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The Human Brain

HOW DO WE LEARN ABOUT THE HUMAN BRAIN?

Methods of Studying the Human Brain

Courtesy of University of Oregon Child and Family Center.

Courtesy of Marcus E. Raichle. Used with permission.

• Lesions • Stimulation• Recording

Methods of Studying the Human Brain

OUTLINE

Goals: • introduce techniques• present strengths and limitations

1) Lesion2) Stimulation3) Recording a. Structure

b. Functioni. Electrical/Magnetic

- EEG- MEG

ii. Metabolic- PET- fMRI

STROKE

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LESIONSCauses of Brain Injury

stroke (CVA) : blood flow is disrupted

hypoxia : lack of oxygen

epilepsy : resection

degenerative disorders : Alzheimer's, Huntington’s, Parkinson’s, Korsakoff’s

tumors : abnormal cell growth

NEURONAL DEATH

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LESIONSStrengths

• Causal - brain area necessary

• Dramatic deficits: Phineas Gage, Tan, H.M., prosopagnosia

• Counterintuitive deficits: Blindsight, Category-Specific Deficits

• Dissociations

declarative memory (knowing that) & hippocampus procedural memory (knowing how) & basal ganglia

LESIONSLimitations

• damage extensive, hard to localize, not systematic

• individual variability:

- case v.s. groups studies

• nearby systems likely to get injured together

• degeneration, recovery, compensation

• may offer limited views of normal brain functions

Paul Broca(1824-1880)

Reprinted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd:Nature Reviews Neuroscience. Source: Rorden, Chrisand Hans-Otto Karnath. "Using Human Brain Lesions toInfer Function: A Relic from a Past Era in the fMRI Age?"Nature Reviews Neuroscience 5 (2004): 812-19. © 2004.

© source unknown. All rightsreserved. This content is excluded from our CreativeCommons license. For moreinformation, seehttp://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.


“Broca’s Area”: Left Precentral Gyrus of Insula

Reprinted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Nature. Source:Dronkers, N. F. "A New Brain Region for Speech: The Insula andArticulatory Planning." Nature 384 (1996): 159-61. © 1996.

High-Resolution MRI ofLeborgne/Tan reveals extensive medial damageincluding arcuate/superior longitudinalfasciculus

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. This contentis excluded from our Creative Commons license. For moreinformation, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse. Source:Dronkers, N. F., et al. Brain 130 (2007): 1432-41.


OUTLINE




- EEG- MEG


Stimulation

Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., http://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.Source: Dalal, S. S., et al. J Neurosci Methods 174, no. 1 (2008): 106-15.

http://www.sciencedirect.com

Electrical stimulation

Pioneered by Penfield (1940s) while treating epilepsy patients

- Limited use

© source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our CreativeCommons license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.


STIMULATION Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation - TMS

- disrupts neural function- figure-8 wire coil- generation of magnetic field- passes through skull; induces current; neurons fire

- spatial resolution: 1.0-1.5 cm2

- sensation of scalp being withdrawn up, loud click, muscle twitches

- interferes with sensations

© IEEE. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license. For moreinformation, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse. Source: Ettinger, G., et al. "Non-Invasive FunctionalBrain Mapping Using Registered Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation." Proceedings of MMBIA '96.


STIMULATIONUses of TMS

- Motor Mapping

- Suppress neural activity

- Low-frequency stim (<1 Hz)

- Possible TX of neuropsychiatric disorders

- low-freq stim in auditory cortex of SZs decreases auditory hallucinations

- Enhance neural activity

- High-frequency stim (>1 Hz)

- i.e., faster picture naming with temporal lobe stimulation

STIMULATIONTMS - strengths & limitations

Strengths- non-invasive

- directly assesses ± critical regions (causal)

Limitations- spread of activation- mild headache- can only go 2cm below the scalp (due to weakening of magnetic field)

OUTLINE




- EEG- MEG


Structure (anatomy)

- only images anatomy

- angiography, CT, MR

- diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

Function (physiology)

- investigates brain activity during cognitive processes

- electrical: single-cell, multi-electrode, EEG, MEG

- metabolic: PET, fMRI

RECORDINGStructure vs. Function

Public domain images.

Anatomical Images



RECORDINGStructure - MRI

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

RECORDINGStructure - MRI resolution

- clear distinction btw white and gray matter; great spatial resolution

CT MRI© source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our CreativeCommons license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.


MRI – Lateral Views

Courtesy of Christina Triantafyllou. Used with permission.

Huntington’s disease – post mortem



Huntington’s disease – in vivo



Healthy Older Individual



Individual with Alzheimer’s Disease



RECORDINGStructure – Brain Changes in Development

Courtesy of National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A. Used with permission. Source: Gogtay, N., et al."Dynamic Mapping of Human Cortical Development during Childhood through Early Adulthood."PNAS 101, no. 21 (2004): 8174-79. Copyright © 2004 National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A.

Cortical Brain Growth Ages 4-21

Courtesy of National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A. Used with permission. Source: Gogtay, N., et al."Dynamic Mapping of Human Cortical Development during Childhood through Early Adulthood."PNAS 101, no. 21 (2004): 8174-79. Copyright © 2004 National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A.

Source: Stangor, C. Introduction to Psychology. Flatworld Knowledge, 2010. Courtesy of Flatworld Knowledge.

http://www.flatworldknowledge.com/pub/introduction-psychology/67025

Medical students taking the German preliminary medical exam

Hippocampus Voxel Based Morphometry

RECORDINGStructure – Brain Changes with Learning

Source: Draganski, B., et al. J Neurosci 26, no. 23 (2006): 6314-7. © Society for Neuroscience. All rights reserved.This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.


Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi

drivers

a.

b.

c.

y = -33

y = -27

y = -20

Courtesy of National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A. Used with permission. Source: Maguire, E. A., et al. "Navigation-related Structural Change in the Hippocampi of Taxi Drivers." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 97, no. 8 (2000): 4398-403. Copyright © 2000 National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A.

Three-ball juggling routine 3 monthhMT/V5

RECORDINGStructure – Brain Changes with Learning

Photo courtesy of madaboutasia on Flickr.Reprinted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Nature.Source: Draganski, B., et al. "Neuroplasticity: Changes in GreyMatter Induced by Training." Nature 427 (2004): 311-2. © 2004.

http://www.flickr.com/photos/teducation/2592566024/

Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)

• visualizes white matter connectivity in the brain

• measures movement of water at microstructural level (microns)

Myelinated Nerve Fiber

© Trinity College Electron Microscopy Facility (Ann Hein Lehman). License CC BY-SA. This content isexcluded from our Creative Commons license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.


Diffusion anisotropy:Effects of myelination

Weak/no myelin barrier Strong myelin barrier



DIFFERENCE IN DTI (ANISOTROPY) BETWEEN DYSLEXIC AND CONTROL GROUPS

AC = Anterior Commissure PC = Posterior CommissureCourtesy of Elsevier, Inc., http://www.sciencedirect.com. Used withpermission. Source: Klingberg, T., et al. Neuron 25 (2000): 493-500.


Anisotropy & Reading Skill In Adults With or Without Dyslexia

Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., http://www.sciencedirect.com. Used withpermission. Source: Klingberg, T., et al. Neuron 25 (2000): 493-500.


Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) – Tractography

red = left-right; blue = up-down; green = front-backCourtesy of Satrjit Ghosh / McGovern Institute. Used with permission.

OUTLINE




- EEG- MEG


Spatial resolution: how specific can the source of signal be localized

Temporal resolution: time scale of the particular measurement

RECORDINGFunction - resolution

FunctionalMRI

TMS

Opticalimaging

MEG & ERP PETNaturally occurring

lesions

Inducedlesions

Single unit

Light microscopy

Patch clamp

Multi-unit recording

76543210-1-2-3

3

2

1

0

-1

-2

-3

-4

Millisecond Second Minute Hour Day

Brain

Map

Column

LayerNeuron

Dendrite

Synapse

Log time (sec)

Log s

ize

(mm

)

Image by MIT OpenCourseWare.

- Electroencephalogram

RECORDINGEEG - Principles

- measures changes in electrical activity

- uses surface electrodes placed on the scalp (16-256)

- signal requires a few hundred thousandneurons to fire synchronously

Courtesy of University of Oregon Child and Family Center.

RECORDINGEEG vs ERP

- EEG measures OVERALL brain activity - not related to stimulus presentation

- Event-related Potentials (ERP)

- averaged over trials

- time-locked to stimulus

Images of EEG and ERP waveforms removed due to copyright restrictions. See lecture video and Figures 4.24 and 4.25 in Gazzaniga, M., R. Ivry, and G. Mangun. Cognitive Neuroscience. 2nd ed. W. W. Norton & Co., 2002.

ERPs & Language

N400 – semantic deviance; P560 – physical deviance © W. W. Norton. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our CreativeCommons license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.


RECORDINGEEG/ERP – Strengths & Limitations

Limitations

- poor spatial resolution

- records large population of neurons

- “where is (are) the signal generators?”

- many trials needed for averaging

Strengths

- great temporal resolution (10ms)

- extremely non-invasive

- relatively inexpensive

- Magnetoencephalography

RECORDINGMEG - Principles

- active neurons produce small magnetic fields

- uses Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices (SQUIDs) to detect magnetic changes

- signals are 100 million time smaller than the earth's magnetic field

Courtesy of STAR Cryoelectronics, Susumu Matsukura (YokogawaElectric Corporation) and Gen Uehara (Kanazawa Institute ofTechnology). Used with permission.

Reading a wordDale & Halgren,Neuron, 2000

Courtesy of Anders M. Dale. Used with permission.

Strengths

- great temporal resolution (10ms, exactly like ERP)

- non-invasiveLimitations

- okay spatial resolution (better than ERP b/c magnetic signal does not get distorted going through skull/scalp, unlike electrical signal)

- many trials needed for averaging

- can only measure neurons parallel to the skull

- expensive ( > $1 million)

RECORDINGMEG – Strength & Limitations

OUTLINE




- EEG- MEG


- Neurons require energy (oxygen and glucose)

- brain area active, increased blood flow brings energy supplies

RECORDINGMetabolic Activity

BRAIN FACTS

- 3 1/2 pounds

- 2% total body mass

- 20% of body’s oxygen

- loss of oxygen (10 min) causes irreversible brain damage

Cerebral blood flow Angelo Mosso - late 1880s

Resting

A = forearm; C = head/brain

Noonbells

AvaMaria?

8 x 12?

Public domain image.



RECORDINGPET

- Positron emission tomography

- measures local variation in cerebral blood flow (CBF) correlated with mental activity (thinking about a word)

Public domain image (Wikipedia).Courtesy of Marcus E. Raichle. Used with permission.

TASKS

+ + + + +

TASKS+ + + + +

rose cat apple pen plane

TASKS+ + + + +Fixation/Restrose cat apple pen planeLooking at wordrose cat apple pen planeSaying the wordrose cat apple pen planeThinking about the word - verb generation

RECORDINGPET - Experimental Design

rose cat apple pen

Verb Generation

How to isolate region specific for verb generation?

- Use Subtraction Method:

- Find control task that differs only in the process of interest (in this case verb generation)

- Subtract out irrelevant processes © source unknown. All rights reserved. This content

is excluded from our Creative Commons license. Formore information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.


Hierarchical Design of the Lexical Access Experiment

Control state Stimulated state Cognitive operations

Fixation point only Passive words Passive sensory processingWord-level coding

Passive words Repeat words Articulatory codingMotor programmingand output

Repeat words Generate uses Semantic associationSelection for action

RECORDINGImaging - Experimental Design

generating verb

reading

speaking verb

TASK CONTROL

reading

speaking verb

generating verb

© source unknown. All rights reserved. This contentis excluded from our Creative Commons license. Formore information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.

© Dr. Steven E. Petersen. All rightsreserved. This content is excludedfrom our Creative Commons license.For more information, seehttp://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.



Reprinted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Nature. Source: Fink, G. R., et al. "Where in the Braindoes Visual Attention Select the Forest and the Trees?” Nature 382 (August 15, 1996): 626-8. © 1996.

Strengths

- good spatial resolution (5-10mm); better than ERP/MEG but worse than fMRI

Limitations

- poor temporal resolution

- extremely invasive (injection of radioactive tracer)

- rare & expensive ($3 million, $700K yearly maintenance)

- correlational (not causal)

RECORDINGPET – Strengths and Limitations

Pathology photo © Edward C. Klatt MD (from WebPath®, http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/);labelled adaptation by J. Crimando PhD. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from ourCreative Commons license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.


http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/

Video games & dopamine

Reprinted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Nature. Source: Koepp, M. J., et al. "Evidencefor Striatal Dopamine Release during a Video Game." Nature 393 (1998): 266-8. © 1998.

RECORDINGfMRI

VISUAL STIMULUS



- like MRI, take advantage of magnetic properties of molecules

- HOWEVER, focus on hemoglobin- Hemoglobins are in the blood and carry O2

- Hemoglobins become deoxygenated when O2 is absorbed

- deoxygenated hemoglobin more sensitive to magnetic field than oxygenated hemoglobin

RECORDINGfMRI Principles


- increased blood flow to active region

- hemoglobins become deoxygenated as neurons use up the supplies of O2

- fMRI measures ratio of Oxy:Deoxy

- Blood Oxygenation Level Dependent effect (BOLD effect)

? If neurons using up oxygen, why does BOLD signal increase?




- initial dip DOES reflect use of oxygen

- but signal too small to detect

- later rush of blood to area; arteries overcompensates, providing more oxygen than needed - MUCH LARGER SIGNAL© source unknown. All rights reserved. This content

is excluded from our CreativeCommons license. Formore information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.


Strengths

- good spatial resolution (2-3mm)

- non-invasive (no injection)

- widely available

- can be used to assess many cognitive tasks

Limitations

- poor temporal resolution (6s, better than PET, worse than ERP/MEG)

- expensive ($4 million, $300-$1000 per scan)

- correlational, not causal

RECORDINGfMRI - issues

High level social cognition -

Paradigm to study Empathy

Observation or imagination of another person in a particular emotional state automatically activates a representation of that state in the observer

(Preston & de-Waal, 2002)

EmpathyPain-sensitive activation

Pain > No Pain "self" (Experiencing)

"other" (Observing one’s partner)

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Trust Games-cooperate or defect?Ultimatum GameTwo players – split a sum of moneyProposer & ResponderRejection – no money for anyoneModal offer – 50%Low offers (20%) have 50% chance of rejection (fairness)

EmpathyPerceived Fairness of Others

Reprinted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Nature. Source: Singer, T., et al. "Empathic NeuralResponses are Modulated by the Perceived Fairness of Others." Nature 439 (2006): 466-9. © 2006.

Women

Men

Feeling: Pain > No PainConj.

Seeing other: Pain > No Pain

EmpathyPerceived Fairness of Others

insula

Reprinted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Nature. Source: Singer, T., et al. "Empathic NeuralResponses Are Modulated by the Perceived Fairness of Others." Nature 439 (2006): 466-9. © 2006.

Nucleus Accumbens

Seeing: Pain Unfair > Pain Fair

Increase in men but not women

Men indicate stronger feelings of desire for

revenge

EmpathyPerceived Fairness of Others – Gender Differences

Reprinted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Nature. Source: Singer, T., et al. "Empathic NeuralResponses are Modulated by the Perceived Fairness of Others." Nature 439 (2006): 466-9. © 2006.

Terry Schiavo

Cardiac arrest Feb 25, 1990; coma, vegetative state;1998, husband petitioned to remove feeding tube;parents opposed; April 24, 2001 tube removed, but reinserted several days later; many court decisions;President Bush signed legislation to keep her alive;disconnected March 18, 2005 and died March 31, 2005

Photos © AP; CAT scan comparison © Ronald E. Cranford, M.D. All rights reserved. This content isexcluded from our Creative Commons license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.


Vegetative State

• emerge from coma, appears to be awake, but no sign of awareness• 2005, 23 year-old woman, road traffic accident, severe traumatic

brain injury, 5 months later unresponsive but preservedsleep-wake cycles

• two mental imagery testsneuroimaging - imagery activates relevant and specificperceptual and memory systems

playing tennisvisit all rooms of your house, starting with front door

Patient and group of 12 healthy volunteers imagined playing tennis or moving around a house

Imagery-Specific Activations

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Owen et al., Science, 2006


OUTLINE




- EEG- MEG


MIT OpenCourseWare http://ocw.mit.edu

9.00SC Introduction to PsychologyFall 2011

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