How did we get the ‘magic 3’? The timing of parental leaves and child care

services

Dorottya Szikra and Hana Haskova

IntroductionOnly countries in the world where paid parental leaves last three years: Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia (+ Austria).Lowest daycare coverage in Europe: 3-7% of children under 3: Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia (and Poland).Highest difference in percentage points in employment rates of 20-50 year old women without and with a child: Hungary, the Czech Republic and Slovakia.Lowest employment rates of mothers in Europe: Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and (Italy).

Increasing importance of (child)care policies in the EU

Barcelona agreement Daycare for at least 1/3 of children <3 and 90% of

children between 3 and 5 years of age by 2010Lisbon agreement

Female employment at least 60% by 2010Discourse in the EU

Economic competitivness, demographic sustainability, gender equality, equal opportunities, investments into human capital

Czech presidency to the EU in 2009 – launched a critical debate

…I’m skeptical about some trends in western European countries, which unlike us have no experience with a long-term totalitarian regime and the negative effects of an attempt by the state to take over the natural functions of the family.

...the new member countries can contribute their own specific historical experiences and findings on childcare. ...no one should attack the decisions of those countries that do not fulfill the Barcelona objectives and have no intention of increasing their efforts to do so.

Hungarian presidency in 2011 „demography” vs „gender equality” Secretary of State: „The issue of ‘family’ has remained a taboo for a

long time: this is breaked by the Presidency’s ‘Week of the Family’.”

“’Strong Europe’ „is only to be reached by solving the problem of economic growth and of demography.”

Prime Minister: “Europe can not build its future on immigration -- it

has to reverse demographic trends”

Research questions

When and how was the time-frame of parental leaves and daycare set in the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary?

How did we get the “magic three” years that seems to be so difficult to change?

Time-politics of child-careEdu-care model Dual earner model 1-7 y. together Children’s needs in the center Scandinavian countries.

Kindergartens as educating institutions with all-day coverage Male breadwinner + part-time female earner (moving to full-time) Sharp division between care and education (just like in 3.) France, Belgium (Italy, Spain) + CEE

Kindergartens as educating institutions with half-day coverage Mother’s central role remains after 3 years Male breadwinner + Female caretaker + part time female earner UK, Germany (West), Austria, Holland

CZECH REPUBLIC: DEVELOPMENT 19th century and the beginning of the

20th centuryMaternity leave since 1888Childcare facilities since first half of the 1850s

- First childcare facility in Prague for poor children from the age of two whose parents were employed- First kindergarten in Prague for children from the age of two (in 1869) - Existence of different types of childcare facilities (no unified rules for their operation)

Decree no. 4711 from 1872- codified the division of pre-school children into 2 age groups (chi- prioritized kindergartens for children from the age of three

1918-1939 – between the wars- dispute over childcare facilities but no law introduced- old legislation applied- maternity leave still not covering all working mothers- about 20% of children in kindergartens (two, three and five year old)- but only 80 nurseries existed

1939-1945 – the WWII- nurseries and kindergartens declined

- “opatrovna” abolished- childrens´ shelters for children from the age of 2 established (often women´s self-help activity) but replaced by prioritized kindergartens after WWII

After the communist coup in 1948

1948: Kindergartens for children from the age of 3 under the Ministry of Education

1951, 1952: Nurseries for children < 3 under the Ministry of Health

Reformist 1960scriticism of nurseries translated into:- new types of childcare facilities- nurseries included into pre-schools but

remained under the Ministry of Health - extension of maternity leave and introduction of

“extended maternity leave” - income-related maternity leave extended from 18 to 22 weeks (1964), 26 weeks (1968), 28 weeks (1987)

1964: “extended maternity leave” (later parental leave) until the first birthday of the child - unpaid! 1970: until 2 years of age + maternity allowance (later parental allowance) for mothers of 2 children, until the first birthday of the younger child.1971: allowance extended to the 2nd year of the child.1985: allowance extended to all full-time mothers up to age 1.1987: allowance extended up to the child´s age of 3 for mothers of 2 children.1989: leave extended until the age of 3.1990: allowance up to the child´s age of 3 for all full-time mothers.

1990s- 1995: Parental allowance extended up to 4 years.- The full-time parent´s child allowed to attend kindergarten

on a part-time basis if it was already 3 years old.- Job protection was not extended from 3 up to 4 years.- Sharp drop in the number of nurseries.

2000s- 2004: Parental allowance does not limit parent´s gainful

activity.- 2008: Parents can choose between 2,3 and 4 years – mostly

3 years.- 2012: 2+ children allowed to attend kindergartens full-time

while parent on leaveBUT: lack of childcare facilities.

SLOVAKIA: DEVELOPMENT

Identical childcare policies to the Austro-Hungarian Empire (influence of Hungary) until 1918 But affecting Slovakian groups differently: the process of „magyarization“! Identical policies to the Czech territories under Czechoslovakia in 1918-1939 and 1945-1992.

1990s SlovakiaThe same factors as in the CR led to drop in nurseries: Legacy of nurseries (Ministry of Healthcare, criticism)Lengthy parental leavePostponement of childbearingPolitical milieu (conviction to reduce the role of the state)BUT

CR moved into more gender conservative direction.

2000s SlovakiaIncentive to mothers to return to work: childcare allowance to cover daycare/nanny etc. for a child <3 of working parents.

Parental leave more flexible than before.

However, no direct state funding to childcare facilities for children <3.

CONCLUSION: CR and SRDividing daycare along the age of three

- kindergartens as education institutions - nurseries as non-edu. inst. with bad reputation

translated intolong paid leave.

The legacy of daycare and leaves together with- demographic and labor market factors

- political milieau and weakness of feminist organizations

led to drop in nurseries in the 1990s and denial to re-invest in them.

To conclude, despite the fact that some major differences in childcare policies emerged in the two countries, the historical legacy of dividing preschool children into two categories along the age of three together with the legacy of bad reputation of nurseries for children under the age of three and the three year long paid extended maternity leave, contributed to the post-1989 decline in availability of nurseries and then denial of investments into childcare facilities that would provide care for children younger than three. However, under the pressure of the EU and the OECD, both countries introduced some legislative changes recently that make it easier at least for some parents to use childcare services for their children younger than three. These seem to be rather private services though since no financial support is given by these states directly to childcare facilities for children under the age of three. Mothers´ care for children under the age of three still remains the most the popular among the two populations while from the age of three, majority of children attend publically funded kindergartens.

CONCLUSION: CR and SR

Investments into development of daycare infrastructure are declared to be too high EU/ OECD pressure Privatisation of care

HUNGARY

1891. Kindergarten are to be established by the state, municipalities, churches and private persons.…for children between 3-6 years.„In areas where there are kindergarten children should be enroled by law” – fines!

Kindergarten 1891

…education as described in Act 1868 is not to be carried out in kindergarten… children should be tought „to pray, speak with reason and sing; their minds have to be developed…”Kindergarten as means of „magyarization” (Bicskey 2006)

Ministry of Education and Culture is responsible

Kindergarten 1936

The supervision of kindergarten becomes the task of the Ministry of Interior. Afternoon care in schools extended to reach more needy childrenNationalist education

1946-1948

Factories are obliged to create and maintain child-care institutions1948. All educational institutions are nationalized.1949. shifted to Ministry of Education

1950s

1953. „socialist pedagogy” Kindergartens to be extendedAfternoon care is to be providedIn case both parents work children can be accepted from the age of 2.5.1955. Most of existing kindergarten are taken over by the local councils: state subsidy!

Discourses 1960s

Post-1956 More welfare in general„Demographic crisis”Back to „motherly obligations”But: suggestions for „vouchers”Women’s organization continously lobbying for more childcare!

Kindergarten 1970s

It is obligatory to have places for lone mothers in kindergarten.1971. New Program for Kindergarten Pedagogy: a good bases for the school-education.differentiated treatment “familial atmosphere”

Slow increase in kindergarten coverageObligation from 5 years of age (3 years?)Steady state-support

Nurseries

1948-1950: Factories and local councils responsible (over 250 female employees compulsory!)1951: supervision of Ministry of Health1953: creation of seasonal and “travelling crèches” 1954: Operation of nurseries regulated in detail

1965. All crèches run by firms are taken over by the local councils (!)1966. “Methodological crèches” set up1970. Institute for Créches (BOMI) set up1978. Development of education of nurses

1990s. Decrease in the number of créchesNo sharp decrease in coverage 1997. Administration taken over by the Ministry of Public Welfare

Constantly under-financed + over-crowdedWeaker state-support than to kindergartenNew institution: Family-care center (CSANA) for children 0.5 – 14 years

Long maternity leaves: GYESEarlier plans for 9 or 12 months sick leave1967: Until 2.5 years of the child (together with maternity leave)Eligibility: 12 months full-time employment600 HUF/month for public employees/industrial workers, 500 for co-operative members1969: Until 3rd birthday of the child.

GYES

1973: Becomes progressive with the number of children Is available separately for all children (even if they are at home at the same time)1982: Fathers can take GYESParents can work 4 hours a day

GYES

1985: parents working besides GYES are eligible for child care services1989. Disabled child: available until the child’s 10th birthday. 1996. GYES made means-tested + detached from work record!Rate set at minimum pension

GYES

1998. Universally available again.2002. Grandparents can receive GYES2006. Parents can work full time besides GYES. 2009. Period to be shortened: available until the 2nd birthday of child2010: GYES available for 3 years again.

Long maternity leaves: GYED

1985. Available until the first birthday of the childThe same as sickness leave: 65-75% of the daily wage1986. Extended until age 1.5. + fathers become eligible1987. Extended until age 2.

1996. GYED stopped.2000. GYED taken back in.2009. Eligibility criteria becomes stricter plans for decreasing to one year2010. Eligibility becomes the same as previously

Summary: Time-politics of Hungarian child-care

Long history of maternalist politicsChild-care as education for 3-6 years old children1960s: new maternalist turn1970s: public créches intitutionalized

1990s: „cushion” against economic hardship GYES: cheaper solutionhides unemploymentpublic opinion

GYEDStrenthening middle-class

Back to the research questions

When and how was the time-frame of parental leaves and daycare set in the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary?

How did we get the “magic three” years that seems to be so difficult to change?

Why Czech R, Slovakia and Hungary?

Possible explanations:Legacy of nationalist maternalism +

concern about demographyWeak feminism: gender equality has no

strong promotersEconomic reasons

Extension of leaves shows strong correlation with economic surplus! Channelling unemployment through long maternity leaves -- intentionalFailed attempts of „path departure” Weaker institutionalization of nurseries in CR and SR than in HUMore flexibility included into the SL and CZ system of parental leaves than in HU

Future?

To change the existing pattern logics of the system needs to be changed: Not to use long maternity leaves instead of unemployment benefits.Development of nurseries and mixed institutions would be needed for increasing mother’s employment.Change of gender relations and share of caring duties needed – family patterns!