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UNIT 1C – THE TUDORS, 1485-1603

Topic 1Henry VII, 1485–1509

Topic Subtopics Learnt Retrieved Assessed1.1 Consolidation of power

Character and aimsEstablishing the Tudor dynasty

1.2 Government

Councils ParliamentJusticeDomestic PoliciesRoyal Finances

1.3 Foreign Relations

Relations with Scotland and other foreign powersMarriage alliancesSecuring the succession

1.4 SocietyNobles and CommonersRegional DivisionsSocial discontent and rebellions

1.5 EconomyAgricultureTradeExploration

1.6 ReligionCatholicism in the Fifteenth CenturyHumanism, Arts and Learning

1.1 Consolidation of Power 1


How did Henry VII become King of England?1457 Henry VII was born. His mother was distantly related to the LANCASTRIANS.

Plenty of people had a better claim to the throne than Henry VII at this point.1461 The Lancastrian king, HENRY VI, lost the crown to YORKIST, EDWARD IV.

Henry VII was 4 years old at this point; he was looked after and closely watched 1470 Henry VI became king again after a rebellion

Henry VII (14 years old) was still an unimportant member of the royal family because the King, Henry VI had a son.

1471 Edward IV won the throne back and killed Henry VI and his son So many people had died that Henry VII became the most important Lancastrian Henry VII escaped to Brittany to save his life

April 1483

RICHARD III seized the crown and made himself King Henry VII was still in Brittany at this point

August 1483

A group of lords rebelled against Richard III and chose Henry VII as their leader The rebellion failed before Henry arrived in England.

1484 Richard bribed the Duke of Brittany to capture Henry Henry escaped at the last minute, dressed as a servant and rode across the border into

France.1484 The King of France wanted to distract Richard from invading France, so he gave Henry VII

an army to invade England Henry landed in Wales with an army and hoped that Thomas, Lord Stanley might join in

on his side.1485 The BATTLE OF BOSWORTH FIELD saw Henry VII defeat Richard III in battle and become

King of England.

Character and Aims of Henry VII:• There is less evidence about the character of Henry VII, than there is for any other Tudor monarch.• The limited evidence has led to widely differing opinions on what Henry’s character was like• Henry VII rarely recorded his own thoughts. Therefore, people have had to draw their own

conclusion from his actions and his policies.

Polydore Vergil, Books of English History, (1534) John Guy, Tudor England, (1988)

Henry was distinguished, wise and prudent in character; and his spirit was so brave and resolute that never, even in moments of greatest danger, did it desert him. In government, he was shrewd and far-seeing, so that none dared to get the better of him by deceit or sharp practice. To those of his subjects who did not do him due honour, he was hard and harsh. He knew well how to maintain his royal dignity and everything belonging to it. He was successful in war, although by nature he preferred peace to war. Above all else, he cherished justice.

Henry’s reign was distinguished by sober statesmanship. Bosworth's victor was a stabiliser: he could be ruthless and severe but was neither blood thirsty nor egotistical. By comparison with Henry V, Edward IV, and Henry VIII, he appears shadowy and remove. In fact, he kept his distance…

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Establishing the Tudor Dynasty:Coronation After the Battle of Bosworth Field, Henry used his coronation ceremony to legitimise his

claim to the throne of England. Coronation’s were more than public ceremony to confirm power because they showed

churches approval, and most importantly God’s approval. Furthermore, the coronation required the nobility to swear an oath of loyalty to the

King. Since Anglo-Saxon times the ceremony conferred divine status that defined rebellion as

a crime, and a sin. The speed of Henry VII’s coronation was a safety measure, to symbolise that he was a

legitimate King, and not just successful in battle. The ceremony took place a week before parliament was called. This was deliberate, to

ensure no one could say that Parliament helped Henry VII become King.

Marriage

Henry VII was coronated before his marriage to Elizabeth of York (coronation was October 1845, and his marriage was in January 1846)

His marriage was an essential part of his strategy to win support Elizabeth of York was the daughter of Edward IV, so their marriage symbolised

reconciliation between the House of York and House of Lancaster. Elizabeth soon gave birth to Arthur (September 1486), which gave the Tudor dynasty a

degree of permanence.

Parliament Parliament was summoned after Henry VII’s coronation Henry summoned his parliament in November 1485 and then embarked ROYAL

PROGRESS to the North A Royal Progress was a tour of the kingdom, by the monarch and his court On the tour, Henry heard petitions and granted favours This was done to demonstrate his royal power, and presence to his subjects

Handling of supporters Supporters of Henry VII were rewarded

o John de Vere became the Earl of Oxfordo Lord Stanley became the Earl of Derby (and married Henry’s mother)o Jasper Tudor became the Duke of Bedford and was given royal authority in Waleso Sir William Stanley became Lord Chamberlaino John Morton became Lord Chancellor (and later Archbishop of Canterbury)

The effect of this is that it STABILISED the government, because his supporters were no in control of areas across England (including the East Midlands, North West, and Wales)

Handling of opponents Henry dated his reign from 21 August, which was the day before the Battle of Bosworth

Field. His reason for doing this, is that his opposition could be declared traitors. Henry imprisoned Yorkist's with a better claim to the throne (EARL OF WARWICK) Nobles who had opposed Henry were stripped of their land and titles But… Henry knew that he had to be lenient to gain loyalty!!

Propaganda Henry VII destroyed copies of the TITILUS REGIUS, which identified his Queen as a

bastard, and recognised Richard III’s title. We assume that other documents favourable to Richard were also destroyed.

Henry created the TUDOR ROSE, a combination of the white rose of Yorkshire and white rose of Lancaster

Henry created the first English pound as a coin. This was not a coin to use in daily life but was put into circulation to spread a message – especially to foreign visitors (this coin was given as a souvenir). Henry’s full body is featured on the coin with the imperial crown on his head. It also had a Tudor rose, associating the coat of arms in England with the Tudor family. Coins in many senses were a mass media in a time where there was no television.

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1.2 Government Context:Before we start looking at Henry’s government, we need to understand how government operated more generally in Early Modern England. Below is a diagram, outlining the structure of English government in this period.

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CouncilsRoyal CouncilThe ROYAL COUNCIL refers to the inner circle of nobility that advised Henry VII.

Wha

t sor

t of p

eopl

e w

ere

in th

e Ro

yal C

ounc

ilClerics

Between 1485 and 1509, just about 50% of Henry’s council was made up of CLERICS. The two most favoured members were JOHN MORTON and RICHARD FOX

Nobles There were also nobles on the Council, who were rewarded for serving Henry well. The Earl of Oxford (John de Vere) was Great Chamberlain and Lord Admiral Jasper Tudor, Duke of Bedford, became the most powerful nobleman in Wales. Henry brought in trusted Yorkists (Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey, was made Lord Treasurer in 1501)

Educated Professionals: Henry also relied on educated professionals, especially lawyers, as advisors. Henry was exploiting Crown lands, and needed men trained in auditing, property law and administrative skills. Men skilled in these areas were so valuable, and so Henry had little care from their social class.

How

did

the

Roya

l Cou

ncil

oper

ate?

Within the Royal Council there was an elite inner circle that had far more access to Henry VII than others. These included Jasper Tudor, Duke of Bedford, the Earl of Oxford, and Lord Stanley. From 1485 to 1509 there were a total of 227 royal councillors. But at any one time there were no more than 150 and only some of these attended a meeting of the Royal Council where attendance usually totalled about 40 members. They advised the king on matters of state and acted in a judicial capacity. As much as possible, Henry attended Royal Council meetings, so he was aware of what was being discussed. Henry continued a previous practice of using COMMITTEES made up of members of the Royal Council. Each had its own area of expertise such as the COURT OF REQUESTS (this dealt with legal cases involving those who could not afford the high costs of the normal system), the COURT OF GENERAL SURVEYORS (Crown lands).

The Council Learned in the Law:The COUNCIL LEARNED IN THE LAW was a small and highly professional legal committee. It was introduced in 1495 to defend Henry’s position as a feudal landlord. It initially dealt with the Duchy of Lancaster, with the Chancellor of the Duchy in charge. However, it went on to deal with all Crown lands and kept up-to-date records of wardship, marriage and relief and collected feudal dues that were owed. The Council Learned acted without a jury and as it actively advanced the position of the king, it had his full support.

In 1504, Sir Richard Empson became Chancellor of the Duchy and President of the Council Learned. He rigorously asserted royal feudal rights and later admitted that he made up feudal dues in more than 80 cases. “By the end of the reign it had become the most detested but the most important of all Henry’s institutions of government involved in the maintenance of law and order.” (Rogers)

ParliamentIn Early Modern England, Parliament only met to grant taxes and to pass laws.

House of Lords House of CommonsHow much power did each house have?

The House of Lords (made up of senior clergy and PEERS) was easier to control because Henry VII determined the social rise of these men or not.

The Commons (primarily made up of rich merchants, lawyers etc.), however, was gaining in power around the time of Henry VII’s reign, and he recognised their importance to the growth of England’s economy.

How far did Henry interact with each house?

Henry would converse with members of the House of Lords.

Henry rarely spoke directly to the Commons. They communicated their thoughts to the king via the SPEAKER OF THE COMMONS. The fact that Henry recognised members of the Commons as valuable to the economic growth of his kingdom was important.

How often did Parliament meet?Parliament met infrequently during his reign. Between 1485 and 1509, Parliament met only on seven occasions and five of these were between 1485 and 1495. When Henry felt more secure, he no longer felt the need to call Parliament. The failure of the Simnel and Warbeck rebellions strengthened Henry’s hold on government – hence his lack of any desire to call Parliament.What was the purpose of Parliament?Parliament was used to support Henry’s drive to full monarchical power.

10% of all statutes dealt with by Parliament involved the responsibilities of JP’s and their control within the provinces. In 1504 an act forbade corporations from making any regulations unless they first had the approval of Henry VII. Therefore, Parliament was ultimately a ‘rubber stamp’ for Henry. Many within Parliament would have been very aware

of what could happen if they moved against the king – an act of attainder.

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JusticeTools of the legal system

Court of King’s Bench (common law court)

Heard wide variety of CIVIL CASES. It only met for three months a year, and then for only three hours a day. This meant it was ineffective.

Court of Common Pleas (common law court)

This court dealt with law for ordinary people. Lawyers would frequently engage in extravagant verbal exchanges rather than focus on evidence, which got it a bad reputation.

Justices of the Assizes (common law court)

Travelling courts staffed by judges from central London. Visited towns on average twice a year, but cases could take 18 months or longer, so this too was clearly inefficient.

Chancery The role of the Chancery expanded under Henry VII. Expert judges reached decisions based on evidence, not style, as in common law courts. Made very popular (took work from common courts). Was flexible, speedy, and powerful.

Shire courts Run by Justices of the Peace (JP). Heard cases related to land, debt, and contracts. JPs could arrest for all criminal matters. JP sessions in shire courts became basis of criminal law enforcement

Manorial and local courts

Settled agricultural and civil disputes worth less than 40 shillings (damage to crops, assaults not leading to bloodshed).

Tools of the GovernmentJustices of the Peace (JPs)

Henry increased the workload and numbers of Justices of the Peace. He made them answer to him directly (as opposed to nobles) and every one of his seven parliaments increased their workload. They dealt with issues like riots, illegal retaining, extortion, and poaching. BUT- still problems. Act in 1489 set out procedure for reporting complaints and a manual was sent to JPs in 1506, which shows there were still problems in governance.

Parliament Used to pass many Act of Attainders and other laws that strengthened Henry’s position. Court of Star Chamber This was a court of law which evolved from meetings of the king's royal council. It was

named this because of the star pattern painted on the ceiling of the room at Westminster Palace where its meetings were held. Although its roots go back to the medieval period, the court only became powerful as a separate entity during the reign of Henry VII. In 1487, during Henry’s second Parliament, the court became a judicial body separate from the king's council. In a sense the court was a SUPERVISORY body; its members oversaw the operations of lower courts. As well, its members could hear cases by direct appeal. Members of the court were either privy councillors or judges drawn from the courts of common law.

Council Learned in Law Used as an instrument of extorting nobles. Established in 1495 and presided over by Bray until his death in 1503 and then Empson and Dudley. Collected bonds and recognisances, again, just an offshoot of the King’s Council- presided over by men ‘learned in the law’.

Domestic Policies

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Domestic Policies

Control over the nobilityp.12.

Ordinary and extraordinary revenue

p.7.

Control over financep.7.

Local and Regional government

p.6. and p.13.

Dealing with rebellionpp.14-5.

http://www.tudorplace.com.ar/aboutHenryVII.htm


Royal FinanceWhy did Henry VII want financial SOLVENCY:

1. To tackle threats 2. To increase his power 3. To ensure a smooth successionThere were threats to Henry VII’s position as King, and therefore Henry wanted to raise enough money to put down and tackle any threats.

Henry thought English Kings were not rich enough to be powerful. He told Henry Wyatt: ‘my predecessors, weakening their treasure, have made themselves servants to their subjects’. Henry wanted to be FINANCIALLY INDEPENDENT of Parliament.

If his successor faced any problems upon his accession to the throne, he would need money to fight. Leave his successor a full treasury to ensure that he would have the means to fight for his succession

Who controlled finance prior to, and during the reign of Henry VII?12th Century In the 12th Century, England’s finances had been dealt with by the EXCHEQUER (department within the

government). The exchequer received, stored and payed out money, as well as auditing accounts. The Exchequer involved complex hierarchy of official to avoid corruption, which made it very slow!

Yorkist King’s Chamber System

This system of finance was informal and flexible (because it was new). It was based on systems used by nobles on their estates. Finances were run by men picked by the Monarch.

1485-1487 For the first 2 years of Henry VII’s reign, the Exchequer took back control of England finance, because Henry needed to focus on security as a monarch.

1487 onwards In 1487 Henry VII restored the Chamber System because his financial position was worsening (during Richard III reign, estates were worth £25,000, but by 1486 this had reduced to £12,000). Henry used trusted Councillors (Sir Reginald Bray) to regularly audit government spending. The Chamber System dealt with all income apart from custom duties. The Privy Chamber took charge of the National Treasury and dealt with private expenditure. This meant that the Groom of the stool became second important to the Treasurer. In the 1490’s there was an annual turnover of £100,000 (£4 million).

How did Henry increase his finances?ORDINARY REVENUE: regular sources of income

Type of ordinary revenue Organisation/administration Improvements/developments CROWN LANDS: Henry inherited land from the Houses of York/Lancaster. Also, if a tenant died without an heir, the land would revert to the king.

Sir Reginald Bray developed the techniques of estate management introduced under Edward IV. Henry granted less lands to friends and family than Edward, and so maintained greater influence and wealth.

The ACT OF RESUMPTION (1486) reclaimed crown lands which had been granted away since the start of the Wars of the Roses. The threat was often more useful to control noble families and was not always acted on.

FEUDAL DUES: This was a traditional right of the Monarch to demand money; it derived from the principal that the king was the sole owner of all the kingdom’s lands.

Payments the King could money for Relief (paid by an heir upon inheritance) Marriage (paid by father of the bride) Wardship (paid by those who control estates

when the heir is under adult age) Livery (paid by the heir upon reaching adulthood

and taking control of his estates)

Henry exploited feudal payments to ensure good behaviour from the nobles, whilst raising finances. Henry’s income from feudal dues rose from £350 in 1487, to £6,000 in 1507.

CUSTON DUTIES: This was paid on goods entering or leaving the country

Money came mainly from TUNNAGE (taxes on exports) and POUNDAGE (taxes on imports - particularly wool, wine and leather).

Henry twice updated the book or Rates. Customs duties rose from £33,000 (PY) to £40,000 during his reign.

LEGAL DUES: Money from fines and payments by people for appearing in the King’s Court.

Payments came from both common law courts and special courts operated by the Royal Council.

Henry increased the use of fines and attainders. These could be a lucrative source of income.

EXTRAORDINARY REVENUE: irregular sources of incomeType of Extraordinary revenue Organisation and administration Improvements/developments under Henry VIIBONDS AND RECOGNISANCES A payments made as a guarantee of good behaviour.

Demanded from those whose loyalty was questionable, such as a Yorkists. It also applied to merchants who owed customs duties.

Used by Henry for both political and financial purposes and enforced by the special court – the Council Learned in Law.

LOANS AND BENEVOLENCESIt was the king’s right to ask for finance in certain emergencies.

Organised by the Royal Council, loans could be requested from both individuals and institutions, such as town corporations.

The Council Learned in Law was also used to enforce these payments. This source of income was raised as and when the king required it.

FEUDAL TAXES: Similar to feudal dues, but related to a single, extraordinary occasions.

The king was entitled to gifts from both leading nobles and Parliament on special occasions,

Henry exploited this source of income fully. For example, he received £30,000 from parliament in 1504 for the knighthood of Prince Arthur.

CLERICAL TAXESSpecial taxes which the king could levy on the church

The clergy were exempt from paying taxes to Parliament, so this tax was the way to secure money from the church. Came as a ‘gift’.

Gifts were similar in amount to those received by earlier rulers. Henry used his right to appoint churchmen to raise money by selling offices (SIMONY).

PARLIAMENTARY TAXESSpecial grants of taxes by Parliament to finance royal policies such as military action.

Usually voted for in the form of ‘tenths’ or ‘fifteenths’, taxes on the value of moveable property. Henry tried a form of direct tax, but it was resented and soon abandoned.

Henry avoided parliamentary taxes as much as possible as they were unpopular and triggered two rebellions (Yorkshire 1489, Cornwall 1497). However, they were available when needed.

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1.3 Foreign Relations Europe in 1485:

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Relations with Scotland and other foreign powersDate Event Details Countries

involved1486 Truce with

ScotlandHenry signed a three-year truce with James III of Scotland. Scotland

1488-1492

Bretton Crisis

France had plans to take over Brittany. This put Henry VII in a difficult position because Brittany had provided Henry with hospitality whilst he was in exile, but France gave Henry financial assistance in 1485.

Henry VII decided to open negotiations with France, whilst secretly allowing troops to cross into Brittany to help the Bretons against the French army. When these manoeuvres failed, he sought support at home and abroad for a short campaign (Treaty of Medina del Campo, he approached the rulers of the Netherlands, and the Pope). Parliament was summoned to make a grant of £100,000 to finance a small force (3000-6000 men). England and Brittany agreed the TREATY OF REDON in 1489, which was Brittany pay for a small English army to defend Britany from France. The army crossed the channel in 1489, but Henry made clear that his intention was to defend Brittany, not re-open the English claim to France. The French were not satisfied, and so took in Warbeck and sent more troops to Brittany.

At the point (1492) Henry decided to take a great risk, by sending in a larger force of 12,000 troops to Brittany, gambling that France did not want a long conflict. He was right, and under the terms of the TREATY OF ETAPLES Henry’s army left France in return or 745,000 crowns (50,000 per year, which was 5% of the crowns annual income). The French King also agreed not to support Henry’s enemies.

BrittanyFrance

1489 Treaty of Medina del Campo

The Treaty of Medina del Campo was a treaty between England and Spain. They agreed: That Prince Arthur would marry Princess Catherine of Aragon To defend each other’s land To not make agreements with France unless they had consulted with each other first To provide equal trading rights for each other To fix custom duties

Spain

1497 Truce of Ayton

In 1846, Henry and James III made a truce. However, in 1488 James III was assassinated and James IV took over. James IV took in Warbeck. Therefore, once Warbeck was executed, Henry was keen to make a truce and secure the border between England and Scotland.

Such an agreement had not been reached since 1328. Treaty sealed by the marriage of James IV to Margaret Tudor (Henry VII’s daughter). However, Scotland did not abandon their ancient pact with France, which meant that peace depended on the continuation of good relations between England and France.

Scotland

1502 Treaty of Perpetual Peace

The treaty was signed by James IV and Henry VII. It ended any intermittent war between England and Scotland. They agreed on how they would administer the border between England and Scotland, which would prevent local cross-border conflict.

Scotland

1503 Death of Elizabeth of York

Upon the death of Elizabeth of York, Henry considered taking a second wife, who might be able to bear him more heirs. His first choice appeared to be Queen Joanna of Naples. Ferdinand was keen on this idea because Joanna of Naples was his niece, and therefore this marriage alliance would strengthen relations between Spain and England.

ItalySpain

1505 Death of Isabella of Castile

In 1505 Isabella of Castile has died. Henry and Ferdinand became rivals for MATRIMONIAL STAKES. In 1505 Henry VII was moving towards friendly relations with Burgundy in case of possible aggression from France. He opened discussions about a possible Burgundian bride for his son, Henry. This automatically made relations with Spain worse. Ferdinand turned to France and in 1505 Ferdinand married Louis XII’s niece, Germaine de Foix.

SpainBurgundyFrance

1506 Phillip of Burgundy lands in England

Phillip of Burgundy landed in England after a storm. Henry and Phillip sign: Treaty of Windsor which recognised Philip as King of Castile, and the two rulers

promised mutual defence. A second treaty, where Philip pledged for his sister Margaret to marry Henry VII. Malus Intercursus which gave English merchants considerable advantages. It was

decided that trade with Burgundy would be free, Philip would not impose duties on sale of English cloth.

Burgundy

Death of Phillip of Burgundy

Phillip of Burgundy died. Joanna of Castile (his wife) was mad with grief and deemed unfit to rule. Ferdinand declared himself King of Castile. Henry thought his best hope now was friendship between England, the Netherlands, and France. There were plans for marriage alliances involving these countries, with the intention of isolating Ferdinand in Spain.

BurgundySpain

1508 League of Cambrai

Louis XII and Ferdinand of Spain came together with Archduke Charles and the Pope in an alliance against Venice. Whilst Henry was isolated, he soon died.

France SpainBurgundyItaly

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Marriage alliancesMarriage alliances were an essential part of INTERNATIONAL DIPLOMACY. All monarchs sought marriage alliances in order to enhance their power and influence. It was especially important for Henry in order to being about dynastic security.

Date Bride Groom Details Actual Marriage?

1489Catherin of

Aragon(Spain)

Prince Arthur(England)

Part of the Treaty of Medina del Campo X

Post 1502

Catherine of Aragon(Spain)

Prince Henry(England)

This marriage was arranged in the wake of Prince Arthur’s death

1503 Margaret Tudor(England)

James IV(Scotland)

To strengthen the alliance with Scotland and weaken Warbeck’s

threat to the Tudor throne.

Post 1503

Joanna of Naples(Naples)

Henry VII(England)

Joanna was a potential bride for Henry VII following the death of

Elizabeth of YorkX

1506 Ferdinand(Spain)

Germain de Foix(France)

Ferdinand marriage Germain in the wake of his wife’s death, and in response to Henry VII seeking a

Burgundian bride.

Securing the SuccessionBefore 1502, it seemed that there would be no problems with the succession to Henry VII. In 1486, his wife gave birth to a son, Arthur, and in 1491 to another son, Henry. Arthur received the education, which was deemed to be fitting for a prince, and was set up with his own court as Ludlow, Shropshire. However, Arthur died in 1502 unexpectedly and now the Young Prince Henry was next in line…f

What threatened there being a smooth succession once Henry VII died?1. The Earl of SuffolkHenry VII needed to dispose of the threat from the Earl of Suffolk. He was luck that in 1506 Phillip of Burgundy was forced to take refuge in England, because it allowed Henry the opportunity to press Phillip and his father Maximilian to hand over the Earl of Suffolk.

2. Splits in the GovernmentThere was a growing split between those who were associated with the Council Learned in the Law (Empson and Dudley), and other advisors such as Bishop Fox and Sir Thomas Lovell.

3. Other claimants to the throneThere were still fears about Suffolk and his brother Richard de la Pole. There were also fear that the Duke of Buckingham, a descendent of Edward III, might launch an attempt at seizing the throne.

What happened upon the death of Henry VII?Henry died on the 21st April 1509. No announcement was made at first of the king’s death. Instead, Bishop Fox and his trusted friend within the Privy Chamber, Richard Weston tried to manipulate the terms of the succession to their advantage and position themselves around the new king. Importantly, Empson and Dudley were excluded from these deliberations. The King’s death was announced on the 23 rd April 1509, and the following day Empson and Dudley were arrested. There was a clear message that the new regime would be different from the old….

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1.4 Society Nobles and Commoners:How was society structured c.1485?

In what ways did society change, or stay the same, during Henry VII’s reign?Change Continuity

Society witnessed the growth of the BOURGEOISIE, who had become increasingly important in London and major PROVINCIAL cities such as Norwich and Bristol.

Economic pressures since the Black Death had increased social mobility. This created alarm amongst the conservative-minded upper class, who attempted to uphold traditional values through SUMPTUARY LAWS.

Henry VII reduces the power of the nobility (see the next page for details).

Henry VII was reluctant to appoint men whose social background was aristocratic for Bishop positions. The higher clergy, therefore, was becoming less socially exclusive.

Society c.1485 had changed little from what it had been during the high point of the FEUDAL SYSTEM.

The REMNANTS of the feudal system were still apparent in the law, social relationships, and attitudes.

The nobility continued to dominant land ownership, even though Henry was the country’s largest land owner.

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The NobilityWhile the War of the Roses had killed off some of the nobility it would be a mistake to believe that England was left DENUDED of nobility by 1485. There were three main factors decreased the nobility’s dependence on the King for power, and made them a problem for Henry VII:

1. They had gained a lot of land2. This led to an increase in their wealth, as they rented and leased out their land3. This also led to impressive strongholds of support, with private armies that they had raised

Henry VII needed the support of his nobles because they helped to maintain law and order in areas where they held land and estates. However, he did not want a nobility that were too powerful.

How did Henry VII control the nobility?How did the policy work? How effective was the policy?

Attai

nder

s

An attainder was special laws passed by Parliament. It allowed someone to be declared guilt of treason without trial. Those found guilty would lose their land/titles.

Henry VII could use attainders against those who opposed him at Bosworth. However, he was prepared to reverse attainders (138 attainders were passed, 46 reversed).

Henry used attainders with increasing severity following the death of his son and wife. 51 attainders were passed between 1504-09. Sir Thomas Tyrell paid £1,738 to reverse his attainder.

Redu

ction

of

Patr

onag

e

Patronage is where you distribute land to loyal followers. Henry VII largely abandoned this policy.

The number of nobles dropped by ¼. Henry VII absorbed vacant lands, which made him the country’s largest landowner.

When royal agents were needed in communities, Henry VII look to men lower down the social scale, because relied on the King for their power.

Attac

ks o

n re

tain

ing

(BAS

TARD

FEU

DALI

SM)

Retaining is a term which describes the practice where noblemen kept large number of men on their estate(s) as personal staff. In reality, these men became enforcement gangs.

Henry VII regarded them as lawless and the following action was taken:• 1485 – Parliament/Lords/Commons

had to swear they would not retain.• 1504 Act – nobles needed a licence

from the king to retain large numbers of men.

The idea was sound. However, nobles cold avoid getting a licence and hide wage records.

Fina

ncia

l Con

trol

s

BONDS saw nobles placed in debt to the crown, so that they would remain loyal in the future. They involved written agreements with severe punishments should be bond be broken.

In the last decade of Henry’s reign, 2/3 of nobles were held under bonds. In 1507, Lord Burgavenny was convicted of illegally retaining 471 men & fined £70,000. However, knowing this would bankrupt Burgavenny, Henry agreed to let him pay £5,000 over 10 years. The bond also stipulated that Lord Burgavenny could not step foot on his family lands until the debt was settled.

Henry set up the Council Learned in Law to collect the money from bonds.

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Regional DivisionsWhat regional divisions existed during Henry VII’s reign?

Region DetailsDurham The County of Durham was an area where the King’s power was limited. In this area,

known as the PALATINE OF DURHAM, the Prince Bishop governed as a semi-independent ruler.

Northern England

Northern England was far from the centre of political power. It had also been loyal to the House of York. After the murder of the Earl of Northumberland during the Yorkshire rebellion, Henry allowed the Earl of Suffolk to represent him. This was because Suffolk did not have a strong base of support there, that could rival Henry.

Ireland Henry was Lord of Ireland, but the real power lay with the CLAN CHEIFTAINS. The Earl of Kildare was Henry’s deputy in Ireland, but Kildare had sympathy for royal pretenders (namely Simnel), which forced Henry to remove him. His replacement, Sir Edward Poynings, attempted to reduce the independence of the Irish Parliament, which failed and saw Kildare restored to power in 1496.

Wales Henry restored the Council of Wales and staffed it with Welsh nobles under the leadership of his uncle, Jaspar Tudor. Prince Arthur had honorary control over the Council of Wales.

English-Welsh border

This area was known as the MARCHES. There, local nobles had special privileges.

What was the role of Justices of the Peace in the regions?

What was their role?

Justices of the Peace the chief local government officers. JP’s were responsible for the maintenance of public order in their area of JURISDICTION. They were also responsible for executing legislation that had been introduced in London.

How were they

organised?

o Justices of the Peace (JP’s) owed their offices to the king because JPs served for a year. After a year they would be put up for reappointment. Any JP who fell from grace would also fall from grace socially within his region.

o The average number of JP’s per county was 18. o The most senior JP in a county was usually a bishop. o JP’s relied on knights and squires to enforce their decisions o Once every three months all JP’s in a county met at QUARTER SESSION. It was at Quarter

Sessions that serious court cases were dealt with. This would include everything except any cases involving treason.

o JP’s did not receive an income for their work as it was felt that part of the responsibility of being a land owner was to maintain law and order and social order.

JP’s under Henry VII

o Henry VII selected his JP’s from the second tier of a county’s landowners. This was part of his campaign to restrict the power of the nobility (JP’s were answerable to the king and they would be a useful source of information with regards to any overmighty nobles).

o Henry continued the policy of Edward IV of extending the power of the JP’s. In 1487, JP’s were given the power to grant bail to those awaiting trial. In 1495, JP’s were given the authority to deal with juries that were considered to be

tainted by loyalties to a noble. JP’s were also given the power to act without a jury except in cases that involved the

possible passing of the death sentence. JP’s were also allowed to reward informers.

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Social Discontent and rebellionsSimnel and Warbeck:

Sim

nel R

ebel

lion How did the

rebellion start?Richard Symonds (a Yorkist priest from Oxford) taught Lambert Simnel. Symonds thought that Simnel looked like Edward IV. Symonds therefore decided to pass off Simnel as Richard of York (son of Edward IV, and one of the Princes in the Tower).

Symonds took Simnel to Ireland because it was a centre of Yorkist support. The Irish decided to pass him off as the Earl of Warwick instead (a different Yorkist claimant to the English throne). The Lord Lieutenant there, the Earl of Kildare, proclaimed Simnel as King. In response to this, Henry VII produced the real Earl of Warwick to demonstrate the falseness of this claim…

What support did the rebellion get?

o The Duchess of Burgundy gave Simnel 2000 German soldiers/mercenaries under Martin Schwarz.o Simnel also gained support from the Irish; they crowned him king in Dublin in May 1487.o John de la Pole (Earl of Lincoln) rallied the cause and fled via Flanders to Ireland in May 1487.

What were the key events of the rebellion?

Henry pardoned known rebels (e.g. Thomas Broughton) to get them on side. On the June 4th, 1487, Simnel and his army landed at Furness-Lancashire. From here they marched across the Pennines, and then south. Interestingly, they did not tract much support as they were marching (locals were suspicious of the Irish and did not want civil war). Henry prepared his army, and the two met outside of Newark at East Stoke on June 16th, 1487.

Simnel (with 8,000 men) fought Henry VII (12,000 men) in a three-hour battle (THE BATTLE OF EAST STOKE). Initially, Simnel’s force held the upper hand, however, the king’s army held firm and eventually over half of Simnel’s force was killed.

What were the consequences of the rebellion?

Richard Symonds was arrested and sentenced to life in a bishop’s prison. However, Henry VII’s realised that Simnel had merely been a pawn, and therefore Henry gave Simnel a position in the king’s kitchen. Simnel would later be promoted the post of King’s Falconer.

Those nobles who had supported the rebellion were not treated so generously! 23 nobles had their land confiscated. This punishment served a dual purpose. o It sent a clear message that anyone who betrayed the king would be severely dealt with. o It also enhanced Henry’s wealth as all attainted land and estates became his property.

War

beck

Reb

ellio

n How did the rebellion start?

Warbeck arrived in Cork in the autumn of 1491 on a ship selling silk. People thought Warbeck (who spoke poor English) was the Earl of Warwick. Warbeck denied this, claiming instead that he was Richard of York (son of Edward IV and one of the Princes in Tower). Professor S B Chrimes believes Warbeck’s appearance was planned, and that Charles VIII and Margaret of Burgundy were behind the plot (Margaret was involved in the Simnel Rebellion and before his death, Warbeck did mention the “French king”).

What support did the rebellion get?

o Charles VIII of France welcomed Warbeck and 100 Yorkists into Paris in 1492. However, Charles VIII lost interest in Warbeck and directed his attention/finance to north Italy, which he invaded in 1494.

o Margaret took Warbeck in Burgundy (Henry broke off cloth trade)o The Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian also supported Warbeck. However, Maximilian was far less

powerful in reality (difficulties enforcing authority across his empire)

Henry responded to this support by introducing a spy network across England/mainland Europe. The 1495 Parliament passed Acts of Attainders; Sir William Stanley was executed, and his estates passed to the king; Lord Fitzwater (Henry’s steward) was also executed. However, Sir Robert Clifford was given full pardon and reward because despite plotting, he seemed working for the king all along.

What were the key events of the rebellion?

In July 1495, Warbeck tried to land in Kent. However, this was a disaster and he sailed back to Ireland. From Ireland, Warbeck sailed for Scotland, where James IV gave Warbeck refuge a pension of £1200 a year (James saw Warbeck as an opportunity to disrupt England (rather than believing Warbeck’s claim to the throne).

James attacked England on Warbeck’s behalf. However, this was also a disaster! The Scots were brutish, and Warbeck did not want to go South with them! Furthermore, Henry VI offered James a truce (marry his daughter).

In July 1497 Warbeck went back to Ireland, where he was not welcome and sailed for England. When in England, Warbeck fled to Beaulieu Abbey where he hoped to find safety. However, the monks give him up, at which point the rebellion was over.

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What were the consequences of the rebellion?

Henry allowed Warbeck to remain at court where he could be watched. However, in 1499, Warbeck was charged trying to escape for a 2 time, found guilty, and hanged November 23rd, 1499.

Yorkshire, Cornish, and Lovell Rebellions:

Love

ll Re

belli

on (1

846) What was the

context of this rebellion?

The Lovell rebellion is named after its organiser; Francis Lovell (councillor for Richard III). It was also organised by Lovell’s Yorkist associates Humphrey Stafford and Thomas Stafford. They plotted to raise troops in 1486, and to kill the King as he progressed to the North of England.

What were the key events of this rebellion?

Henry VII had used spies to follow Lovell and the Stafford brothers following their defeat at Bosworth. Francis Lovell l took sanctuary in Colchester Abbey, and then escaped before raising troops at Middleham (Yorkshire). Henry’s agents tracked down the Staffords in Culham Church in Oxfordshire and arrested them both. Sir Richard Edgecumbe and Sir William Tyler were appointed to apprehend Lovell. Whilst Francis Lovell escaped, he was forced to leave the country.

What were the consequences of this rebellion?

In reality, this rebellion was not dangerous to Henry VII’s position as King, despite the intentions of the rebellion. The rebels were either arrested, or in the case of Francis Lovell, fled to Burgundy.

York

shire

Reb

ellio

n (1

489) What was the

context of this rebellion?

In 1489, Henry VII planned to assist Brittany in the Breton Crisis. The 1489 Parliament voted in favour of granting Henry £100,000 in his quest to support Brittany. Yorkshire opposed to the tax because they did not believe that war would impact them. There was already strong resentment about a Lancastrian monarch (especially as a Yorkist one had been overthrown), and Yorkshire had been badly hit by a poor harvest and many in Yorkshire saw this tax as a tax too far. Other northern counties were exempted from paying the tax (their finances were being used to defend England from Scotland).


Henry Percy (Earl of Northumberland), told Henry VII how people in Yorkshire felt about the tax. However, Henry was in a very difficult position (he needed to assert his authority, and ultimately believed in supporting Brittany). He refused to listen, and the Earl of Northumberland returned north with nothing. After informing the people in Yorkshire that the king would not bend, Northumberland was murdered…

Sir John Egremont led the York rebels, however, the Earl of Surrey easily put down their rising and Sir John Egremont fled to Burgundy.


Henry VII travelled north and issued many pardons for those who were involved. The new Earl of Northumberland was a minor, and the Earl of Surrey (Lieutenant in the area) had no reason not to be loyal to Henry as his own social and political advance rested with the king. Henry faced no more problems in the north though he failed to collect the region’s tax quota for the Brittany campaign.

Corn

ish R

ebel

lion

(149

7) What was the context of this rebellion?

Like the uprising in Yorkshire in 1489, the 1497 rebellion in Cornwall was based around a tax demand. In January 1497, Parliament voted in favour of a tax to finance the campaign against James IV. The Cornish refused to pay for a campaign in the north and which had no impact on Cornwall.


Led by Joseph and Flammock, the rebels set out from Bodmin in May 1497. They marched east and gained their recognised leader, the impoverished Lord Audley

On June 16th, the rebels reached the outskirts of London and 15,000 of them camped on Blackheath. The king’s army, led by Lord Daubeney, had little trouble beating the rebels because they were effectively leaderless. It is thought that about 1,000 of the rebels were killed at the so-called BATTLE OF BLACKHEATH. Some rebels were taken prisoner but many of the rebels simply fled.


The leaders were put to death including the blacksmith Joseph and Lord Audley. Whilst this rebellion hardly threatened Henry’s position, it did show the fragility of the political and social structure. Also, the rebels manage to march from Bodmin (South-West England) to Blackheath (outside of London), without anyone challenging them.

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1.5 Economy What was England like c.1485?The population at the beginning of the 15th Century was 2.2 million. Most lived in the countryside and relied on some sort of farming for a living. Only 10% of the population were urban dwellers, with London having the largest population of around 50,000. Other large towns included York, Bristol, Norwich, and Coventry. In the urban areas wool and cloth were the main industries. Although Henry VII was interested in building up his personal wealth, he had no specific ‘economic policy’ as a modern leader would.

AgricultureWhat was agriculture like when Henry became King?

• Income from the land had declined as a result of the BLACK DEATH. • There was a greater move towards sheep farming in the 1480s and 1490s. This was a reflection not only of

the decreased profits in crop farming, but also the improved profitability of sheep farming brought about by the increased demand in wool, as the population grew, and trade overseas developed.

• England was mainly divided up in to different farming zones: ‘LOWER ZONE’ (South and East) and ‘HIGHLAND ZONE’ (North and West). Mixed farming could be mainly found in the low zone, pastoral farming in woodland areas and the open field system mainly found in grain-growing areas of the southeast and the east Midlands.

What is enclosure?Organisation of land without enclosure Organisation of land with enclosure

Common Land

Land surrounding villages was divided into strips and shared amongst villagers, and decisions about farming practices were decided collectively. Stretches of common land were left for the people to graze their animals.

Enclosure was the legal process in England of changing small landholdings into fenced off, larger farms (which was more suitable for sheep farming). Once enclosed, use of the land became restricted and available only to the owner, and it ceased to be common land for communal use

Was enclosure really such an issue in the reign of Henry VII? In certain cases, enclosures led to evictions and occasionally VAGABONDAGE (vagabonds were people without land or employment). But research does show that enclosure was never as widespread as was first thought. Enclosure was most common in the Midlands but only 3% of land there was ever enclosed in Henry’s reign. Also, the number of families evicted has probably been exaggerated as many farmers had turned to pasture farming after the Black Death. The negative impression left by enclosure probably came about as a result of it being muddled with ENGROSSING. The engrossing of farms was where several farms were joined together to make one more profitable unit, and this did lead to families being evicted – but it was not enclosure.

How did the English Government respond to enclosure?Parliament introduced two laws, both in 1489 that can be seen as being anti-enclosure.

1. The first law was specifically for the Isle of Wight. The act for the Isle of Wight was an attempt to stop depopulation of what was seen as a vital strategic area. It was believed that enclosure was causing depopulation and that the Isle of Wight would be incapable of defending itself.

2. The second law was a more general piece of legislation. The second law addressed the belief that enclosure might result in a breakdown of law and order and forbade any destruction of a house with at least twenty

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acres of land. The act did not contain the word ‘enclosure’ in it, and it proved to be difficult to enforce.

TradeThe cloth trade in England:The emergent cloth industry coincided with a growing population. Most communities engaged in the woollen cloth trade also farmed on a small scale too, therefore total unemployment was less feared because they were not completely dependent on agriculture. The three main districts for woollen cloth production were the West Riding of Yorkshire, East Anglia, and the West Country. An increasing proportion of finished cloth was exported from London through the MERCHANT ADVENTURERS (a trading organisation which came increasingly dominant of London’s cloth trade with Antwerp). This reinforced London’s commercial dominance within the country.

A timeline of events concerning tradeEvent Date Details Countries

involvedNavigation Acts

1485-6 This was a move by Henry VII to try and break the STRANGEHOLD of the HANSEATIC LEAGUE (a league of German towns which dominated trade in the BALTIC). The Navigation Acts encouraged the use of English ships to carry goods, rather than foreign ships. In particular wines from France could only be imported on English ships. However, this legislation only had limited usefulness, as foreign vessels continued to transport a substantial proportion of English exports.

GermanyFrance

Venice and Florence incident

1488 Henry hoped to develop trade with Florence. Venice however, dominated trade in the region. In 1488 Venice retaliated to Henry VII by imposing heavy tariffs on English goods imported into Venice. Henry did not back down, and in 1490 made a treaty whereby English wool would be imported in Pisa, in Florence. Fearing that Florence would gain trade at their expense, Venice lifted the tariff.

VeniceFlorence

An Act 1489 This Act limited the export of English wool and made it illegal for foreigners to buy wool for making into cloth on the continent. This reflected the importance of the cloth industry in England. At the end of Henry VII’s reign, the export of raw wool was 30% lower than what it had been in 1485.

European continent

Trade embargo on Burgundy

1493 Henry imposed an embargo on Burgundy in 1493, as a result of fear and insecurity brought about by their support for the pretender Perkin Warbeck. Instead of trading directly with Burgundy, merchants were required to direct their trade through Calais. This simply invited retaliation from the Netherlands. The embargo ended with the TREATY OF INTERCURSUS MAGNUS (see below).

Burgundy

Intercursus Magnus

1496 This law allowed English merchants to trade freely with all parts of Burgundy, except Flanders. Whilst there was occasional disagreement, by 1509 English merchants were shipping more than 50% of cloth exported to Europe. In 1509, 60% more cloth was being exported to Europe than had been in 1485.

Burgundy

Attempted re-embargo on Burgundy

1503 Henry appeared to panic once again in 1503 when the claim to the earl of Suffolk was once again being taken seriously around Burgundy. Henry attempted to reimpose the embargo. However, circumstances at the time (Philip was weak) meant that he could negotiate.

Burgundy

ExplorationExplorer Details OutcomesChristopher Columbus

Henry VII failed to give patronage to Christopher Columbus in 1486. However, evidence suggests that it was the king’s council who rejected the idea of a trans-Atlantic voyage due to the risks of crossing the vast ocean.

Columbus’ successful voyage to the New World.

John Cabot Cabot was an Italian sailor who arrived in England in 1495 to seek support from Henry for a voyage across the Atlantic. He believed he could shorten the distance to the Far East but sailing in a more northerly latitude than Columbus had done. The prospect of profits from increased eastern trade in exotic luxuries and spices was too alluring for Henry and so he authorised the voyage. The king offered £50 in the first instance, but would commit more if the voyage proved successful

After a disastrous first journey, which was scuppered by stormy weather, Cabot finally reached land in 1497. It is likely he landed in Newfoundland – as he commented in his log that there were plentiful cod in the waters. Cabot sadly died on the return journey, however.

Sebastian Cabot In 1509, just before his death, Henry VII supported Sebastian Cabot, who sought passage around America to Asia. Although it was generally accepted that America was a continent distinct from Asia, it was not known that one could not sail north of it to

When Cabot returned Henry VII was dead and his son, the new King Henry, was not so enamoured by exploration. Owing to Henry VII’s patronage, England

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reach Asia. Nevertheless, Cabot believed that he had discovered a new channel leading to Cathay (China), historians now suspect he had discovered the Hudson Strait.

gained more knowledge of North America than any other European state. Sadly, this was not exploited by his son and it wasn’t until Elizabeth I that maritime activity resumed again.

1.6 Religion Catholicism in the 15th CenturyWhat is Catholicism?Catholicism is a branch of CHRISTIANITY. This church is headed by the POPE, who lives in the VATICAN, (which was part of Rome in the Tudor times). Catholic believe that only the most saintly could expect to go straight to heaven. Those who had committed some sins, but not mortal sins (so most people) could expect to go to PURGATORY after death. There they would be ‘purged’ of their sin by fire and torment. However, once they had been purified, their soul would then ascend to heaven. Those who had committed MORTAL SINS could expect to go to hell for all eternity.

Catholic’s believe you could get time off Purgatory by doing the following:

Take the SACRAMENT of MASS

Do good works (e.g. charity/give money to the church) Acquire RELICS

Go on a PILGRIMAGE REPENT your sins

Have people pray for your soul

Intercession of the Saints

What was the role of the Catholic Church during the reign of Henry VII?During Henry VII’s reign, English people belonged to the Catholic Church. Although prayers in the mass were said for the Pope, what really counted for the ordinary people was their own religious experience. Lives were lived and regulated according to the Church’s major ceremonies. The churches festivals were closely linked to the agricultural year and provided much needed enjoyment. Voluntary associations offered charity, good fellowship, and the chance

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for ordinary people to contribute to the good of the local community. The Church made it easier for the social and political elites to maintain social control through the encouragement of good behaviour. It also provided employment opportunities; Cardinal Wolsey advanced himself socially through the attainment of high office in church and state.

Political role of the Catholic Church Social role of the Catholic ChurchThe Church was significant, both in DOMESTIC politics and INTERNATIONAL politics. This is because the highest position in the Church was held by the Pope in Rome, who not only wielded considerable spiritual power but was also head of a substantial state in northern Italy. Example: Henry sought (through Thomas Morton) a DISPENSATION to marry Elizabeth of York.

On the other hand, successful Popes did not interfere directly with the running of the church in England; the relationship between the state and church was ERASTIAN (the state should have authority over the church). Example: The papacy had no objections to the way in which Henry used the wealth of the church to reward those churchmen to whom he had given the highest political office.

The Catholic Church in England was governed by two provinces, Canterbury, and York, each under the jurisdiction of an ARCHBISHOP, and seventeen DIOCESES, each under the control of a BISHOP. Some of these dioceses, such as Winchester and Durham, enjoyed considerable wealth.

It was common in the late fifteenth century for senior churchmen to enjoy positions of significant influence and power within the kingdom. During the medieval period it was normal for the most senior figures within the Church of England to be drawn from senior ranks of the aristocracy. Example: Margaret Beaufort’s great uncle, for example, had been Cardinal and Bishop of Winchester.

Some offices of State, especially that of the chancellor (the highest advisor to the king), were monopolised by clergymen. Example: John Morton (Archbishop of Canterbury) was Chancellor from 1486-1500.

The ABBOTS, who were heads of the wealthiest religious houses, shared membership of the House of Lords with the bishops.

LAY PEOPLE were the ones who mainly invested into their parish churches. They not only funded the lavish building of many churches, but the objects which accompanied services.

The dying would often leave money to the parish church, which had a triple purpose: to enhance the beauty of worship, to ensure the remembrance of the person who made the donation (BENEFACTORS) and to reduce the time they spend in purgatory.

Another social role of the church can be seen through CONFRATERNITIES (also known as a religious guild or lay brotherhood). These were groups of men (sometimes women) who gathered together, usually in association with the parish church, to fund religious causes. Example: the confraternity in Louth, paid for the building of the spire at the parish church.

Many parishes in the south and the south Midlands raised funds through church-ale festivals, which involved much drinking and a range of entertainments. Ale made and donated for the event was the chief drink.

Religion’s social role was evident in other ways. Going on a pilgrimage was another way which individuals could gain relief from purgatory. The practice of pilgrimage was, in Eamon Duffy’s description, exuberant.Example: the tomb of Thomas becket in Canterbury, and the shire built where there had been reported visitation of the Virgin Mary (Walsingham, Norfolk).

However, there is evidence to suggest that England’s primary pilgrimage site, the tomb of Thomas becket, was losing some of its popularity. Also, some late-medieval religious writers such as Thomas a Kempis was critical of pilgrimage as a practice.

A simpler form of pilgrimage happened on the bounds of the parish (walking round the parish boundaries to pray for its protection), carrying banners and the parish cross to ward off evil spirits and reinforce the parish property. The event emphasised the importance of the parish as the key focus of local community in the lives of ordinary people at the time.

Criticism of the Catholic ChurchA small minority were critical of the beliefs and practices of the church.

LOLLARDS emerged in the second half of the fourteenth century. They stressed understanding of the Bible, and therefore favoured the translation into English. They were sceptical about transubstantiation and considered the Catholic Church to be corrupt. They also denied the special status of the priesthood. Despite their views being considered HERESY, they still persisted in parts of southern England. The movement was once widespread, but their popularity died down following the failed Lollard uprising in 1414.

Other forms of heresy seem to have been rare. The burning of heretics was introduced in 1401, though few had suffered this fate.

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Criticism of the church did exist, and it is often assumed that ANTICLERICALISM was widespread. However, this has been argued due to the fact these outbursts were rare, that they were often politically motivated and that the continued number of candidates for priesthood showed that priests retained the support.

Humanism, Arts and LearningWhat is humanism?Humanism was part of the RENAISSANCE (a cultural movement that spread from Italy). Humanism believed it was possible to improve human knowledge and behaviour through education. They were keen to study classical literature and architecture. Humanism was a positive movement, born out of optimism about the present and the future.

What was the impact of Humanism?Area Impact

Education Italian scholars came to England and taught at Oxford and Cambridge. Greek began to be taught at Oxford (by William Grocyn). As a result of increasing interest in learning, 100 ENDOWED schools were set up in England, many influenced by Humanism. Henry’s own children received an education influenced by humanism, with an emphasis on foreign languages and classics.

The Arts Literature:Henry VII encouraged writers, poets, musicians, and artists. For example, Polydore Vergil was commissioned to write a history of England. Furthermore, John Skelton was employed to write enthusiastically about England under Henry VII.

The printing press was brought to England from German in 1476.Henry supported the development of printing (in 1504 he created the post of King’s Printer. Printing encouraged the spread of new ideas, including Humanism. Many of the early books printed in English were mythical tales of popular stories, such as Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales or Thomas Malory’s King Arthur. Henry VII showed little interest in the new thinking that was being publicised by humanist writers, and preferred stories of CHIVALRY.

Architecture:There was a massive amount of building and rebuilding parish churches, in the GOTHIC PERPENDICULAR STYLE. Henry VII COMMISSIONED new buildings in the same style, namely the Henry VII Chapel in Westminster Abbey. He and his wife are buried there. English culture still followed Gothic traditions, with an allegedly primitive visual style.

Drama:Plays were sometimes presented in association with church-ale festivals (e.g. Bishop’s Stortford in Hertfordshire in 1490).The most famous dramas were mystery plays performed at the feast of Corpus Christi by the guilds of towns and cities such as York, Lincoln, Wakefield, and Coventry.

MusicMusic was enjoyed at various levels in the Fifteenth Century. Local bagpipe and wind groups would entertain the crowds on Saints days. Yet, music underwent the beginning of a renaissance, single line chants gave way to POLYPHONIC CORAL MUSIC, where different parts of the choir sang independent lines. For example, the most important surviving source is the Eton Choir book (1505), which is a collection of 93 separate musical compositions. It was composed by renaissance composers who had close links to the political establishment of Henry VII (Thomas Browne and Robert Fayrfax).

The Catholic Church

Humanists were disturbed by the poor quality of parish clergy. They wanted to improve the education of both the clergy and the LAITY. They attacked exploitation practices, such as veneration of saints, and the selling of INDULGENCES. William Melton wrote that parish clergy lacked training and discipline.

However, traditional forms of worship remained unquestioned on the whole. Pilgrimages, saints, miracles, and the veneration of images remained central to devotion. The writings of mystics such as Julian of Norwich remained popular.

Erasmus Erasmus was a humanist, Dutch scholar. In 1499, he visited England for the first time, and then came to Oxford between 1504-1506. Many of his works were published:o 1500: The Adageso 1511: In Praise of Follyo 1533: Handbook of the Christian Knight (written in 1501)

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