories.

DivineBeingsBornofaGodandaMortalEventhoughApolloniuswasunderstood tobeapreexistentgodcomein theflesh, thiswasnot thenormalGreekorRomanwayofunderstandinghowadivinehumancouldbebornofamortal.Byfarthemorecommonviewwasthatadivinebeingcameintotheworld—nothavingexistedbeforebirth—becauseagodhadsexwithahuman,and theoffspring thenwas in somesensedivine. InGreekmyths itwasZeuswhomost frequently engaged in thesemorallydubious activities, comingdownfromheavenandhavinga ratherexotic sexualencounterwithanattractivewomanhehad tohave,whichledtoahighlyunusualpregnancy.ButtalesofZeusandhismortalloverswerenotsimplyamatterofentertainingmythology.Sometimessuchtalesweretoldofactualhistoricalfigures,suchasAlexandertheGreat(356–323BCE).

Accordingtohislaterbiographer,theGreekscholarPlutarch,whosebookonfamousGreekandRomanmenprovidesuswithbiographiesofmanyofthegreatestfiguresofthetime,manypeoplebelieved thatAlexanderwasoneofZeus’soffspring.Alexander ’sactual fatherwas thefamousandpowerful Philip, king of Macedonia, who had fallen in love with a woman named Olympias.According to Plutarch, the night before the two were to consummate their marriage, Olympiasdreamedthatathunderboltcamedownfromheavenandenteredher.Presumably,thiswasZeusdoing

hismagic. Philip, in themeantime, apparently looked in on his wife that night and saw a serpentengagedinconjugalembracewithher.AsPlutarchindicates,andasonemightunderstand,thissightverymuchcooledPhilip’spassionforhisbride. Inancient timesZeuswasoftenrepresented in theformofasnake,andso,forthosewhobelievedthistale,thechild—Alexander—wasnomeremortal.Hewasthesonofagod.

InmythologywehaveevenmorestrikingaccountsofZeus,orhisRomancounterpart, Jupiter,engaging in such nocturnal activities. No story is more intriguing than the tale of the birth ofHercules.The tale takesmany forms in antiquity, but perhaps themostmemorable is thehilariousrecountingfoundamongtheplaysoftheRomancomicplaywrightPlautus,inhisworkAmphytrion.Theplayisnamedafteroneofthemaincharacters,amilitarygeneralofThebeswhoismarriedtoanextraordinarily beautiful woman named Alcmena. Amphytrion has gone away to war, leaving hispregnantwifeathome.Jupitercastshislustfulgazeuponherfromheavenanddecidesthathehastohaveher.Andheknowsjusthowtodoit.

Jupiterdisguiseshimself asAmphytrionand tellsAlcmena thathehas comehome frombattle.Shewelcomes himwith open arms and takes him to bed. Somuch does Jupiter enjoy the ensuingactivitiesthatheorderstheconstellationstostopintheircircuit.Inotherwords,hemakestimestandstill until he—even he, the mighty god with divine capacity for enjoyment—has his fill. Theconstellationsresumetheirmotion,Jupiterreturnstohisheavenlyhome,andAlcmenaisobviouslywornoutfromtheverylongfrolic.

As it turns out, the real Amphytrion returns home that morning. And he is more than a littlesurprisedanddismayedtofindthathiswifedoesnotwelcomehimwithall theenthusiasmthatonemight expect after such an extended absence. From her perspective, of course, this is completelyunderstandable:shethinksthatshehasjustspentaverylongnightinherhusband’sarms.Bethatasitmay, there is an interesting gestational result of this episode. Alcmena had already been madepregnantbyAmphytrion.ButshebecomespregnantyetagainbyJupiter(someofthesemythologicaltaleswerenotstrongonanatomyorbiology).5Theresult is thatshebears twins.Oneis thedivineHercules,thesonofJupiter;theotherishistwinbrother,amortal,Iphicles.

ThetaleofAmphytrionandAlcmena,ofcourse,isamyth,anditisnotclearthatanyoneactually“believed” it. Itwas insteadagreat story.Still, the ideabehind it—thatamortalwomancouldgivebirthtoachildspawnedbyagod—wasplausibletomanypeopleoftheancientworld.Itwouldnotbeunusualforthemtothinkthatsomeofthegreatbeingswhostridetheearth—greatconquerorslikeAlexander,forexample,orevengreatphilosopherswithsuperhumanwisdomsuchasPlato6—maywellhavebeenconceivedinwaysdifferentfromusmeremortals.Theymayhavehadadivineparentsothattheythemselveswere,insomesense,divine.

IshouldstressthatwhenAlcmenagavebirthtoHercules,thesonofJupiter,itwasnotaninstanceofavirginbirth.Quitethecontrary.Shehadalreadyhadsexwithherhusband,andshehadwhatyoumightcalldivinesexwithJupiter.Innoneofthestoriesofthedivinehumansbornfromtheunionofagodandamortalisthemortalavirgin.ThisisoneofthewaysthattheChristianstoriesofJesusdifferfromthoseofotherdivinehumansintheancientworld.Itistruethat(theJewish)Godistheone who makes Jesus’s mother Mary pregnant through the Holy Spirit (see Luke 1:35). But themonotheisticChristianshadfar tooanexaltedviewofGodto thinkthathecouldhavetemporarilybecomehumantoplayouthissexualfantasies.ThegodsoftheGreeksandRomansmayhavedonesuchthings,buttheGodofIsraelwasaboveitall.

AHumanWhoBecomesDivineThe third model of understanding divine humans in Greek and Roman circles provided themostimportantconceptual framework that theearliestChristianshadforconceivinghowJesuscouldbebothhumananddivine.It isnotaviewabouthowadivinebeingcouldbecomehuman—throughatemporaryincarnationorasexualact—butabouthowahumanbeingcouldbecomedivine.Asitturnsout,thisallegedlyhappenednumeroustimesinGreekandRomanantiquity.

RomulusOne of the most striking examples involves the legendary founder of Rome, Romulus. We haveseveralaccountsofthelifeofRomulus,includingoneproducedbyagreatearlyhistorianofRome,Livy (59CE–17CE),who in one place states the opinion thatRomuluswas a “god born of a god”(HistoryofRome1.16).TheeventthatmostinterestsusinvolvestheendofRomulus’slife.

Therewere,tobesure,rumorsofdivineinvolvementinRomulus’sconception.HismotherwasaVestalVirgin,asacredofficethatrequired—asthenameindicates—awomantoabstainfromsexualrelations.But shebecamepregnant.Obviously, somethingwentwrongwithhervows.Sheclaimedthat the godMarswas responsible, and possibly some people believed her. If so, it simply showsagainhowadivine-humanunioncouldbetakentoexplaintheappearanceofremarkablehumansonearth.

ButitwasRomulus’sdisappearancefromlifethatwasevenmoreastonishing.AccordingtoLivy,by theendofRomulus’s lifeRomehadbeenestablished, theRomangovernmenthadbeen formedwith theSenate inplace andRomulus asking, the armywas fully functioning, andeverythingwaswellpositionedforthebeginningsofthegreatestcityinhistory.Duringthefinalepisodeofhislife,Romulus had gathered with members of the Senate to review the military troops at the CampusMartius.Suddenlyahugethunderstormarose.Aftermajorclapsofthunder,Romuluswasenvelopedbyfog.Whenthefoglifted,hewasnowheretobeseen.

Asitturnsout,tworeportscirculatedabouthisdeath.Oneofthem—theonethatapparentlyLivyand presumablymost other skeptical observers believed—indicated that the senators had taken theopportunityof themoment toget ridof adespot: theyhad tornRomulus to shreds andhiddenhisremains. The other report, which the masses believed, was one that the senators themselvespropagated—thatRomulus “hadbeen caught up onhigh in the blast.” In otherwords, he hadbeentakenup toheaven to livewith thegods.TheresultwasasuddenacclamationofRomulus’sdivinestatus:“Then,whenafewmenhadtakentheinitiative,theyallwithoneaccordhailedRomulusasagodandagod’sson,thekingandFatheroftheRomanCity,andwithprayersbesoughthisfavorthathewouldgraciouslybepleasedforevertoprotecthischildren”(HistoryofRome1.16).7

Herewehaveaviewofdivinehumansinanutshell:ahumancanbehonoredbythegodsbybeingmadeoneofthem;thishappensbecauseoftheperson’sgreatmerit;asadivinity,thepersondeservesworship;andinhisroleasagod,hecanprotectthosewhobringtohimtheirsupplications.

ItisinterestingthatLivyreportsthattheascensionofRomuluswaslaterverifiedbyamannamedProculus Julius,whodeclared to the assemblyof theRomanpeople thatRomulushad appeared tohimaliveafterhisdeath.Heisrecordedassayingthat“theFatherofthisCity,Romulus,descendedsuddenly from the sky at dawn thismorning and appeared tome.Coveredwith confusion I stoodreverentlybeforehim....‘Go,’hesaid,‘anddeclaretothecapitaloftheworld;soletthemcherishtheartofwar,andlet themknowandteachtheirchildren thatnohumanstrengthcanresistRomanarms.’Sosaying...Romulusdepartedonhigh”(HistoryofRome1.16).

RomansheartilyandenthusiasticallyembracedthedivinityofthemanRomulus.Atrioofgods—Jupiter,Mars, andQuirinus—livedat theheartofancientRome,on theancienthill, theCapitoline.Originally, Quirinus may have been a god worshiped among one of the groups of people, theSabines,whowere incorporated into theRomanstateearly in itshistory.Butby the timeofLivy’swriting, Quirinus was understood to be the divinized Romulus, worshiped right up there with thegreatfatherofthegodshimself.

JuliusCaesarThe traditional date for the foundingofRome is 753BCE. Ifwemove the calendar forward aboutsevencenturies,westill findmenwhoareproclaimedtohavebecomegods.FewarebetterknownthanJuliusCaesar,theself-declareddictatorofRomewhowasassassinatedontheIdesofMarch,44BCE,bypoliticalenemieswhopreferrednothavingadictatorwhenallwassaidanddone.TheRomanbiographerSuetoniusprovidedalifeofJuliusCaesarinhisLivesoftheCaesars,publishedin115CE.AccordingtoSuetonius,alreadyduringhislifetimeCaesarhaddeclaredthathehadadivineheritage.InafuneralorationhedeliveredforhisaunthestatedthatonesideofhisfamilydescendedfromtheancientRomankings—throughthelegendaryMarcusAncius,thefourthkingofRome—andtheothersidedescendedfromthegods.Hisfamilyline,infact,couldbetracedbacktothegoddessVenus.

AtCaesar ’sdeathaviciouspowerstruggleensuedbetweenhisenemiesandsupporters,thelatterincluding Mark Antony (of Antony and Cleopatra fame) in league with Caesar ’s adopted sonOctavian,wholaterbecameCaesarAugustus.AtCaesar ’sfuneral,Antonydecidednottodeliverthecustomaryfuneraryoration.Instead,hehadaheraldcryouttheSenate’sdecision“torenderCaesarall honors, both human and divine.” In effect, Julius Caesar was voted into divinity by the rulingauthorities.Thisisaprocessknownasdeification—therecognitionthat,inthisinstance,apersonhadbeensogreatthathehadbeentakenupatdeathintotheranksofthegods.The“commonpeople”andeventheheavensseemedtosupportCaesar ’sdeification,asSuetoniustellsus:“[Caesar]diedinthefifty-sixthyearofhislifeandwasincludedintheranksofthegods,notonlybyformaldecreebutalsoby theconvictionof thecommonpeople. Indeedat the firstgameswhichweregivenafterhisdeificationbyhisheirAugustus,acometshone,appearingaroundtheeleventhhourforsevendaysinsuccession, and itwas believed to be the soul ofCaesarwhohadbeen received into heaven” (TheDeifiedJuliusCaesar88).8

Looking at thematter from a purely human and political point of view, there is little questionaboutwhytheheirandadoptedsonOctavianwantedtheRomanpeopletoagreethatCaesarwasnotonlydescendedfromadivineline,buthadhimselfbeenmadeadivinebeing.IfJuliusCaesarwasagod,whatwouldthatmakehisson?AsNewTestamentscholarMichaelPeppardhasrecentlypointedout,toourknowledgeonlytwopeopleintheancientworldwereactuallycalled“SonofGod.”Otherpeoplewere,tobesure,namedaftertheirdivinefathers:sonofZeus,sonofApollo,andsoon.Butonly two people known by namewere also called “Son ofGod.”Onewas theRoman emperor—startingwithOctavian,orCaesarAugustus—andtheotherwasJesus.Thisisprobablynotanaccident.WhenJesuscameonthesceneasadivineman,heandtheemperorwereincompetition.

CaesarAugustusJuliusCaesarmayhavebeenconsideredagodafterhedied,buthisadoptedsonOctavian(emperorfrom27BCEto14CE)wassometimesconsideredagodwhilehewasstillalive.Consideringaliving

ruler to be divinewas not unheard of in the ancientworld. The Egyptians had long revered theirpharaohs as living representatives of deities, and the conqueror Alexander the Great, mentionedearlier,wasofferedandacceptedthekindofobeisancereservedforthegods.ButthiswasnotdoneintheRomanworlduntilthebeginningoftheworshipoftheemperor.

Legends indicated thatOctaviandidnothaveanormalhumanbirthbut, likeothersbeforehim,wasbornoftheunionofamortalandagod.AccordingtoSuetonius,Octavian’smother,Atia,wassaidtohavebeenmadepregnantbythegodApollointheformofasnake(reminiscent,ofcourse,oftheconceptionofAlexandertheGreat).AtiahadbeenattendingthesacredritesofApolloinatemple,andinthemiddleofthenight,whileshewasasleeponherlitterinthetemple,asnakesliduptoherandthenquicklydeparted.Whensheawoke,shepurifiedherselfasshewouldhavedoneafterhavingsexwith her husband, andmiraculously the image of a snake permanently appeared on her body.Suetoniustellsusthat“AugustuswasborntenmonthslaterandforthisreasonisbelievedtobethesonofApollo”(TheDeifiedAugustus94).

Moreover,thatverynight,Atia’shusband,whowasoffatwarinThrace(northernGreece),hadadream in which he “saw his son of greater than mortal size with a thunderbolt and scepter andemblemsofJupiterBestandGreatestandaradiantcrowndrawnbytwelvebrilliantlywhitehorses”(TheDeifiedAugustus94).Clearly,thesewereportentsthatthischildwasadivinefigure,agreatgodonearth.

Unlike some of the later emperors, while in office Augustus was not enthusiastic about beingworshipedasagod.Suetonius says thathewouldnot allow temples in theRomanprovinces tobededicated to him unless they were jointly dedicated to the goddess Roma—the patron goddess ofRome.Sometimescitiesgotaroundthisimperialreluctancebybuildingatempleanddedicatingittothe“genius”ofAugustus.Thewordgeniusinthiscasedoesnotmeanhisintellectualbrilliance,buttheguardianspiritthatwatchedoverhisfamilyand,especially,himasitsleader,makinghimwhohewas. In a sense, byworshipingAugustus’sgenius, these cities reveredhim in adepersonalizedbuthighlydivinizedsense.

Moreover,despitehisreluctance,Octavianwashailedasthe“SonofGod”asearlyas40BCE—yearsbeforehewasemperor—andthistitleisfoundoncoinsasearlyas38BCE.AdecreefromtheGreek city of Cos hails Augustus as the god Sebastos (a Greek term equivalent to the Latin“Augustus”)andindicatesthathehas“byhisbenefactionstoallpeopleoutdoneeventheOlympiangods.”That’sprettystiffcompetitionforameremortal,butforhisreverentialfollowers,hewasfarmorethanthat.AfterhisdeathAugustuswasdeifiedandcalled“divine,”or“onewhohasbeenmadedivine,”or“onewhohasbeenaccountedamongthegods.”Whenhisbodywascremated,accordingtoSuetonius,ahigh-rankingRomanofficialclaimedthathe“sawAugustus’simageascendingtothesky.”HecontinuedtobeworshipedasagodbylaterRomans,includinglaterRomanemperors.9

TheEmperorCultForanancienthistorian,thewordcultdoesnothavethekindofnegativeconnotationsitmayhavetoday—referring to a wild sectarian religion with bizarre beliefs and practices. It is simply ashortenedversionofthetermcultusdeorum,whichmeans“careofthegods,”acloseequivalenttowhat todaywewouldcall“religion”(justas“agriculture”means“careof the fields”).TheRomancult of the emperor startedwithAugustus and continued through the emperorswho followedhim,manyofwhomlackedhisreticenceinbeingconsideredamanifestationofthedivineonearth.10

InaspeechbythefamousRomanoratorQuintilian(35–100CE),wearetoldhowthegodsareto

bepraisedbyspeakersgivingapublicaddress:“Some[gods]...maybepraisedbecausetheywerebornimmortal,othersbecausetheywonimmortalitybytheirvalour,athemewhichthepietyofoursovereign [the emperor Domitian] has made the glory even of these present times” (Institutes ofOratory3.7.9).11Quintilian tells us that some godswere born thatway (such as the great gods ofGreek and Romanmythology), but others have “won immortality by their valour”—that is, somehumanshavebecomedivinebecauseoftheiramazingdeeds.Andhereferstothoseforwhomthishashappenedin“thesepresenttimes.”Here,heismeaningthetwopreviousemperors,Domitian’sfather,theemperorVespasian,andDomitian’sbrother,theemperorTitus,bothofwhomweredeified.

Normally,theemperorwasofficiallydeclaredagodathisdeathbyavoteoftheRomanSenate.Thismayseemabitoddtoustoday,anditisperhapsbesttothinkoftheSenaterecognizingadivinefigurewhohadbeenintheirmidstratherthanmakingsomeonedivine.Therecognitionwasbasedonthefactthatthepersonwaspowerfulandbeneficent.Andwhocouldbemorepowerfulandbeneficentthan theRoman emperor? So-called bad emperors (therewere a number of them) did not receivedivinehonorsatdeath,butthegoodonesdid.AswithOctavian,manywereworshipedasdivineevenwhile alive. Sowe find an inscription (a text carved on stone) in the city of Pergamon that giveshonorto“theGodAugustusCaesar,”andanotherinthecityofMiletusdedicatedtoGaius,otherwiseknown tohistoryasCaligula (later consideredaverybademperor—but this inscriptionwasmadeduring his lifetime), which read “Gaius Caesar Germanicus, Son of Germanicus, God Sebastos.”Whilehewasalive,atleast,Caligulawassometimesconsidereddivine.

OvertheyearsscholarshavewrestledwiththeproblemofhowtounderstandthedevelopmentoftheemperorcultthroughouttheRomanempire—inparticularwiththeideathatalivingpersonwasreveredasagod.Couldn’teveryoneseethatthemanwashumanlikeeveryoneelse?Hehadtoeatanddrink; he had other bodily functions; he had personal weaknesses as well as strengths—he wasaltogethermortal.Inwhatsensecouldheseriouslybeconsideredagod?

Asa rule,older scholarshipwasskepticalon thispoint, arguing that in factmostpeopledidn’treally think the emperorwas a god and that the bestowal of divine honorswasmostly a form offlattery.12 This scholarly view was largely based on ancient writings that were produced by theliteraryelite,thatis,theupperechelonofsociety.Moreover,fromthisperspectiveitlookedasiftheemperorcultwassponsoredbytherulingauthoritiesthemselvesasakindofimperialpropaganda,tomakeeveryoneintheRomanprovincesunderstandandappreciatewhomtheyweredealingwithwhentheyweredealingwiththeRomanauthorities.Ultimately,theyweredealingwithagod.Inthisview,everyoneknew thatof course the emperorwas just amortal, as all hispredecessorshadbeen,butmembersoftheempireparticipatedintheimperialculttoremainonRome’sgoodside.

So cities built temples dedicated not simply to one of the great gods or goddesses ofRome—Jupiter,hiswifeJuno,Mars,Venus,oreven“Roma”—butalsotothe“god”emperor.Andsacrificesweremade to the imageof theemperor, justas to thegods.Still, in this formerviewof things theemperorwasalower-classdivinity,andtheworshipofthesehumandivinitieswasrestrictedtothosewhohadalreadybeendeifiedattheirdeaths.

Thisolderscholarlyviewisnolongertheconsensus,however.MorerecentscholarshiphasbeenlessinterestedinwhattheliteraryeliteoftheupperclasseshadtosayaboutRomanreligionandmoreinterestedinwhatwecanlearnaboutwhatmostRomans—thevastmajorityofwhomcouldnotread,letalonewrite,greatworksofbiographyorhistory—mayhavethoughtandcertainlydidpractice.Inthisnewerscholarship,thecategoryof“belief”hascometoberecognizedasrathercomplicatedwithregard to Roman religion. Unlike Christianity, Roman religions did not stress belief or the

“intellectualcontent”ofreligion.Instead,religionwasallaboutaction—whatonedid in relation tothegods, rather thanwhatonehappened to thinkorbelieve about them.From thisperspective, theemperors—bothdeadand living—were indeed treated in thewaysgodswere treated,sometimes invirtuallyidenticalways.13

More recent scholarship does not consider worship of the emperor as a top-down act ofpropaganda,promotedbyRomanofficialsamong thepoordupeswhocouldn’tknowanybetter. Itwasinsteadaseriesoflocalmovementsusuallyinitiatedbycityofficialsoftheprovincesasawayofrevering thepowerof theempire.Moreover, thisworshiphappenedwithinRomeitself,notsimplyoutintheboonies.Manypeoplequitelikelydidbelievethattheemperorwasagod.Andwhethertheybelieveditornot,theycertainlytreatedtheemperorasagod.Notonlydidtheyperformsacrificestothe(other)godsonbehalfoftheemperor,theyalsoperformedsacrificestotheemperor,asagod—oratleasttohisgenius,ortohis“numen”—thepowerwithinhimthatmadehimwhohewas,adivinebeing.

Ihavealreadyalludedtothereasonapowerfulrulerwouldbeconsidereddivine.Hewascapableofdoingmanythings,buthealsoputhisabilitiestogooduse,bybestowingbenefitsonpeopleunderhis rule. Throughout theRomanworldwe find this emphasis on “benefaction” in the inscriptionsdedicated to rulers—chiefly, but not only, the emperors.An example from a realm outside of butobviouslyrelatedtotheemperorcultisaninscriptiondedicatedtotheSyrianrulerAntiochusIIIfromthesecondcenturyBCE.AntiochushadfreedthetownofTeasfromtheoppressionofaforeignpower.Inresponse,thetownsetupcultstatuesofAntiochusandhiswifeLaodiceandperformedsacrificesatanofficialpublicceremony.ThetwostatueswerededicatedbesidethestatueofDionysus,whowasthe chief god in the city, within his temple and were accompanied by the following inscriptionhonoringAntiochusandLaodice:“Havingmadethecityanditsterritorysacred...andhavingfreedusfromtribute...theyshouldreceivehonoursfromeveryonetothegreatestpossibleextentand,bysharing in the templeandothermatterswithDionysus, shouldbecome thecommonsaviorsofourcityandshouldgiveusbenefitsincommon.”14Thepoliticalbenefactorsareconsidered“religious”heroes.Theyhavestatuesandaplaceinthetemple,andsacrificesaremadeintheirhonor.Inaveryrealsensetheyarethe“saviors”andsoaretreatedassuch.

Sotootheemperors.AlreadywefindwithAugustustheprovinceofAsiadecidingtocelebratehisbirthdayeveryyear,asexplainedinaninscriptioningratitudeforhis“benefactionofmankind”andforbeing“asaviorwhoputanend towarandestablishedall things.”Augustushad“surpassed thebenefactorsbornbeforehim,”sothat“thebirthdayofthegodmarkedfortheworldthebeginningofgoodtidingsthroughhiscoming.”15

IfallthissoundsfamiliartoChristianreaders,itshould.Thisman—here,theemperor—isagodwhosebirthdayistobecelebratedbecauseitbrought“goodtidings”totheworld;heisthegreatestbenefactorofhumans,surpassingallothers,andistobeconsidereda“savior.”Jesuswasnottheonly“savior-God”knowntotheancientworld.

ANonruler:ThePassingofPeregrinusTo this point, in exploring humans who were thought to have become divine, I have focusedprincipally on powerful rulers. But other great humans also had this capacity. Of course, lots ofpeopleamongusarereasonablypowerful,wise,orvirtuous.Othersareremarkablypowerful,wise,orvirtuous.Andothersareunbelievablypowerful,wise,orvirtuous.Ifsomeone’spower,wisdom,orvirtueisalmostbeyondbelief,itmaybebecausethepersonisnotalowerlife-form—amortallike

therestofus.Thatpersonmaybeagodinhumanform.OrsoitwaswidelybelievedintheGreekandRomanworlds.

Oneoftheclearestwaystoevaluatethecommonbeliefsofasocietyistoconsiderthesatiresthatarisewithinit.Satiremakesfunofstandardassumptions,perspectives,views,andbeliefs.Forsatiretowork,ithastobedirectedagainstsomethingthatiswidelyaccepted.Thisisonereasonthatsatireis such a perfect tool for unpacking the beliefs of other cultures. As it turns out, we have somebrilliantsatiresfromtheRomanworld.

One of the most entertaining satirists of ancient times was the second-century CE Lucian ofSamosata, a Greek-speaking wit who proved to be the gadfly of all pretension, especiallyphilosophicalandreligious.AmongLucian’smanysurvivingworksisabookcalledThePassingofPeregrinus.Peregrinuswasaself-styledphilosopheroftheCynicmode.InancientphilosophybeingaCynicdidnotmean simplybeing cynical; itwas a styleof philosophy.Cynicphilosopherswereadamant thatyoushouldn’t livefor the“goodthings” in life.Youshouldn’tcarewhatyoupossess,what you wear, or what you eat. You shouldn’t care for anything, in fact, that is external to you,anything that is ultimatelybeyondyour ability to control. If yourhouseburnsdown, that’soutsideyourcontrol,soyoushouldn’tbepersonallyinvestedinyourhouse.Ifyougetfiredfromyourjob,that’s outside your control, so you shouldn’t be personally invested in your job. If your spousedivorcesyouoryourchildunexpectedlydies,thosethingsareoutsideyourcontrol,soyoushouldn’tbepersonally invested in your family.What youcan control are your attitudes about the things inyourlife.Andsoitisyourinnerself,yourattitudes,thatyoushouldbeconcernedabout.

Peoplewho hold such views are not going to be interested in having a nice, comfortable life(since it can be taken away), in how other people respond to them (noway to control that), or insocialconvention(whyshouldanyonecare?).Cynicphilosopherswhoactedouttheirconvictionshadno possessions, no personal loves, and often nomanners. They didn’t have permanent homes andperformedbodilyfunctionsinpublic.That’swhytheywerecalledCynics.ThewordcynicisfromtheGreekwordfordog.Thesepeoplelivedlikedogs.

SomepeoplefromoutsidetheranksofCynicshighlyrespectedthem.Somepeoplethoughttheycould be brilliant philosophers. And some people who wanted to be thought of as brilliantphilosophers becameCynics. In a sense, itwas easy enough to do.All youhad to dowasgiveupeverythinganddeclaresuchachoicetobeavirtue.

LucianthoughtthewholeCynicbusinesswasasham,anattention-grabbingploywithnoserioussubstancebehindit.AndsohemockedCynicsandtheirways.Nooneearnedhisopprobriummorethan a Cynic named Peregrinus. In The Passing of Peregrinus (meaning, the death of Peregrinus)Lucian tells the real story behind this famousCynicwhomothers in his time considered to be sodeeply profound and philosophical that they suspected he was in fact a divine being—which ispreciselywhatPeregrinuswanted,inLucian’sview.LuciangivesahilariousaccountofPeregrinus’slife,buthereI’minterestedintheeventssurroundinghisdeath.Inasense,theentirebookislookingforwardtothedeathofthisself-aggrandizingproponentofselflessdebasement.

PeregrinusreportedlypresentedhimselfasbeingthegodProteusintheflesh.Andhewantedtodemonstrate his divine virtue by the way he died. As a Cynic he proclaimed—hypocritically, inLucian’sview—theneedtoabstainfromallthepleasureandjoyofthislife.Hedecidedtoprovehispointbyvoluntarilyundergoingaviolentandpainfuldeath,soastoshowhowhethoughtthatpeopleshould in fact live. He planned, and proclaimed, that he would immolate himself. According toLucian,hedidjustthat,beforealargecrowdthathadgatheredtoobservetheevent.

After announcing his intentions and hyping the event at great length (itself a form of self-aggrandizement,asLucianportraysit),atasettime,aroundmidnight,andneartheOlympicgames(wherecrowdswouldbesuretogather),Peregrinusandhisfollowersbuiltanenormouspyreandlitit.AccordingtoLucian,Peregrinushopedtobestoppedbythosewhocouldnotbeartoseehimpassfromhumanexistence,butwhenitcametothemoment,Peregrinusrealizedhehadnochoicebuttogothroughwiththedeed.Hecasthimselfintotheragingfireandsoendedhislife.

Lucian claims to have witnessed the event and thought the entire episode was ridiculous andabsurd.Hesaysthatonthewaybackfromthescenehemetpeoplewhowerecoming—toolate—toseethegreatmandisplayhisgodlikecourageandresiliencetopain.Lucianinformedthemthattheyhadmissedthefestivities,buthetoldthemwhathappened,anddidsoasifhehimselfwereabeliever:

Forthebenefitofthedullards,agogtolisten,Iwouldthickentheplotabitonmyownaccount,sayingthatwhenthepyrewaskindledandProteusflunghimselfbodilyin,agreatearthquakefirsttookplace,accompaniedbyabellowingoftheground,andthenavulture,flyingupoutofthemidstoftheflames,wentofftoHeaven,saying,inhumanspeech,withaloudvoice,“Iamthroughwiththeearth;toOlympusIfare.”(ThePassingofPeregrinus39)16

AndsoPeregrinus,intheshapeofabird(notthenobleeaglebutthescavengervulture),allegedlyascended toMountOlympus,homeof thegods, to live there,divineman thathewas.ToLucian’sunmitigated amusement, he thenmet anothermanwhowas also telling about the event. Thismanclaimed that after itwas all over, he hadmet the supposedly deadPeregrinus,whowaswearing awhite garment and a garland ofwild olive.Moreover, thisman indicated that before thismeeting,whenPeregrinushadmethisfieryfate,avulturehadarisenfromthefireandflownoff toheaven.ThiswasthevulturethatLucianhimselfhadinvented!Andsostoriesgo,astheyareinvented,toldbywordofmouth,andthencometobetakenasgospeltruth.

Lucian,ofcourse,mocked theentireproceedingandconcludedhisaccountbyspeakingnotofPeregrinus’sdivinity,butofhisutter,andratherlowly,humanity:“SoendedthatpoorwretchProteus,amanwho(toputitbriefly)neverfixedhisgazeonthetruthbutalwaysdidandsaideverythingwithaviewtogloryandthepraiseofthemultitude,eventotheextentofleapingintofire,whenhewassurenottoenjoythepraisebecausehecouldnothearit”(ThePassingofPeregrinus42).

DivineHumansintheGreekandRomanWorldsFROMTHESEEXAMPLES,WEcanseeavarietyofwaysintheancientworldthatdivinebeingscouldbethought tobehumanand thathumanscouldbe thought tobedivine.Again, thiswayof lookingatthings stands considerably at oddswith howmost people today understand the relationship of thehumanandthedivine,atleastpeoplewhostandinthewesternreligioustraditions(Jews,Christians,Muslims).AsIhavenotedalready,inourworlditiswidelythoughtthatthedivinerealmisseparatedfrom the humanby an unbridgeable chasm.God is one thing; humans are another—andnever thetwainshallmeet.Well,almostnever: in theChristian tradition theydidmeetonce, in thepersonofJesus.Ourquestionishowthatwasthoughttohavehappened.Attherootofthat ideaisadifferentsensibilityabout theworld,one inwhichdivinity isnotabsolutelybutonly relatively remote fromhumanity.

Inthisancientwayofthinking,bothhumanityanddivinityareonaverticalcontinuum,andthesetwocontinuumssometimesmeetatthehighendoftheoneandthelowendoftheother.Bycontrast,

mostmodernpeople,atleastintheWest,thinkthatGodisaboveusallineveryrespectandininfinitedegree.He iscompletelyOther.And there isnocontinuuminGod.Forone thing, therearen’tanyothergodsthatcouldprovideacontinuum.ThereisonlyoneGod,andheisinfinitelybeyondwhatwe can think, not just relatively better in everyway. True, some humans aremore “godlike” thanothers—and in some traditions there does appear to be some crossover to the divine (e.g., withRomanCatholic saints).But even there, at the endof theday,God iswhollyOther comparedwitheveryoneandeverythingelseandisonanentirelydifferentplane,byhimself.

Butnotformostancientpeople.ApartfromJewsintheancientworld—whomIwilladdressinthenextchapter—everyonewasapolytheist.Therewerelotsofgods,andtheywereongradedlevelsof divinity. This can be seen in the way ancient people talked about divine beings. Consider thefollowinginscriptionfromthecityofMytilene,whichwantedtohonortheemperorasagod.Thisdecree speaks of those humans who “have attained heavenly glory and possess the eminence andpowerofgods.”17But thenitgoesontosaythat thedivinestatuscanalwaysbeheightenedfor thedivineemperor:“Ifanythingmoregloriousthantheseprovisionsisfoundhereafter,theenthusiasmandpietyofthecitywillnotfailinanythingthatcanfurtherdeifyhim.”Itistheselastwordsthatarethemost important:“canfurtherdeifyhim.”Howcan they furtherdeify someonewho isalreadyadeity?Theycannot ifbeingadeitymeansbeingata fixed,certain levelofdivinity.But theycan ifbeingadeityplacedapersononacontinuumofdivinity,say,atthelowerend.Thenthepersoncouldbe moved up. And how is the person to be moved up? The decree is quite clear: the reason theemperorhasbeenregardedasdivineinthefirstplaceisbecauseofwhathehasdoneforthepeopleof Mytilene, “the provisions” that he has made for them. If he comes through with even morebenefactions,thenhewillbecomeevenmoredivine.

Whenancientpeopleimaginedtheemperor—oranyindividual—asagod,itdidnotmeanthattheemperorwasZeusoroneof theothergodsofMountOlympus.Hewasadivinebeingonamuchlowerlevel.

TheDivinePyramidINSTEAD OF A CONTINUUM, possibly it is helpful to understand the ancient conception of the divinerealm as a kind of pyramid of power, grandeur, and deity.18 Some ancient people—for example,someof thosemorephilosophically inclined—thought thatat theverypinnacleof thedivinerealmwas one ultimate deity, a godwhowas over all things, whowas infinitely, or virtually infinitely,powerfulandwhowassometimesthoughttobethesourceofallthings.Thisgod—whetherZeus,orJupiter,oranunknowngod—stoodattheapexofwhatwemightimagineasthedivinepyramid.

Belowthisgod,onthenextlowertier,werethegreatgodsknownfromtalesandtraditionsthathadbeenpasseddownfromantiquity,forexample,thetwelvegodsonMountOlympusdescribedinthe ancient myths and in Homer ’s Iliad andOdyssey, gods such as Zeus, Hera, Apollo, Athena,Mercury,andsoon.Thesegodswerefantasticallypowerful, farbeyondwhatwecan imagine.Themyths about them were entertaining stories, but many people thought these myths were just that,stories—not historical narratives of things that actually happened. Philosophers tried to“demythologize”themyths,thatis,tostripthemoftheirobviousliteraryfeaturestoseehow,apartfromaliteralreading,theytolddeepertruthsabouttheworldandreality.Atanyrate,thesegodswereworshiped as themost powerful beings in the universe.Many of themwere adopted by cities andtownsastheirpatrongods;somewereacknowledgedandworshipedbythestateasawhole,which

hadclearandcompellingreasonstowantthemightygodstolookfavorablyuponitintimesofbothwarandpeace.

Buttheywerenottheonlydivinebeings.Onalowertierofthepyramidweremany,manyothergods.Every city and townhad its local gods,whoprotected, defended, and aided the place.Thereweregodsofeveryimaginablefunction:godsofwar,love,weather,health,childbirth—younameit.Thereweregodsforeverylocale:godsofforests,meadows,mountains,andrivers.Theworldwaspopulatedwithgods.Thisiswhyitmadenosensetoancientpeople—apartfromJews—toworshiponlyoneGod.Whywouldyouworshiponegod?Therewerelotsofgods,andallofthemdeservedtobeworshiped.Ifyoudecidedtostartworshipinganewgod—forexample,becauseyoumovedtoanew village and wanted to pay respect to its local divinity—that did not require you to stopworshipinganyoftheothergods.IfyoudecidedtoperformasacrificetoApollo,thatdidn’tstopyoufromalsoofferingasacrificetoAthena,orZeus,orHera.Thiswasaworldoflotsofgodsandlotsofwhatwemightcallreligioustolerance.

Belowtheselevelsofgodstherewerestillothertiers.Therewasagroupofdivinebeingsknownasdaimones.Sometimesthiswordgetstranslatedas“demons,”butthatwordaswethinkofittodaygives thewrong connotation.Someof thesebeings couldbemalevolent, to be sure, but not all ofthemwere;andtheywerenotfallenangelsorwickedspiritsthatcouldpossesspeopleandmakethemdohurtfulthingssuchasflingthemselvesinharm’swayortwisttheirheads360degreesorprojectilevomit(asinthemovieTheExorcist).Thedaimonesinsteadweresimplyalowerlevelofdivinity,notnearlyaspowerfulas the localgods, letalone thegreatgods.Theywerespiritualbeingsfarmorepowerfulthanhumans.Butbeingcloserinpowertohumans,theyhadmoretodowithhumansthanthemoreremotegreatgodsandcouldoftenhelppeoplethroughtheirlives,asinthefamousdaimonthattheGreekphilosopherSocratesclaimedguidedhisactions.Ifdispleased,theycoulddoharmfulthings.Itwasimportanttokeepthemhappybypayingthemtheirdueinreverenceandworship.

Inthedivinepyramidayetlowertier,nearoratthebottom,wouldbeinhabitedbydivinehumans.This is where the “pyramid” analogy breaks down because we should not think that these divinehumansweremorenumerousthantheotherdeitiesabovethem.Infact,itwasrelativelyraretorunacrosspeoplewhoweresomighty,wise,orgorgeousthattheymustinsomesensebedivine.Butitdidhappenonoccasion.Agreatgeneral,aking,anemperor,agreatphilosopher,afantasticbeauty—these couldbemore thanhuman.Suchpeople couldbe superhuman.They couldbedivine.Maybetheirfatherwasagod.Maybetheywereagodtemporarilyassumingahumanbody.Maybebecauseof their own virtue, power, or physical features theywere thought to have been accepted into thedivinerealm.Buttheywerenotliketherestofuslowlyhumans.

Wetoo,asIhavepointedout,areonacontinuum.Someamongusarequitelowly—thosewhomthelikesofLucianofSamosata,forexample,wouldconsiderthescumoftheearth.Othersofusareabout average in every way. Others of us think that we, and our entire families, are well aboveaverage.Someofusrecognizethattherearefellowsamonguswhoaresuperiorinremarkableways.Forancientpeople,someofusaresovastlysuperiorthatwehavebeguntomoveintotherealmofthedivine.

JesusandtheDivineRealmTHISVIEWOFTHEdivinerealmdidnotchangesignificantlyuntillaterChristianschangedit.Itishardto put a finger onwhen exactly it changed, but change it did. By the time of the fourth Christian

century—some three hundred years after Jesus lived, when the empire was in the process ofconvertingfrompaganismtoChristianity—manyofthegreatthinkersoftheRomanworldhadcometobelievethatahugechasmseparatedthedivineandhumanrealms.Godwas“upthere”andwastheAlmighty.HealonewasGod.Therewerenoothergodsandsotherewasnocontinuumofdivinity.Therewasjustusdownhere,thelowlysinners,andGodupthere,thesupremesovereignoverallthatis.

Jesushimselfeventuallycametobethoughtofasbelongingnotdownherewithus,butuptherewithGod.HehimselfwasGod,withacapitalG.ButhowcouldhebeGod,ifGodwasGod,andtherewerenotanumberofgods,noteventwogods,butonlyoneGod?HowcouldJesusbeGodandGodbeGodandyet therebeonlyoneGod?That, inpart, is thequestion thatdrives thisbook.But themorepressingandimmediatequestionisabouthowthisperceptionstartedinthefirstplace.HowdidJesusmovefrombeingahumantobeingGod—inanysense?

Ishouldstressthosefinalthreewords.OneofthemistakesthatpeoplemakewhenthinkingaboutthequestionofJesusasGodinvolvestakingtheviewthateventuallywaswidelyheldbythefourthChristiancentury—thatagreatchasmexistsbetweenthehumananddivinerealms—andassumingthatthisviewwasinplaceduringtheearlydaysoftheChristianmovement.Thismistakeismadenotonlybylaypeople,butalso,widely,byprofessionaltheologians.Andnotjusttheologians,butscholarsofallsorts—includingbiblicalscholars(ormaybe,especiallybiblicalscholars)andhistoriansofearlyChristianity.Whenpeoplewhomakethismistakeask“howdidJesusbecomeGod?,”theymean,howdid Jesusmove from the realmof thepurelyhuman—where therearemillionsofuswithvaryingdegreesof talent,strength,beauty,andvirtue—totherealmofGod,Godhimself, theoneandonlyAlmightyCreatorandLordofallthatis?HowdidJesusbecomeGOD?19

This is indeedan interestingquestion—because it did indeedhappen. JesusbecameGod in thatmajorfourth-centurysense.ButhehadbeenseenasGodbeforethat,bypeoplewhodidnothavethisfourth-centuryunderstandingoftherelationshipofthehumananddivinerealms.Whenwetalkaboutearliest Christianity andwe ask the question, “DidChristians think of Jesus asGod?,”we need torephrasethequestionslightly,sothatweask,“InwhatsensedidChristiansthinkofJesusasGod?”Ifthe divine realm is a continuum rather than an absolute, a graduated pyramid rather than a singlepoint,thenitisthesenseinwhichJesusisGodthatisthemainissueattheoutset.

ItwillbecomeclearinthefollowingchaptersthatJesuswasnotoriginallyconsideredtobeGodinanysenseatall,and thatheeventuallybecamedivineforhis followers insomesensebeforehecametobethoughtofasequalwithGodAlmightyinanabsolutesense.ButthepointIstressisthatthiswas,infact,adevelopment.

OneoftheenduringfindingsofmodernscholarshipontheNewTestamentandearlyChristianityoverthepasttwocenturiesisthatthefollowersofJesus,duringhislife,understoodhimtobehumanthrough and through, not God. People saw Jesus as a teacher, a rabbi, and even a prophet. Somepeoplethoughtofhimasthe(veryhuman)messiah.Buthewasbornlikeeveryoneelseandhewas“like”everyoneelse.HewasraisedinNazarethandwasnotparticularlynoteworthyasayouth.Asanadult—orpossiblyevenasachild—hebecameconvinced,likemanyotherJewsofhistime,thathewaslivingneartheendoftheage,thatGodwassoontointerveneinhistorytooverthrowtheforcesofevilandtobringinagoodkingdomhereonearth.Jesusfeltcalledtoproclaimthismessageofthecomingapocalypse,andhespenthisentirepublicministrydoingso.

EventuallyJesusirritatedtherulingauthoritiesduringatriphemadetoJerusalem,andtheyhadhimarrestedandtried.HewasbroughtbeforethegovernorofJudea,PontiusPilate,andafterashort

trialhewasconvictedonchargesofpoliticalinsurgency:hewasclaimingtobetheJewishkingwhenonlytheRomanoverlordswhowereinchargeofPalestineandtherestoftheMediterraneancouldappointaking.Asapoliticaltroublemakerhewascondemnedtoaparticularlyignominiousdeath,bycrucifixion.AndasfarastheRomanswereconcerned,that’swherehisstoryended.

Butinfact,that’snotwherehisstoryended.Andsowereturntothedrivingquestionofourstudy:HowdidanapocalypticprophetfromthebackwatersofruralGalilee,crucifiedforcrimesagainstthestate,cometobethoughtofasequaltotheOneGodAlmighty,makerofallthings?HowdidJesus—inthemindsandheartsofhislaterfollowers—cometobeGod?

AnobviousplacetostarttofindananswerwouldbewiththelifeandteachingsofJesus.Butfirstweneedtoconsiderthereligiousandculturalmatrixoffirst-centuryJudaismwithinwhichhelivedhislifeandproclaimedhismessage.Aswewillsee,eventhoughJewsweredistinctfromthepaganworld around them in thinking that only oneGodwas to beworshiped and served, theywere notdistinctintheirconceptionoftherelationshipofthatrealmtothehumanworldweinhabit.Jewsalsobelievedthatdivinitiescouldbecomehumanandhumanscouldbecomedivine.

CHAPTER2

DivineHumansinAncientJudaism

WHEN I FIRST STARTEDmy teaching career in themid-1980s I was offered an adjunct position atRutgers University. Since part-time adjunct faculty members rarely make much money, I workedotherjobstomakeendsmeet,includingoneattheInstituteforAdvancedStudyatPrinceton.Along-term project was under way there called the Princeton Epigraphy Project. It involved collecting,cataloguing, and entering into a computer database all of the Greek inscriptions in major urbancenters throughout theancientMediterranean.Thesewereeventuallypublished inseparatevolumesforeach location. Iwas the researchgrunt for theperson incharge,who,unlikeme,wasahighlytrainedclassicistwhocouldreadaninscriptionlikeanewspaper.Ihadthejobofenteringandeditingtheinscriptions.OneofthelocalitiesthatIhadresponsibilityforwastheancientcityofPriene,onthewestcoastofTurkey.IhadneverheardofPrienebefore that,butIcollectedandcataloguedall theinscriptionsthathadeverbeenfoundthereandpreviouslypublished.

Movethecalendarupto2009andmylifewasverydifferentindeed.AsatenuredprofessorattheUniversity of North Carolina, I had the ability to travel far and wide. And I did. That summer, IdecidedtotouraroundTurkeywithmygoodfriendDaleMartin,professorofNewTestamentatYale,andcheckoutvariousarchaeologicalsites.Wespenttwoweeksthere,withveryfewadvanceplans,simplygoingwhereverwewantedtogo.Itwasterrific.

OneofthehighlightswasgoingtotheruinsofancientPriene.It’sanamazingsite,inastrikingmountainsetting.OvertheyearsGermanarchaeologistshavemadesignificantdigsthere,butitisforthemostpartstilldeserted.Thereareruinsoftemples,houses,shops,andstreets.Thereisatheaterthat could seat five thousand. An interesting bouleuterion—a council house, where the localgoverningcouncilmembersgatheredfortheirmeetings—stillstandsinitssquareshapewithseatsonthreesides.AtempleofAthenaPollisisamajorstructure,itscolumnsfallenandthedrumsthatoncemadeupcolumnsscatteredon theground.And thereare lotsofGreek inscriptions, just sittingouthereandtherewaitingtoberead.

Thatafternoon,lookingatoneoftheinscriptions,Ihadablindingrealization.Itwasoneofthosethoughts thatwascompletelyobvious—an idea that scholarshaddiscussed formanyyearsbut thathad never hitme, personally,with full force.How could that be?Why had it never impressedmebefore?IhadtositdownandthinkhardforfifteenminutesbeforeIcouldmoveagain.

At that timeIhadbeenmakingsomeinitialsketchesfor thisbookandwasplanningonwritingabouthowJesusbecameGodasapurelyinternalChristiandevelopment,asalogicaloutgrowthofthe teachings of Jesus as they developed after some of his followers came to believe he had beenraisedfromthedead(asI’llexplaininlaterchapters).ButIdidn’thaveasinglethoughtofputtingthatdevelopmentinrelationshiptowhatwasgoingonbeyondtheboundsoftheChristiantradition.Andthen I read an inscription lying outside a temple in Priene. The inscription referred to the God(Caesar)Augustus.

Andithitme:thetimewhenChristianityarose,withitsexaltedclaimsaboutJesus,wasthesame

timewhen the emperor cult had started tomove into full swing,with its exalted claims about theemperor.ChristianswerecallingJesusGoddirectlyontheheelsoftheRomanscallingtheemperorGod.Couldthisbeahistoricalaccident?Howcoulditbeanaccident?Thesewerenotsimplyparalleldevelopments.Thiswasacompetition.Whowastherealgod-man?TheemperororJesus?Irealizedat thatmoment that theChristianswerenotelevatingJesus toa levelofdivinity inavacuum.Theyweredoingitundertheinfluenceofandindialoguewiththeenvironmentinwhichtheylived.AsIsaid, I knew that others had thought this before. But it struck me at that moment like a bolt oflightning.

Idecided thenand there to reconceptualizemybook.But anobviousproblemalsohitme.ThefirstChristianswhostartedspeakingaboutJesusasdivinewerenotpagansfromPriene.TheywereJewsfromPalestine.TheseJews,ofcourse,alsoknewabouttheemperorcult.Infact,itwaspracticedinsomeofthemoreGreekcitiesofPalestineduringthefirstcentury.ButthefirstfollowersofJesuswere not particularly imbuedwithGreek culture. Theywere Jews from rural and village parts ofGalilee. Itmay be the case that later, after theChristian church becamemore heavily gentile,withpagan convertsmaking up themajority of itsmembers, the heightened emphasis on Jesus asGod(ratherthantheemperorasGod)madesense.Butwhataboutatthebeginning?

SoIstartedthinkingaboutdivinehumanswithinJudaism.Herewasanimmediateenigma.Jews,unliketheirpaganneighbors,weremonotheists.TheybelievedinonlyoneGod.Howcouldtheysaythat JesuswasGod and still claim therewas only oneGod? IfGodwasGod and JesuswasGod,doesn’tthatmaketwoGods?IrealizedthatIneededtodosomeresearchintothemattertofigureitout.

JudaismintheAncientWorldTHEFIRSTSTEP,OFcourse,mustbe to layout inbasic termswhatJudaismwasin theancientworld,aroundthetimeofJesus.MyfocusisonwhatJewsatthetime“believed”sinceIaminterestedinthequestionofhowbelief inJesusasGodcouldfit intoJewish thinkingmorebroadly. Ishouldstressthat Judaismwasnotprincipallyaboutbeliefper se; formost Jews, Judaismwasasetofpracticeseverybitasmuch,orevenmore,thanasetofbeliefs.BeingJewishmeantlivingincertainways.Itmeant engaging in certain “religious” activities, such as performing sacrifices and saying prayersandhearingscriptureread;itmeantcertainkindsoflifestylessuchasobservingfoodregulationsandhonoring the Sabbath day; it meant certain ritual practices, such as circumcising baby boys andobservingJewishfestivals;itmeantfollowingcertainethicalcodes,suchascanbefoundintheTenCommandments.All of this andmuchmore iswhat itmeant to be Jewish in antiquity.But for thepurposesofthischapter,IamprincipallyinterestedinwhatJewsofthetimethoughtaboutGodandthe divine realm, since it is these thoughts that canmake sense of how aman like Jesus could beconsidereddivine.

SayingwhatJewsthoughtisitselfhighlyproblematic,sincelotsofdifferentJewsthoughtlotsofdifferent things. It would be like asking what Christians think today. Someone may well say thatChristians believe that Christ is fully divine and fully human.And that would be true—except forthoseChristianswhocontinuetothinkthathereallywasGodandwashumanonlyinappearance,orforthoseChristianswhothinkthathewasaninordinatelyreligiousmanbutwasnotreallyGod.YoucanpickalmostanydoctrineoftheChristianchurchandfindlotsofpeoplewhoidentifythemselvesasChristians thinking something different fromwhat otherChristians think about it. It’s likewhat

someEpiscopalianssayaboutthemselvestoday:getfourinaroomandyou’llfindfiveopinions.SotoowithancientJews.

WidespreadJewishBeliefsWITH ALL THESE CAVEATS inmind, I can try to explain brieflywhatmost Jews at the time of Jesusappeartohavebelieved.(Afulltreatment,ofcourse,wouldrequireaverylargebookofitsown.)1Jewsonthewholeweremonotheists.Theyknewthatthepaganshadlotsofgods,butforthemtherewasonlyoneGod.ThiswastheirGod,theGodofIsrael.ThisGodhadcreatedtheworldandallthatwasinit.Moreover,hehadpromisedtheancestorsofIsraelanenormousbodyofdescendantswhomadeupIsrael.HehadcalledIsraeltobehispeopleandmadeacovenant—akindofpact,orpeacetreaty—with them: he would be their God if they would be his people. Being his people meantfollowingthelawhehadgiventhem—thelawofMoses,whichisnowfoundinthefirstfivebooksofthe Hebrew Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, which together aresometimescalledtheTorah(theHebrewwordforlaw).

ThiswasthelawthatGodhadrevealedtohisprophetMosesafterhesavedthepeopleofIsraelfromtheirbondageinEgypt,asdescribedinthebookofExodus.Thelawincludedinstructionsonhow toworshipGod (for example, through sacrifices), how to be distinct as a social group fromotherpeoples(forexample, throughthekosherfoodlaws),andhowtolivetogether incommunity(forexample,throughtheethicalinjunctionsoftheTenCommandments).AttheheartoftheJewishlaw was the commandment to worship the God of Israel alone. The very beginning of the TenCommandmentsstates:“IamtheLordyourGod,whobroughtyououtofthelandofEgypt,outofthehouseofslavery;youshallhavenoothergodsbeforeme”(Exod.20:2–3).

BythedaysofJesus,most(butnotall)JewsconsideredotherancientbookstobesacredalongwiththeTorah.Therewerewritingsofprophets(suchasAmos,Isaiah,andJeremiah)thatdescribedthehistoryofancientIsraelandproclaimedthewordofGodtothediresituationspeoplehadfacedduringdifficulttimes.TherewereotherwritingssuchasthebooksofPsalmsandProverbsthatwereinvestedwithspecialdivineauthority.SomeoftheseotherbooksrestatedtheteachingsoftheTorah,speakingthewordsofthelawtoanewsituation.ThebookofIsaiah,forexample,isemphaticinitsmonotheisticassertions:“IamtheLORD,andthereisnoother;besidesmethereisnogod”(Isa.45:5);orascanbefoundlaterinthesamechapteroftheprophet:

Turntomeandbesaved,Alltheendsoftheearth!ForIamGod,andthereisnoother.

BymyselfIhavesworn,Frommymouthhasgoneforthinrighteousness

Awordthatshallnotreturn:“Tomeeverykneeshallbow,Everytongueshallswear.”(Isa45:22–23)

IsaiahishereexpressingaviewthatbecameimportantlaterinthehistoryofJudaism.NotonlyisGodtheonlyGodthereis,buteventuallyeveryonewillrealizeit.Allthepeoplesofearthwill,inthefuture,bowdowninworshipbeforehimaloneandconfesshisname.

CanThereBeaSpectrumofDivinityinJudaism?WITHTHESTRESSONtheonenessofGodthroughoutscripture,howisitpossibletoimaginethatJewscouldhavesomethinglikeadivinepyramid?Withinthepagansystemitwaspossibletoimaginenotonly that divine beings temporarily became human, but also that humans in some sense could bedivine.ButifthereisonlyoneGod,howcouldthatbepossible?

In this chapter I argue that itwas in fact possible and that Jews also thought therewere divinehumans.Beforegoingintodetailabouthowthiscouldhappen,however,IneedtomaketwogeneralpointsaboutJewishmonotheism.ThefirstisthatnoteveryancientIsraeliteheldamonotheisticview—theideathatthereisonlyoneGod.EvidenceforthiscanbeseenalreadyintheverseIquotedfromtheTorahabove,thebeginningoftheTenCommandments.Notehowthecommandmentisworded.Itdoesnotsay,“YoushallbelievethatthereisonlyoneGod.”Itsays,“Youshallhavenoothergodsbeforeme.”Thiscommandment,asstated,presupposesthatthereareothergods.Butnoneofthemisto be worshiped ahead of, or instead of, the God of Israel. As it came to be interpreted, thecommandmentalsomeant thatnoneof theseothergodswas tobeworshipedalongsideoforevenaftertheGodofIsrael.Butthatdoesnotmeantheothergodsdon’texist.Theysimplyarenottobeworshiped.

This isaviewthatscholarshavecalledhenotheism, indistinctionfromtheviewIhave thusfarbeencallingmonotheism.Monotheismistheviewthatthereis,infact,onlyoneGod.Henotheismisthe view that there are other gods, but there is only one God who is to be worshiped. The TenCommandmentsexpressahenotheisticview,asdoesthemajorityoftheHebrewBible.ThebookofIsaiah,with its insistence that“IaloneamGod, there isnoother,” ismonotheistic. It represents theminorityviewintheHebrewBible.

By the time of Jesus, many, possibly most, Jews had moved into the monotheistic camp. Butdoesn’tthatviewprecludethepossibilityofotherdivinebeingsinthedivinerealm?Asitturnsout—this is my second point—that is not the case either. Jews may not (usually) have called othersuperhumandivinebeings“God”or“gods.”Buttherewereothersuperhumandivinebeings.Inotherwords, therewere beingswho lived not on earth but in the heavenly realm andwho had godlike,superhuman powers, even if theywere not the equals of the ultimateGod himself. In theHebrewBible, for example, there are angels, cherubim, and seraphim—attendants uponGodwhoworshiphimandadministerhiswill(see,forexample,Isa.6:1–6).Thesearefantasticallypowerfulbeingsfarabove humans in the scale of existence. They are lower-level divinities. By the time of the NewTestamentwefindJewishauthorsreferringtosuchentitiesasprincipalities,dominions,powers,andauthorities—unnameddivinebeingsintheheavenlyrealmwhoareactiveaswellhereonearth(e.g.,Eph.6:12;Col.1:16).Andthesedivinitiesstandinahierarchicalscale,acontinuumofpower.Somecosmic beings aremore powerful than others. So Jewish texts speak of the great angelsMichael,Gabriel,andRaphael.Thesearedivinepowersfarabovehumans,thoughfarbelowGodaswell.

Thepoint is this:evenwithinJudaismtherewasunderstoodtobeacontinuumofdivinebeingsanddivinepower,comparableinmanywaystothatwhichcouldbefoundinpaganism.Thiswastrueevenamongauthorswhowere strictmonotheists.Theymayhavebelieved that therewasonlyonesupremebeingwhocouldbe calledGodAlmighty, just as somepaganphilosophers thought therewasonlyoneultimatetruegodabovealltheothersatthetopofthe“pyramid.”Andsome,possiblymost,JewsinsistedthatthisoneGodalonewastobeworshiped.ButtherewereotherJewswhomweknowaboutwhothoughtitwasaltogetheracceptableandrighttoworshipotherdivinebeings,suchasthegreatangels.Justasitisrighttobowdownbeforeagreatkinginobeisancetohim,theybelieved

itisrighttobowdownbeforeanevengreaterbeing,anangel,todoobeisance.WeknowthatsomeJewsthoughtitwasrighttoworshipangelsinnosmallpartbecauseanumber

of our surviving texts insist that itnot be done.2 You don’t get laws prohibiting activities that areneverperformed.Nocityonearthwouldhavealawagainstjaywalkingoragainstspeedingifnoonehadeverdoneeither.Ancientauthorsinsistedthatangelsnotbeworshipedpreciselybecauseangelswerebeingworshiped.Eventhosewhowereworshipingangelsmayhavethoughtthatdoingsowasnotaviolationof theTenCommandments:Godwas theultimate sourceofall thatwasdivine.Buttherewerelowerdivinitiesaswell.EvenwithinmonotheisticJudaism.

ItiswithinthiscontextthatImovetomycentralconcernhere:divinebeingswhobecomehumanwithinJudaism,andhumanswhobecomedivine.Iconsiderthreecategoriesroughlycorrespondingtothethreewaysahumancouldbedivineinthepaganworld.WithinJudaismwefinddivinebeingswhotemporarilybecomehuman,semidivinebeingswhoarebornoftheunionofadivinebeingandamortal,andhumanswhoare,orwhobecome,divine.

DivineBeingsWhoTemporarilyBecomeHumanANGELS IN ANCIENT JUDAISM were widely understood to be superhuman messengers of God whomediatedhiswillonearth. It isstriking thatvariousangelssometimesappearedonearth inhumanguise.Morethanthat,insomeancientJewishtextsthereisafi