horizons

Horizons – The Quarterly Journal of David’s English Teaching World Issue 5: September 2008 1

ISSN 1756-2422.

Horizons

The Quarterly Journal of David’s English Teaching World

Issue 5: September 2008

Characteristics of an ESL Teacher by Michael G. Hines

Effectiveness of Drama in the English Classroom by Kate Marie Ryan An Acronym by any Other Name by Brenda Townsend Hall Teaching English: FAQ by Joseph Essberger A Dummies Guide to the Gulf by Sarah Adham Forum Highlights Are your Students Learning Anything? Learner Difficulties for Thai Students by Mihnea Voicu Simandan


Editorial Hello again, Summer is over and the new academic year is upon us. Many of you have moved on, while many more are embarking on an exciting new career in language teaching. For those newbies among us, there are great articles from Joseph Essberger, with a list of FAQs, and Michael G. Hines, who tells us what schools look for in their teachers. Elsewhere, we focus on the use of drama in the classroom with Kate Marie Ryan, while Brenda Townsend Hall looks at ‘TEFL’ acronyms. From the forums, we ask if our students are actually learning anything. We travel the world with Sarah Adham’s guide to the gulf and Mihnea Voicu Simandan joins us again and tells us about Thai students. We also maintain a commitment to teacher development with Sharon Turner’s investigation into reading flexibility and Boutkhil Guemide’s article on developing coherence in writing.

David Vincent

Front cover: ‘Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun’ (2008) by Aslan Hunter

Contents Are your students learning anything? 4 by members of the forum (general discussion) Effectiveness of drama in the English classroom 8 by Kate Marie Ryan An acronym by any other name 13 by Brenda Townsend Hall A dummies guide to the Gulf 15 by Sarah Adham Teaching English: FAQ 17 by Joseph Essberger A new way of developing coherence in writing 22 by Boutkhil Guemide Characteristics of an ESL/EFL/TEFL teacher: Know what schools look for 24 by Michael G. Hines Learner difficulties for Thai students 26 by Mihnea Voicu Simandan Developing flexible reading skills in the intermediate ESOL student 27 by Sharon Turner

Copyleft (c) 2008 David’s English Teaching World www.eltworld.net Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU Free Documentation License". For more details visit the website: http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/


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Are your students learning anything? General discussion

This question, perhaps the most subjective of any that we as teachers could be asked, was inspired by Justme on the ELT World forums. The answers proved to be varied, although the overriding conclusion seems to be fairly clear, as will become apparent as you read on.

________________ So what, if anything, are students actually learning when they enter our classrooms? Let’s first of all examine whether or not we feel they are getting anything from our lessons at all. ‘Yes. Useful? Maybe not’ suggests Gordon, speaking for the not so silent majority. ‘I certainly hope so!’ exclaims Denise. ‘Ideally, in addition to whatever their course books are presenting to them, I'd like them to come away with some actual strategies and thinking skills... and just a general interest in learning. Or is that too ambitious?’ Ambitious it may be, but isn’t that what we should be striving for? Alternatively, should we merely be happy if they get anything at all from the time spent, be it with or without our particular input. spiral78 notes, ‘I think they're learning something in almost every classroom. But, exactly WHAT may be out of our control.’ Should we face up to the fact that we may not have that much say over what students take away with them. Lozwich exemplifies this school of thought: ‘If mine are at the moment it has very little to do with me. I'm in the well-documented stage of the DELTA where your lessons are the worst you've ever taught, which is really saying something.’

Justme reiterates: ‘If they ever managed to learn anything, I rarely felt responsible. Many students were good parrots or memorizers, but I really doubt anything stuck for most of them. Occasionally I run into a former student. The ones who can speak English are hard workers and did loads of stuff outside of class, and continued to do so outside of my class. But I've run into several so-called upper-int students who could barely manage 'Hello how are you teacher?' Honestly, I don't feel responsible either way.’

Perhaps a greater degree of realism with regards to what students will take from the class should be the norm, for both the students themselves and for the teachers involved. dmb indicates how such a policy of honesty works on an IELTS exam prep course, ‘I started a class this week by saying 'if you are here to learn English then you are in the wrong class' It was the first lesson of a 4 week intensive IELTS prep course. Hopefully they can pick up a few tips.’ TheLongWayHome adds to the argument with a similar case: ‘Are they learning English? No. Are they learning how to pass an exam? I hope so.’ The idea that we are perhaps deluding ourselves if we think we are successfully leading anyone on the great journey towards language mastery is reinforced by those who currently teach beginner English speakers, where results are easiest to spot. Yaramaz describes her situation:


‘These days I primarily teach Beginner adults, having somehow over the years convinced the schools I've worked for that I must be good at it. Super beginner. Like the Hello My Name is Alper beginner. The ones who are still super keen and do all their homework and try to practice their 35 words of English during the breaks. And to be honest, they are learning a lot. I know this because I start with them from almost zero and I can see very clearly exactly how much they have learned since starting. It makes me feel a bit less pointless.’

Justme elaborates: ‘The beginning of beginning English is okay because you can't help but see results, and the students are indeed more eager. It's when you have those same students 6 months later and they can still only manage 'Hello, my name is Alper,' and 16 of the 35 words they knew, and they've quit doing homework or anything else and they're blaming it on everyone and everything besides themselves that the English hasn't magically grown and flowered in their brains.’

So, if we want to view real progress, we should stick to teaching zero beginners who need that classroom environment to take those first few steps assisted by us, after which, any English that higher level students pick up will have little to do with us. Can this really be it? EFL Geek poignantly suggests that ‘there is no learning in the classroom. Learning takes place after the class in real life.’ So, if we can’t teach them anything, can we even facilitate their learning, or will those that learn well end up learning, while those that don’t

won’t? JimDunlop Explains his situation: ‘I teach over 4000 students at 12 schools. Do some of them learn something? Of course! I often catch the kids using language I've taught them over the past few years. In fact, I even had a few stories come back to me, regarding lessons I've taught and how kids actually did take something to heart.... Once, last year, a Japanese father told me an interesting little anecdote... Because his family does have a certain degree of English knowledge, it sounds like they may speak it at home from time to time. Well, long story short, the father told me he got a real kick out of it when his son came home from school one day, walked up to him and (in English) asked him: "How are you?" so, dad obliged and gave the standard, "I'm fine, thank you. And you?" to which his son rebuked him and said: "No! No! That's not what you're supposed to say. You're supposed to say: "I'm happy or I'm hungry or something like that! Our English teacher told us that we should use more natural answers!" Made me feel all warm n' fuzzy hearing that. Obviously the kid was paying close attention when I taught his class about the dangers of "automatic" responses to questions. I make it a point to teach all my kids alternatives to the usual "I'm fine" response which becomes so ingrained into them, you get people saying: "I'm fine" even if you don't ask them "How are you?" Honest to goodness, I've said: "Nice weather we're having..." to someone and had them say, "I'm fine thank you and you" back to me. But... I digress.


In the grand scheme of things, out of the 4000-some kids, the actual numbers who really do learn something is probably very low. I can usually tell which kids are motivated and which just don't care... I've got all sorts! So, yeah. Some kids learn. Some don't. Just like real life.’

So, perhaps we need to be realistic and accept that students are part of a system, and that they will progress through the system by one means or another, and that we will, in many cases, not make as much of an impact as we’d like. justme again exemplifies with her experiences from a Turkish university preparatory class: ‘While most prep students aren't very motivating for teachers, I did have one or two very good prep classes. It's just that at the end of prep, they were almost exactly as good as they were at the beginning of prep. And then there's stuff like this (below), from a former prep colleague. The students who wrote these sentences are at the end of prep school, for the second time around after having failed once before: - A people is not food dead in three days. Peoples are general goal food make many. These world have necessary people a lot of kind food. Some people have expensive food difficult make many this time. - Food is essential for life. But unhealthy food stroggle in world. And a lot of people be unhealthy. Therefore people should eat food also be carefuly. That's why we categorise food.

- All people need to food. Because Food is require for life. Therefore food is valuable. But many people can not eat enouht food. Many people can eat enouht food.

- They just can take by eat their in body that nutrition. - Cow, sheep and mandate life in the stable and they have to eat a lot of weeds everyday. [manda = mandate, but also, water buffalo] - Food is essential for life. Therefore, Many food have to kind of.’

With so many of you in agreement over the futility of it all, is there any hope for us? Are these examples enough to frighten the wits out of anyone fresh off a four-week TEFL course? Just when I’d just about given up all hope, I find MELEE has a positive outlook on things: ‘I think my students are learning things. How to take an exam is one of those things! English is another. I also hope that they are learning that different people look at the same situation in different ways. And that all the world (Languages and everything else) is part of the system, and it flows when you see it as a system, it jams when you don't.’ So, again it may be just a case of everyone involved in language learning having to readjust their expectations about what is taken from the language class. Everyone will learn something from their experience, even if it is, as in the case of Sheikh Inal Ovar, that ‘my students learn pretty quickly that not all foreign teachers are push overs that pander to their excessive demands’ or in the case of Chimp Guevara that ‘my students have learned that they can distract me by talking about all the wonderful food


they have at home. They can do this because they know I don't usually eat

breakfast.’ Everyone takes something away with them.

The discussion on what students learn can be found in the ELT world general discussion forum: http://eltworld.net/forums/viewtopic.php?t=1137

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We offer classes from complete beginner to advanced and prepare people for the UCLES ESOL Skills for Life exams at all levels and IELTS. We also run teacher training courses: the UCLES CELTA for people who have not taught ESOL before or with little experience and the UCLES Level 4 ESOL Subject Specialist Certificate plus the UCLES Level 5 Cert FE. Anybody wishing to contact the College can write to us at Wigan & leigh College: P.O.Box 53 Parson's Walk Wigan WN1 1RS Great Britain You can also phone us on: (44) (0) 1942 761 563 (44) (0) 1942 761546 (44) (0) 1942 761648 Or alternatively, e-mail Lucy Hale: [email protected]


Effectiveness of Drama in the English Classroom by Kate Marie Ryan

How effective is the strategy of drama in teaching extended written text within the English classroom? Katie Marie Ryan discusses.

________________ This article is divided into three parts - What, Why and How; 'What' identifies the significance of this inquiry for English teachers; it also contains the definition of extended text and its link to the English in the New Zealand curriculum. 'How' identifies the strategies English teachers currently employ when teaching extended text, it also describes the shift towards using and incorporating drama strategies 'Why' discusses the research to support the effectiveness of incorporating these drama strategies into the teaching of extended written text. As we are about to embark on a teaching career we as English teachers need to be aware that our students will not always share the same enthusiasm and passion we have for reading. It is no secret that many activities divert students from reading. Student's understanding of humanity comes from commerce-driven images of television and movies and teachers worry that students might read this information unquestioningly. With increasing competition for interest and time we as English teachers have a daunting task in encouraging our students to dedicate time to read any

written text, let alone the curriculum specified 'extended written text'. Not only are we competing against a range of diverse media texts and extra-curricular obligations, but also added to the mix is New Zealand's global rating as having one of the lowest levels of literacy. With these two factors in mind, the task of tackling an extended written text in the classroom becomes increasingly challenging (Middleton 2004, Irwin 2002, Education Review Office, 2003). It is worth noting here that I began my research focusing on motivating reluctant readers - in particular boys. Further into my readings it became apparent that boys are action driven, more so than girls. Jeffrey Wilhelm notes that there is a significant gender gap when it comes to reading and there is much statistical evidence that many boys do not read (McGlinn 2003). Smith and Wilhelm have completed extensive research in this area and note that boys prefer active responses to reading in which they "physically act out responses, do or make something" (2002 pp.1-12). Through observations and discussions with current teachers I noted that the set extended text is becoming more of a challenge to plan for and teach to students. The competition for time, opportunities for learning and ability to make connections are even more prevalent than ever. With my background in drama, I decided to further explore how we as teachers can employ drama techniques


within the English classroom to provide relevant contexts to reading an extended text and therefore assist unenthusiastic readers to engage with and enjoy them more. What is extended written text? The English in the New Zealand Curriculum does not give an exact definition of an extended written text but it does indicate that text(s) studied should be of sufficient depth and complexity to enable students to develop a full and detailed analysis. The text types can include novel, non-fiction, drama script or hyperfiction. What links exist between extended written text and the curriculum? The curriculum clearly states that reading and writing are of central significance in language growth. Within the English in the New Zealand Curriculum students are expected to engage in a variety of close reading that allows them to explore language and think critically. From Years 9 to 13 students develop the ability to process information from these texts and express their ideas using transactional writing (EiNZC 1994). From the first year of secondary school, students are introduced to the 'extended written text'. This is usually in the form of a fiction novel that has been selected on the basis of its language suitability, its intrinsic value such as themes and characters, its cultural context such as relevance to the student's experience or needs and its teachable value such as links to other texts or the range of activities needed to approach it with (Middleton, E 2004). Through close reading students are invited to explore the language used and to begin to think critically about the ideas introduced. At

levels 1, 2 and 3, NCEA requires students to read, study and then show an understanding of an extended written text which is then externally assessed. Research suggests that the average student does not read much outside of school (Allen 2001). Consequently it becomes hard to build lesson plans on the assumption that everyone in the class did the reading. As discussed earlier the significance of this inquiry is focused around the competition for interest, time and capabilities of our students. The curriculum expectation for student's 'perceptive understanding' and 'sustained insight' can only occur if English teachers focus on how to engage and ensure students make meaning from texts. How is extended written text currently taught? Teachers often used procedures such as reader response, process writing, shared reflection and a focus on student work to examine texts. Students in literature circles read and respond to self selected texts in small groups and then drawn their classmates into their reading with presentations (Rekrut 2002). Based on readings, personal observations and teaching at two Auckland schools, Glendowie College and Rosehill College, the teaching of extended text can be approached in a variety of ways. Glendowie College: This decile 9 college is situated in East Auckland, was opened in 1961 and serves the middle to more affluent socio-economic communities of Glendowie, St Heliers, Kohimarama and St Johns Park. There are approximately 900 students. The


current approximate ethnic composition includes New Zealand European (Pakeha) 66 %, Asian 24 %, Pasifika 6 %, and Maori 3 % and Others 1%. Approaches to extended text include; Reading aloud Reading log and teacher follow up Chart work Reciprocal reading in 2's Article discussion and paragraph response Quotes, events recap lists Attitude line Character and scheme grid work in pairs Essay planning and exemplars Extension work on style Rosehill College: This decile 7 college is situated in South Auckland, was opened in 1970 and serves the a cross section of both lower and higher socio-economic communities, from both rural and urban areas such as Papakura, Drury, Karaka, Waiapa, Te Hihi, Kingseat and Manuera. There are approximately 1950 students enrolled. The current approximate ethnic composition includes New Zealand European (Pakeha) 73%, Mäori 11%, Indian 3%, Samoan 1%, and Other 12%. There are currently 70 international students from Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Thailand, Brazil Germany, Spain and China. Rosehill was the lead school in a Ministry of Education contract to provide ICT Professional Development to teachers in the Rosehill Cluster 2001-2003. Approaches to extended text include; Reading aloud - using CD, audiotape/shared reading/group reading Give time to read - set time to read text during SSR Chapter by chapter task sheets for plot, character, setting, theme development and language aspects Close devices on plot sequences Grids for character analysis Links to current affairs

It is no surprise that the approaches listed focus heavily on the reading and writing aspect of the curriculum, as this achievement standard sits within these two strands. However, keeping in mind the dilemma of competing texts such as visual media and students fear of failure in reading and writing, it is worth investigating different strategies of teaching that cater for different learning styles (Pirie 2002, Wilhelm 2004, Heron 2003). It is also important to find strategies that enable students to gain knowledge 'in' rather than gain knowledge 'about' the texts they read (Courtney 1989). As Balaisis notes, reading and responding about something is not the same as participating in it (2002). In fact, Beach and Myers proclaim that the 'ultimate goal however of engaging students in their own learning is to prepare them to act. Student's participation in all social worlds can result in the construction of a greater sense of belonging' (2001, p187). The question then lies in how does an English teacher adopt teaching strategies that engages students with texts emotionally, stimulates them cognitively and yet also creates this so-called climate for greater understanding? How can extended text be taught through drama? Texts invite students to enter, experience and explore imagined worlds. By responding through drama students are encouraged to move away from normal classroom activities to the creation of new, imagined contexts that draw on the reader's secondary worlds (Benton 1992). Students use a range of competencies to interrogate, represent, transform and interpret meaning. In order to take part, students are


required to draw on their understandings of human behaviour, on their practical knowledge of themselves and others, and on their aesthetic and imaginative sensibilities (Eisner 1985). In participating in these processes students are gaining a 'perceptive understanding' and 'insight' into both the fictional and the real. There are a variety of drama conventions one can incorporate when approaching an extended text, however for the purposes of this report I will identify three easy and effective strategies using the text To Kill a Mocking Bird as an example; A tableau is a still image, a frozen moment or a "photograph". David McBride states that for students who are saturated in a remote control culture, the tableau helps them to comprehend and understand sequence (Allan 2002). It is created by posing bodies and communicates a living representation of an event, an idea or a feeling. Scenes are represented in which there is conflict or heightened action, the basic elements of literature. The students become physically involved but the technique does not demand any theatrical skill. The images may be naturalistic - for examples pictures for an illustrated edition of 'To Kill a Mocking Bird' or more abstract such as an image of Justice as Atticus might imagine it (Rogers, O'Neill, Jasinski 1995).This valuable teaching strategy can be used to encourage discussion and reflection. It offers students an effective technique to clearly express ideas that they might not be otherwise skilled enough to communicate initially in writing. This strategy also helps students, especially struggling readers, to better understand text giving them that extra 'perception' and 'insight' asked of from the students.

Role is the basic ingredient for exploring what it is like to be in someone else's shoes and to develop an empathy with the 'fictional' lives we read about (O'Neill, Cecily & Lambert, 1982). Whilst in role students are learning to adopt and take a stance on a set of different attitudes. This links directly to the curriculum in being able to process information and think critically. Role play draws on research surrounding co-operative learning theories as it can occur not only individually but also within a variety of groupings such as the pairs, whole class, small or large groups, or half and half (on half provide action, one half observe and respond). For instance following a tableaux, students may be asked to develop a role play about specific moments in the story. Usually role play is most successful when the teacher is 'immersed' in the scene with them. In this strategy the teacher creates a situation in which the class has one of the following; 1 The need of an expert's knowledge 2 The need to have their ideas challenged by another perspective 3 The need to provide information or some kind of service to the teacher in role Often the most effective roles a teacher can adopt are close to the teachers regular function - for instance chairing a meeting, seeking questions or discussing the pros and cons of an event. The difference is that role will always have an attitude to the event, seeking information, persuading, patronizing or opposing. The teacher in role does not 'act' and is never merely an extra - they are the usual facilitator of discussion, however within real imagined circumstances. (Johnson, O'Neill 1984). The teacher takes the role of a social worker who visits the Cunningham family. Using questioning the teacher raises possibilities and invites the students to predict and


advise on the problems of the Cunningham family. Students are called upon to grasp the perspectives of the characters in the story and to act upon those understandings in empathetic and insightful ways. In short the students are drawing on a range of intelligences to create meanings across the worlds of drama, reader and the literary text itself (Rogers, O'Neill, Jasinski 1995). What do English teachers need to know to teach through drama? A teacher does not need to be an expert to use drama the classroom. They do not need to be able to act. They merely need to know their text inside out to be able to apply it within the context of real imagined scenarios. These real imagined scenarios can be developed through these three easy conventions. The fictional world can become a reality for students, providing connections and context beyond what they can experience by merely deciphering meaning from words. Jonathan Needland, Dorothy Heathcote and Cecily O'Neil all provide useful texts that discuss the implementation of drama conventions within literary and language classrooms.

Why is drama effective in teaching extended written text? This report draws on a variety of expert references from both English and Drama backgrounds to support the research for engaging students in reading through using drama with extended written text. For instance advocates of 'context' English teaching such as Jeffrey Wilhelm and David Barnes and 'process' drama enthusiasts such as Dorothy Heathcote and Cecily O'Neill. About the author

Kate Marie Ryan is a Secondary School Teacher of English and Drama. Born in New Zealand, she has lived in Australia, America, Italy and the United Kingdom. She holds a degree in Communication Studies and after working several years in the UK within Theatre, Journalism and Public Relations industries, she returned to New Zealand to complete a Graduate Diploma in Teaching (Secondary). She currently teaches and resides in Sydney, Australia

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An Acronym by any other Name by Brenda Townsend Hall

Our profession is beset with more than its fair share of acronyms. In this article, Brenda Townsend Hall explains why she hates them.

_________________ I don't know about you but I loathe acronyms. Yes, I know they have a convenience factor but they also seem to me to be potentially sinister, redolent of George Orwell's Newspeak. Our field has its fair share of them and woe betide anyone who uses one wrongly. Never, for example, say ESL or TESL when you mean ESOL or TESOL. Why? Because you might unwittingly insult a learner by referring to ESL (English as a second language) when the learner might be a speaker of several languages with English some way down the pecking order: it is politically more correct to refer to English for speakers of other languages (ESOL). So important has this distinction become that the heavy hand of officialdom in the UK now requires people seeking British citizenship to demonstrate that they have at least ESOL Entry Level 3 from the national "skills for life" curriculum (strange distinction, after all we hardly need "skills for death"). Exam boards now dutifully provide ESOL qualifications that seem to have eclipsed the old EFL certificates, making English as a

foreign language somehow less relevant. So have EFL and TEFL lost status? Not exactly, but they imply the use of English in international situations, perhaps among non-native speakers. They still get a look in, but to teach English as a "foreign" language requires different emphases. For example, TESOL would require the teacher to concentrate on situations and contexts that the learners would meet in everyday life in an Anglophone country. TEFL, on the other hand, suggests an orientation towards travel and global situations. I don't dispute that these distinctions have their uses but the trouble is that you can see the potential for all sorts of new acronyms on the horizon. When we will start to teach EIL (English as an international language) or EIB (English for international business)? I'd happily settle for good, old-fashioned ELT (English language teaching).

Brenda Townsend Hall, a contributing editor to ESLemployment website, is a writer in the fields of English for business, cross-cultural awareness and business communications. If you’re interested in receiving TEFL job listings weekly for free, visit TEFL Jobs (http://www.eslemployment.com/)

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A Dummies Guide to the Gulf by Sarah Adham

In this article on living in the Gulf, Sarah Adham challenges perceptions of what life is like for women in the region.

_________________ Are women in the Gulf really oppressed? Unfortunately this widely-held opinion is based on ignorance and prejudice by people in the West. Women in the Gulf are just as intelligent, articulate, capable and ambitious as their Western counter-parts. They just haven't been given the opportunities by their governments to exercise all that 'drive' until recent times - meaning in the last two decades. Nowadays, there are many universities, colleges and learning centres in the Gulf region specially geared towards women. Many women work as teachers, business women, psychologists, gynaecologists and in many other professions. Women in the UAE and certain other Gulf states are free to drive their cars, anywhere and at any time, and although Saudi Arabia has banned women drivers up until now - many observers say it'll only be a matter of time before the law changes. Certainly from my experience as an English Teacher in Saudi Arabia, the young adult women I taught were far from being oppressed. They were well-clued up about all the latest catwalk fashions, even more so than women in the West and the latest in make-up trends and hairstyles. They were happy

to be driven around by their chauffeurs to any amount of exclusive shopping malls within the capital, Riyadh. Many of them, I found, were thoroughly spoilt and 'pampered', had their own maids, cooks and baby-sitters and therefore had the 'freedom' to meet up at a branch of 'Starbucks' for an afternoon coffee! The girls I taught, many of them, had access to swimming-pools (for women only, of course), work-out gyms and liked to go bowling in the new bowling-alley that exists in the women's section of the Kingdom Mall in Riyadh. They also informed me that they liked to play 'Pool', more popularly known as, 'Billardo' in Saudi Arabia. Some students were into American sit-coms such as 'Friends' and others liked to watch 'So you think you can dance?' - I'm sure they weren't watching those semi-clad dancers while their parents were around! A friend phoned me from Saudi while I was holidaying in the UK and informed me as part of the conversation we were

having that roughly a third of all the Porsches and Lambourghinis in the world are purchased by Saudi women who then like to 'Tailor-design' them with diamond studs, as well as other 'stuff'. Many Saudi

women as well as women from the UAE, Bahrain and Kuwait are heavy smokers. Strange how they might see that as 'liberating'? All in all, the West needs to wake up to the fact that these 'Veiled women' are not all Quran reading, husband-loving,

Certainly from my experience as an English Teacher in Saudi Arabia, the young adult women I taught were far from being oppressed.


'paragons of virtue' as they would have us believe. There are some wild women around, for sure. Neither are they all oppressed, walking ten feet behind their husbands, and imprisoned in their houses on a twenty-four-seven basis! Many women in the Gulf are conversant in English more so than at any other time in the past and the arrival of the Internet has flung open wide all the doors to the outside world that were previously closed. So shame on those in the West who 'spin' untrue reports about Gulf women. I say, get your facts right!

About the Author

Sarah has been living in the Arabian Gulf for the last five years. Her family moved to Saudi Arabia after a brief stint in the United Arab Emirates. They went over to the region from the United Kingdom in 2003. Living in the Gulf has its own challenges as well as limitations but there have been plenty of fun and inspiring moments as well. Visit her blog:

http://www.thegulfhealth.blogspot.com

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Writing for Horizons We are always looking for new writers who are eager to contribute to the journal. For more details, email us:

[email protected] Alternatively, download the guide to submissions at the website:

www.journal.eltworld.net

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Teaching English: FAQ by Josef Essberger

So many questions, so many things to consider. Do you remember when you were new to this job? Perhaps, you’re thinking of becoming an English teacher. If so, definitely read on. In an article for those looking to enter the noble profession, Josef Essberger highlights the common questions that newbies have and offers practical and insightful answers.

________________ Are there really any ESL jobs for me? Yes, there are. Rightly or wrongly, the whole world wants to learn English. People everywhere, especially young people, are convinced that speaking good English is their passport to a successful career. What is more, they are being encouraged in this by many governments. Worldwide, there are many more ESL jobs than there are native-speaking EFL teachers to fill them (though it should not be forgotten that English is also taught by perfectly competent non-native teachers). EMT (English mother tongue) teachers are in high demand in virtually all parts of the world. However, EMT teachers may find it more difficult to break into other English-speaking countries. And in general, schools in Western Europe express a preference for teachers with an EU passport as working papers are then automatic. So where are all these ESL jobs? Everywhere. Though you must realize that economic conditions in individual

countries do impose restrictions on supply and demand. Virtually all parts of the world - Latin America, Asia, Eastern/Central Europe, Western Europe - welcome native-speaking teachers. Africa has some demand, but less so. There is, of course, also demand in English-speaking countries such as the UK, USA and Australia. Which countries pay best? If making money is your chief preoccupation you'd be better off becoming a lawyer and going into politics. There are no really rich pickings in teaching, though there are other compensations. However, in comparative terms the highest paying jobs are in Western Europe; the oil-producing countries of the Arabian Gulf; and in Japan, Korea and Taiwan. Some jobs within the English-speaking countries may also be reasonably well paid. Must I have a university degree to teach English? A degree is often not required to teach EFL/ESL. The more important qualification is some kind of TEFL certificate. Experience can also count highly. The snag is that in many countries, especially in Asia and the Middle East, a working permit will not be granted without a degree. So a degree is more to satisfy the country's authorities than the language institute's real requirements. With a TEFL certificate, it is certainly possible to find work without a degree, but you should check the country's legal requirements in advance--or be


prepared to work illegally, which is not unheard of. Can my partner go with me? You can usually take your wife or husband with you if you have been offered a legal job with visa and working permit. However, she or he may not be allowed to work and you may find it difficult to support a dependant on a teacher's income. If, however, your partner is also an EFL teacher, you could probably both find work in the same school or town. What about taking children abroad? With a legal job you can usually obtain a resident's visa for your children, though again you may have difficulty in supported them on a teacher's income. There would also be the question of their education, which in some cases would prove exorbitantly expensive. Should I find a job before going abroad? Very much up to you and the country in question. If you like adventure, and have a good TEFL certificate--and perhaps a degree for working permit purposes--you might jet off with the reasonable confidence of finding work when you land. If you are a little more staid, or nervous, or cash-strapped, you might do better to fix it all up before leaving. This is six of one and half-a-dozen of the other. Employers in some countries actually prefer to see the whites of your eyes and are not interested in talk of video-conferencing or Internet interviews. Other employers may have agents in your own country and prefer to recruit in that way. How do I arrange a job from home?

First of all, watch the job advertisements in newspapers and online, and contact possible employers. Check out sites such as TEFL Net ESL Jobs. You can also post your resume online to let employers know that you are available for work. How do I know that a foreign employer is reputable? If you are employed by an international organization such as the British Council or International House you have probably already some knowledge of that organization's status and reputation, or can easily verify it. For less well known institutions, try looking on Internet forums for more information or ask the employer to put you in contact with existing or past employees. Is there a specific time when most jobs start? Generally speaking, teaching EFL is a year-round business with no particular calendar or holidays. Even if schools employ teachers at the start of their "academic year", teachers leave or additional clients arrive unexpectedly so job opportunities arise during the course of the year. It is true, however, that in Europe there is a particular demand for teachers to start in September or October. How long a commitment will I have to make? Most good employers will expect you to sign a contract for at least one year, especially for a job arranged in advance with airfare and accommodation. However, if you are in the country itself, you can often work on a monthly basis if it suits you better. For a few government-sponsored programs – e.g, the Peace Corps or JET - a


minimum two-year contract is obligatory. Do I have to get a work permit and residence visa? To work legally in a foreign country you need a work permit, with which you can then get a resident's visa. You should be aware that working in a foreign country without a work permit is usually a criminal offence in that country and you render yourself liable to imprisonment, fines and/or deportation. Having said that, many EFL teachers do work illegally in many parts of the world. So how do I get this work permit? You won't get any work permit without a job, or at least a firm job offer. Once you have that, your employer will normally sponsor you and take care of the necessary paperwork. Who will I be teaching? This depends to some extent on the school, but in general all kinds of people are learning English. You may be asked to teach students of all ages, of all levels, in groups or one-to-one, general English, business English, exam preparation and so on. The more flexible you are in this respect the more hours you will probably get. Schools are usually quite sensitive to their teachers' capabilities and will try to match you to the most appropriate students. What are typical working hours? Schools in most countries will expect you to work five days a week, with 20 to 25 contact hours (plus preparation time). Depending on your contract--full-time or hourly--you may have something like 6 or 8 weeks of paid

holidays (if you're paid by the hour you may get no paid holidays, just a higher hourly rate). In some of the better paid Asian countries such as Korea or Japan you may be required to teach much longer hours and receive less time for holidays. You should be aware that though it may not seem much, 25 contact hours a week is actually more than enough for most human beings, and anything over that--especially on a long-term basis--can be quite strenuous. How much will I be paid? Not enough! :-( Don't enter TEFL for money's sake. It's difficult to quantify earnings as they vary so much from country to country and are in any event relative. In most places, with a reputable employer, you will earn enough to get by comfortably in local terms. However, very few countries or jobs will allow you to live well and save money. In general, you need to consider the cost of living of the country you are in. For example, a miserable pittance in Eastern Europe may in fact allow you to live better than a relatively high monthly salary in Japan. What currency will I be paid in? Almost always you will be paid in the local currency. Will I earn enough to send money home? Unlikely, unless you are particularly frugal. In the Middle East and some Asian countries, you may be able to save worthwhile amounts of money to send home. Elsewhere, you are unlikely to be able to save much, if anything, and may in any case find that exchange controls


make it impossible to repatriate your savings. What happens with taxes? If you are legally employed you will usually be taxed at source and pay taxes and other relevant charges to the local government. What about accommodation? You are more likely to have accommodation arranged and perhaps paid for or subsidized if you secure a job in advance with a contract of one year or more, especially for jobs in Asia or the Middle East. You may find, however, that you are expected to share such accommodation with other teachers. And travel? Will the school pay for it? Again, for contracts arranged overseas in advance, travel is often paid for. It is much more difficult to get travel subsidies for jobs that you sign up for on the spot. Will I have health insurance? Many countries outside Europe and North America have little or no national health service and you will need to check with the school whether they provide private cover, or be prepared to pay a little extra to sign up for a local healthcare programme. What about private lessons?

In general, employment contracts exclude the possibility of taking on private students without prior permission from your employer. However, if your regular teaching is going well, many employers will not prevent you from taking on private students (as long as you find them yourself and do not take them from the employer). What if I really don't fit with the job or the country? Most employers know that an unhappy teacher is a bad teacher. If you are genuinely unhappy with your position, they will often allow you to quit as soon as they can find a replacement. If, however, they have incurred costs such as travel or visa arrangements, you may be required to repay some or all of those costs. In general, you should thoroughly research the job and country you are going to in advance to avoid such a situation.

About the author

Josef Essberger formerly taught English as a foreign language in Asia and Europe. He is founder of http://EnglishClub.com, a site for ESL learners and teachers, and http://TEFL.net, a site dedicated to ESL teachers. Looking for an ESL teaching job? Learn more at http://www.tefl.net/esl-jobs/.

www.eltworld.net/northamerica


A New Way of Developing Coherence in Writing by Boutkhil Guemide

Coherency is one of the cornerstones of effective writing, but how do we go about developing what is a hard skill to master? Boutkhil Guemide discusses this issue and presents an innovative way that this can be dealt with in language teaching.

________________ EFL teachers are always confronted with the task of teaching their students how to write, for writing has been one of the most difficult skills that students have to learn. Being an important part of language learning, writing consists of an essential activity that requires enough thinking about a specific topic to analyze and classify any background knowledge. In writing, students always test their abilities with the task of building coherence in their activities. The lack of coherence in writing is a problem that plagues many EFL students; how to overcome this problem has been a challenge to EFL teachers. The New Model for Teaching Coherent Writing: I have chosen and developed a new way to enhance English students to reach the stage of acquiring coherence in writing. Believing that students should start developing their writing activities with paragraphs first, it was my duty to teach them, first of all, the tips and the techniques of writing coherent paragraphs. These range from

narrative to argumentative and persuasive ones. My way of teaching writing coherent paragraphs was as follows: In the workshop, I always present the title of the lesson which mainly concentrate on how to develop writing a paragraph; not any paragraph, but I choose a type of paragraph - narrative, descriptive… etc. I explain to my students what it means (this type of paragraph) and how do we use it. The, I present the general guidelines and the techniques of how to write it. In practice, the students work in pairs in order to write their paragraph for no

more than fifteen minutes. How the paragraph is built up afterwards? I ask each student to pass to the blackboard to write his sentence - only one sentence per student, so that each one will share and take part in the process. When writing is

over, I address to the students asking them to revise their written paragraph. This is really the most important part of the workshop which involves the students rather than the teacher. At this stage, the students are greatly motivated to participate and act. They check everything in the paragraph: the steps of writing a paragraph, how the main idea is expressed? Is there any topic sentence? Through this way of discussion, the students put into practice all their knowledge about writing paragraphs.

Believing that students should start developing their writing activities with paragraphs first, it was my duty to teach them, first of all, the tips and the techniques of writing coherent paragraphs.


They also check grammar and vocabulary. The Outcome: The aim of this way is to enhance students to work independently in developing coherent writing. What I have noticed during the workshop can be summarized as follows: 1) In writing the paragraph, the

students are motivated to act and participate because their already knew that the paragraph in front of them is ‘faulty’ and needs huge revision. So, this way makes students rely on observation- observe and look carefully at the blackboard in order to notice where the mistakes are.

2) The role of the teacher is

to draw the students’ attention to any fault or mistake in the paragraph. E.g. look at the topic sentence, how is it expressed? Then, the students propose many solutions and answers to the current problem.

3) The students were motivated to

participate in writing coherent paragraphs because the topics were relevant to them. I proposed given topics in writing narrative, expository, explanatory, and argumentative paragraphs - “How did you celebrate your birthday and what was your opinion about it” for a narrative paragraph; “ What is a hamburger” for an expository paragraph; “what is Linguistics” for an explanatory paragraph; “Homework is an important part in Language Learning” for an argumentative.

4) The students also revise the grammar structure of the sentences composing the paragraph, e.g. Instead of having an active form of a sentence, I prefer to have a passive form which would be better. Or, I prefer to express this idea in a given phrase rather than a main clause. This enhances students to negotiate both the meaning and grammar of the paragraph.

Conclusion

Writing is a process of construction. The students are called to construct their texts and paragraphs appropriate to their competence. Learning how to write always demands a great task and

can make students unmotivated. We teachers are obliged to use and apply our knowledge of writing methods in order to make the writing process more successful.

The model I have proposed provides the students with a guide through the whole process. It also provides guidelines for categorizing such errors in grammar, syntax, and meaning to overcome their failure. This model also guarantees students that they will stop making mistakes in writing their paragraphs. This, of course, will result in having students greatly motivated and pleased to create a piece of writing which is meaningful.

About the author

Boutkhil Guemide teaches at the Universite Ammar Thelidji de Laghouat

The model I have proposed provides the students with a guide through the whole process.


Characteristics of an ESL/EFL/TEFL Teacher: Know what Schools Look for

by Michael G. Hines

Think about your teacher profile carefully when looking for a new job, suggests Michael G. Hines.

________________ When a ESL/EFL/TEFL school searches for a new teacher for an open ESL/TEFL/TEFL teaching position, they already have an image of the teacher they want. Every school has certain qualities they feel a teacher must have to be successful. Those qualities can be many things depending on the needs and location of the school. While the qualities that each school considers important may vary, there are usually shared qualities that all schools would consider important to the job. The experience or background of a teacher is the most important quality a school looks for so your resume should highlight the qualities they are looking for. If they are looking for an ESL/EFL/TEFL teacher for kindergarten students, it may be best to highlight lessons that contain activities that you have initiated and prepared at your previous schools. In addition, if you are looking at a position for a content subject such as science or math, highlight your knowledge and education (i.e. degree) in that area. This is especially important if you are a new teacher with little or no experience. Regardless, you should also have all academic qualifications available for the school to preview before you go for an interview. Most schools want to review the qualifications prior to hiring or considering applicants for a teaching

position and will sometimes pass on teachers who don't submit these items for review when applying. Each ESL/EFL/TEFL school is unique so the best thing would be to have a cover letter that speaks to that school and the teaching job they are looking to fill. Don't just have a blanket letter and resume that you mass mail to any potential school looking for a teacher in the hopes of gaining employment. It may be beneficial to have a list of professional highlights that you can copy and paste into a cover letter based on the requirements of the position. Another important consideration for schools is the personal qualities of a teacher. Most schools are looking for a long term commitment from a teacher so they want to make sure that teacher will fit within their school. The obvious qualities that come to mind are personable, positive and flexible/patient because these qualities will carry over into the classroom and interaction with your future students. In addition, the school will look at a teacher's qualities with regards to their professionalism because there is much that is required outside of the classroom such as preparing lessons, creating worksheets and tests and the always popular grading of assignments. In other words, they will want a teacher that is organized and committed. If they feel that the teacher can't be depended on, they may not consider them a viable candidate. One of the things that may highlight a teacher's lack of commitment is a resume that shows numerous ESL/EFL/TEFL teaching positions


over a short period of time. Remember that you will not be judged strictly by your qualifications but on the sum of who you are as an individual. The factors that go into a school's decision to accept a teacher are varied and many so it is impossible to cover them all. Regardless, cover the basics looked for in any teacher for any teaching job and then identify the unique characteristics or qualifications of a particular position. Remember that looking for a teaching job, like many other employment searches, is about selling yourself and the best way to do this is by identifying what the employer (i.e the school) wants. The following is an abbreviated list of characteristics posted by a teacher in response to a UNICEF request to "What makes a Good Teacher?": Positive - The teacher thinks positively and enthusiastically about people and what they are capable of becoming. Sees the good in any situation and can move forward to make the most of difficult situations when confronted with obstacles. Encourages others to also be positive. Dependable - The teacher is honest and authentic in working with others. Consistently lives up to commitments to students and others. Works with them in an open, honest, and forthright manner. Organized - The teacher makes efficient use of time and moves in a planned and systematic direction. Knows where he or she is heading and is able to help students in their own organization and planning. Can think in terms of how organization can be beneficial to those served. Committed - The teacher demonstrates commitment to students

and the profession and is self-confident, poised and personally in control of situations. Has a healthy self-image. Encourages students to look at themselves in a positive manner, careful to honor the self-respect of the students, while encouraging them to develop a positive self-concept. Motivational - The teacher is enthusiastic with standards and expectations for students and self. Understands the intrinsic motivations of individuals, and knows what it is that motivates students. Takes action in constructive ways. Compassionate - The teacher is caring, empathetic and able to respond to people at a feeling level. Open with personal thoughts and feelings, encouraging others to do likewise. Knows and understands the feelings of students. Flexible - The teacher is willing to alter plans and directions in a manner which assists people in moving toward their goals. Seeks to reason out situations with students and staff in a manner that allows all people to move forward in a positive direction. Knowledgeable - The teacher is in a constant quest for knowledge. Keeps up in his or her specialty areas, and has the insight to integrate new knowledge. Takes knowledge and translates it to students in a way which is comprehensible to them, yet retains its originality. Creative - The teacher is versatile, innovative, and open to new ideas. Strives to incorporate techniques and activities that enable students to have unique and meaningful new growth experiences.


Patient - The teacher is deliberate in coming to conclusions. Strives to look at all aspects of the situation and remains highly fair and objective under most difficult circumstances. Believes that problems can be resolved if enough input and attention is given by people who are affected. About the Author

M. G. Hines is an English teacher teaching in Bangkok, Thailand & founder of www.IconGroupThailand.com - education websites for ESL/EFL/TEFL jobs, resumes, articles, resources, banner ads & links directory/top site portal: www.TotalESL.com

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Learner Difficulties for Thai Students by Mihnea Voicu Simandan

http://primary3lbs.blogspot.com Initially, this article was posted on Mihnea’s teaching blog, but it has been revised for publication in Horizons:

________________ English presents particular difficulties for learners depending on their educational background and nationality. When learning a foreign language, the educational background is very important. If a person who studies English has previously studied another foreign language, then it will be easier for him/her to learn English. One of the reasons is that he/she already knows how to assimilate new vocabulary, and, above all, is not afraid of speaking another tongue. We assume the fact that this type of learner has been in a learning environment for a longer period of time than a learner of English who has not studied any other foreign language, thus making it easier for him/her to take a role as a student.

The nationality is also important due to the fact that the learner has a specific mind set regarding languages. Take, for example, Thai students who are not used to verb tenses, inflections, and the sentence structure that the English language possesses. Thus, due to the fact that the Thai language does not have tenses, one major problem when learning English is to understand the tense differences. It is also very difficult for Thai students to understand the structure of different parts of speech, such as the predicate. A common mistake is the misuse of auxiliary verbs. Thai students would rather say “I eating now”, instead of “I’m eating now.”, or “Where you go?”, instead of “Where are you going?”. It is also important to bear in mind the fact that the Thai language has a different writing system, where there are no capital letters, no spaces between words, nor any kind of punctuation marks. Thus, Thai students frequently spell proper nouns without a capital letter, do not understand the role of comma, and do


not use punctuation marks at the end of sentences. Due to the fact that Thai is a tonal language, Thai students pronounce English words highly influenced by the way the Thai language sounds. A very common mistake is the way they pronounce words that have been coined in Thai from English. For example, the word ‘chocolate’ is pronounced /cho-ko-let/ instead of /cho-klet/. Another common mistake is the way Thai students stress words, again influenced by the way the Thai language sounds. For example, the word ‘salary’ is pronounced /sal-la-ree/ instead of /sal-la-ree/. We can conclude that different learners encounter different difficulties when learning English. In the case of Thai students, some of their difficulties are in acquiring vocabulary, understanding tenses, pronunciation, and stress (both intonation and syllable stress).

Do you know of any other learner difficulties for Thai students or any other nationalities? Why don’t you share them with us at: http://www.teacherinthailand.com/2007/09/learner-difficulties-for-thai-students.html

About the author

Mihnea Voicu Simandan is an education commentator from Romania, currently working at Ladprao Bilingual School in Bangkok, Thailand. He is also doing a Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE), being a graduate of MA in English Language and Literatures, Cambridge CELTA, and BA in History - Philology. He is an experienced teacher on areas related to ELT and curriculum development, with eight years teaching experience and managerial positions in education in Europe, Asia and Middle East. His research interests include multiliteracies and creating teaching resources. He can be contacted at: [email protected]

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Developing Flexible Reading Skills in the Intermediate ESOL Student

by Sharon Turner

ESOL students live in an environment where they are surrounded by the written word. They encounter it immediately at the home office and in their daily lives. However, for these learners, flexibility in reading is a skill that many never consider in a L2

setting, even though they utilise it in their L1. Firstly, I will examine the meaning of flexibility and how successful readers utilise this notion. I will then look into the problems that face ESOL intermediate learners with regard to flexibility, and how teachers and learners can develop greater flexibility.


Finally I will look at how available materials assist ESOL intermediate students in their quest towards flexibility.

What is Flexibility? Imagine in the event of a fire, running towards the fire extinguisher. In such a situation, the reader doesn’t read all the information but finds the operating instructions. Yet if the reader were a health and safety officer buying fire extinguishers for a school they would look at the technical details to ascertain if this was the appropriate extinguisher for their establishment. The reader is using the same text but for different purposes. This is one aspect of flexibility. According to Nuttall (2000:48), flexibility comprises of three main concepts: 1) the purpose of reading, 2) the manner of reading, and 3) varied speed. Let’s consider each of these in detail.

The purpose of reading An ESOL student reading a timetable, reading a text in class and enjoying a book are all displaying different kinds of purpose. Wallace (1993:6-7) would analyse these purposes as reading for survival, reading to learn and reading for pleasure. In order to be flexible a successful reader knows their purpose when approaching the text. Greenall and Swann (1986:65) go on to state: “Effective reading means being able to read accurately and efficiently understanding as much of the text one needs in order to achieve ones purpose.” The reader usually takes for granted the reasons why they are reading a text: subconsciously they know their

purpose and the result that they wish to achieve. They are experienced at cutting out the ‘visual noise’ on a page (Wallace 1993:62) as well as using different strategies and skills to achieve their purpose. In my experience ESOL students overlook the idea of purpose, believing that every word is important in L2, where in L1 they are consistently evaluating reading and what needs to be understood based on subconscious choices of purpose. This lack of awareness in L2 will affect the way in which they then understand and use their manner of reading.

The manner of reading Going back to the fire extinguisher example above, in the emergency of the fire the reader would read quickly, picking out the key points to gain the necessary information. In the second situation they would read the information carefully using both skimming and detailed reading strategies. A successful reader would vary the manner in which they read according to purpose or according to the text as this can also determine the manner. An effective reader will use extensive reading strategies such as global inference, skimming and scanning. Skimming means to run your eyes over a text to get the gist, while scanning means quickly going through the text to find a particular piece of information. VanDuzer (2003:2) explains that an effective reader uses a variety of strategies including, prediction through previewing headings and illustrations as well as activating schemata to “understand the text more easily”. Grellet (1981:4) quite rightly emphasises that no skill is used in isolation because we “often skim through a passage to decide if it’s


worth scanning”. A reader might then go on to use intensive reading skills for content or language study. The global reading approaches developed by psycholinguists in the 6os and 70s known as top-down strategies “start with general ideas of discourse and fill in the details later” (Vanduzer 2003:1). A native speaker begins with this approach but Nuttall (2000: 78) argues that if “ the top-down approach doesn’t throw enough light on the meaning, [the native speaker] will use bottom up approaches” and then finally come back to top-down predictions to create the final meaning. Bottom up approaches mean that the reader “derives meaning from linear manner, first decoding letters, then words, phrases and sentences to make sense of print”. This can also include recognising and interpreting cohesive devices and discourse markers. Cook (1989:85) disagrees, stating that bottom-up approaches are “good for linguists but do not necessarily follow that the same is true for all language students”. However, I feel that we must give students both strategies because the more advanced they become, the more the two approaches interplay. An effective reader also uses this strategy unconsciously to make sense of a text. Therefore an effective and flexible reading strategy “utilizes background knowledge and schema as well as bottom-up processes” (Nuttall 2000:78).

Varied Speed Purpose and manner will also influence the speeds that an effective reader will use to read a text. Once again the speed needed will depend on several factors: the emergency of the situation and the linguistic difficulty of

a text. If a bus is approaching and I am frantically trying to read to find out where it goes I must scan quickly. However reading teaching theory for a Delta course particularly on syntax or cohesion and coherence will demand that I read slowly, taking in the detail. A successful reader takes into account the purpose of the reading and how much attention to detail is needed thus affecting the speed. A flexible reader uses different rates for different purposes. We can conclude from the above that all three elements are intertwined. Purpose clearly influences what we read, how we read it and the speed used. However, if we use the wrong speed or use an ineffective strategy for reading we do not necessarily achieve our purpose. This factor often creates difficulties for the L2 learner.

3-Learner Difficulties Through experience in teaching intermediate ESOL readers flexibility in reading strategy creates several common problems. The first of these is often reading speed. Students go either one of two ways, reading maniacally, understanding nothing, or reading every single word painstakingly slowly. There seems to be no variation. Learners tend to use the same speed regardless of the text or the purpose. This problem is also coupled with the student’s reliance on bottom-up strategies, needing to look up every word to understand the text. The only function they perceive reading has is to get vocabulary (Ellis & Sinclair 1989). Quite often I have noticed that students panic or abandon the text when they find an unknown word. As a result of valuing the bottom-up approach as Ellis and Sinclair (1989) point out they do not become risk takers and find the


insecurity of the top-down approach extremely uncomfortable. They feel they have learnt nothing of value from the text. This problem also relates to their cultural experiences of language learning. Students in my classes from traditional teacher centred education systems such as The Middle East, Asia, Poland and Romania struggle in taking control of their reading. They lack, as Nuttall (2000: 58) would describe, ‘text-talk’ or having a dialogue with the text to arrive at the meaning because the teacher has done all of the work. On the other hand as Wallace (1993:64) explains some students are ‘illiterate’ in their L1. This is the case with some of the students in ESOL. They have never been given the opportunity to read in their own language or never had the desire to read. Suddenly they find themselves in a situation where they are faced with a foreign language without any reading strategies to cope. This can result in fear and anxiety when approaching texts. As VanDuzer (2003:3) explains motivation is also a key factor for students in reading. Often my ESOL students feel reading is too difficult because their first reading experiences in the UK involve official documents and language rendering the reading task impossible. I have also found that textbooks often do not relate to the experience of the ESOL student so they cannot find a purpose to read, thus affecting their flexibility in reading because the classroom does not represent how they use reading in real life. This then presents a challenge for the classroom. How can we as teachers improve ESOL learner’s experiences and flexibility in reading?

4-Teaching Implications

Learner interest During a recent observation of a colleague teaching an intermediate ESOL class the teacher chose a ghost text because he wanted to develop students’ global reading. The learners were practising a strategy focus lesson trying to build their flexibility but it was also an ideal opportunity to relate the text to their own experiences. As a teacher my biggest consideration before tackling the strategies of the student is how to interest and motivate them to work on a text. Without this motivation students will not go on to improve flexibility.

Authentic texts verses textbook material Authentic texts are a hot issue in the English teaching world. On the one hand Michael Lewis (Kerr:1) claims “teachers should be unafraid of exposing their students to real English, at all stages” while Dave Willis (Kerr:1) states that he doesn’t “feel any need to justify the decision to use almost exclusively authentic language”. In my own experience learners can enjoy both authentic and textbook material if it is presented and chosen to match their interests. Students can relate their real-life experiences to the text, which will enable them to activate schemata because they share world knowledge.

Other factors Interest or authenticity however cannot be the only criteria that determine which text to choose. A colleague and I both decided that we also have to consider whether a text can be exploitable in the classroom.


We also agreed however that when teaching reading we should not choose a text to teach lexis or syntax but that the text should be used “to develop reading”(Wallace 1993:81). Any other language that comes out of the text is a secondary factor.

Skills verses Strategies When developing students’ flexibility in reading do we teach a skill based approach or a strategy approach. This question arises in my ESOL classroom as I have some students particularly those speaking Arabic struggling with sound spelling incongruence. A skills based approach such as phonics might help them to identify the graphemes on a page thus aiding them towards flexibility in reading. Even though this approach might help them to overcome difficulties in the short term I have to agree with Wallace (1993:54) who argues that “the ability to decode written language phonetically may not facilitate the reading of continuous or contextualised text in English”, because English is only minimally phonetically based. A strategy approach however would allow the teacher and the learner to develop a process rather than the end product emphasis seen in skills. For my ESOL students this would allow exposure to a wide range of texts, examining their purpose of reading, what manner of reading to use and what speed is appropriate. Ultimately developing their flexibility. Therefore as Richards (1990:95) points out a good teacher “refers to their understanding of the second language reading process and…understanding of second language reading strategies” to develop students flexibility. At first this may be uncomfortable for the ESOL student but will serve them

better throughout their learning experience.

5-Learner implications

Developing learner autonomy Learners need to be given strategies to cope with their learning environment to develop flexibility and learner autonomy in reading. Grellet (1981pg 7) and Nuttall (2000:151) provide useful visual models so that students can understand reading texts, removing the mystery of the reading process (See Appendix 1). For the intermediate ESOL student I find Nuttall’s (2000:151) procedure too long because it represents an approach for advanced learners rather than the intermediate reader. Instead I modified it and combined Grellet’s (1987:7) stages to develop basic strategies using top-down and bottom-up processes so that students could understand visually where to use them during their own self-study sessions. I liked the idea of prediction and then re-valuation from Grellet (1981:7), but I kept Nuttall’s (2000:151) idea of ‘interest’ as this is fundamental to the motivation of the student for self-study.

Developing Metacognitive Awareness Learners need to think about reading so that they develop their own strategies that work for them. ESOL students as stated earlier do not have this approach to learning and feel uncomfortable with it. As they approach the Upper Intermediate and advanced levels with the increasing importance of the National Literacy Tests students need to reflect on how they learn best. A method that I would


like to experiment with comes from Ellis and Sinclair (1989:84) in the form of a questionnaire. This would enable my students to reflect on their own reading strategies and find personalised solutions.

6-Reading for the Intermediate Student The level syllabus is designed by the Curriculum Manager and is based on the ESOL Adult Core Curriculum. The reading skills programme uses a scaffolding approach sensitising students to reading in the first term through easier confidence building strategies and then gradually becoming harder in the Spring and Autumn terms. The main methodology behind this syllabus is a strategy approach. The students begin with global top-down reading skills such as prediction using titles, headings and pictures. This develops into skimming and scanning and intensive reading until the students are able to recognise the purpose of reading and choose an appropriate strategy. There is a secondary focus on bottom-up approaches such as syntax and vocabulary. These become more prominent in the summer term for the intermediate learner. All in all, the syllabus helps students to develop processes for reading that aid their flexibility in a balanced way. However the syllabus fails to include learner autonomy or metacognative awareness strategies, which are vital to any reading programme.

Skills for Life There are eight units, which are referenced to the ESOL Core Curriculum skills areas of reading, writing, listening and speaking. The

reading material emphasizes top-down approaches first and then includes quite regularly bottom-up approaches for guessing words from context and dictionary work. The readings include extracts extremely relevant to ESOL students, such as medical forms and job advertisements. Each reading also lends itself to being adapted and used for further extension activities such as writing a job letter to the advert reading. Once again there is no emphasis on the reading process or how students can develop autonomy when trying to develop flexibility.

7-Conclusion As we have seen flexibility for the intermediate reader not only includes reading for purpose but also the manner of reading and speed. Both top-down and bottom up processes need to be explored in the classroom along with effective strategies rather than a skills approach to develop learner autonomy and awareness. If as teachers we can combine this with student interest perhaps we can then truly begin to develop flexibility.

9-BIBLIOGRAPHY

1-Reference books Collie, J. & Slater, J. 1987: Literature in the language classroom. CPU Cook, G 1989: Discourse. OUP Greenall, S & Swann, M 1986: Effective Reading. CPU Grellet, F 1981: Developing Reading Skills. CPU Hedge, T 1985: Using Readers in Language Teaching. Macmillan Nuttall, C 2000: TEACHING READING SKILLS in a foreign language. Macmillan Heinemann Richards, J. C. 1990: The Language Teaching Matrix. CUP Wallace, C 1993: Reading. OUP Ur, Penny 1991: A Course in Language Teaching. CUP


2-Course Books City and Islington College 2003: Esol Syllabus & Individual Learning Plans Entry 3 2003/2004. Candi DfES 2001: Adult ESOL Core Curriculum. Readwriteplus DfES 2003: Skills for Life. Readwriteplus

3-Journals Dycus, D 1996: Making Jigsaw Activities Using Newspaper Articles. The Internet TESOL Journal, VOL II, NO.2, February Dubravcic, J 1999: Shared Reading Journals. TLT online, March Kerr, P.: Authenticity and Artifice. International House Journal of Education and Development Lee, L 2001: Rethinking the Role of Reading. TLT online, June

VanDuzer, C. 2003: Reading and the Adult English Language Learner. National Center for ESOL Literacy Education Widdowson, H. G. 1996: Comment: authenticity and autonomy in ELT. ELT Journal Volume 50/1 January

4-Self-study books Ellis, Gail & Sinclair, Barbara 1989: Learning to Learn English (Student Book). CUP Ellis, Gail & Sinclair, Barbara 1989: Learning to Learn English (Teacher Book). CUP

About the author

Sharon now teaches English at tertiary level in turkey after having previously taught in Japan.

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