hk_the history and politics of orientalism in the middle east

Contending Visions of the Middle EastThe History and Politics of Orientalism

Zachary Lockman’s book offers a broad survey of the development ofWestern knowledge about Islam and the region we today call the Mid-dle East. Beginning with ancient Greek and Roman conceptions of theworld, this book goes on to discuss European perceptions of Islam fromits emergence in the seventh century down to the present, with partic-ular attention to the age of European imperialism, the era of deepeningAmerican involvement in this region, and the aftermath of the Septem-ber 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. Along the way Lockman explores howscholars and others in the West have studied and depicted Islam andthe Middle East, focusing on how East and West came to be importantways of dividing up the world and how power relations have influencedscholarly knowledge. Contending Visions of the Middle East gives spe-cial attention to the ideas, politics and controversies that have shapedMiddle East studies in the United States over the past half-century,including the debates over Edward W. Said’s influential 1978 critiqueOrientalism. This book relates many of today’s critical issues, includingMuslim extremism, terrorism, the “clash of civilizations” and UnitedStates policy in the Middle East, to their broader historical, politicaland intellectual contexts.

Zachary Lockman teaches modernMiddle Eastern history at New YorkUniversity. His work has focused on Egypt and Palestine/Israel, and hispublications include Comrades and Enemies: Arab and Jewish Workers inPalestine, 1906–1948 (1996).

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Cambridge University Press0521620805 - Contending Visions of the Middle East: The History and Politics ofOrientalismZachary LockmanFrontmatterMore information

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The Contemporary Middle East 3

Series editor: Eugene L. Rogan

Books published in The Contemporary Middle East series address the majorpolitical, economic and social debates facing the region today. Each title com-prises a survey of the available literature against the background of the author’sown critical interpretation which is designed to challenge and encourage inde-pendent analysis. While the focus of the series is the Middle East and NorthAfrica, books are presented as aspects of a rounded treatment, which cut acrossdisciplinary and geographic boundaries. They are intended to initiate debate inthe classroom, and to foster understanding amongst professionals and policymakers.

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Contending Visions of theMiddle EastThe History and Politics of Orientalism

Zachary LockmanNew York University






The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge, CB2 2RU, UK40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011–4211, USA477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, AustraliaRuiz de Alarcon 13, 28014 Madrid, SpainDock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa


C© Zachary Lockman 2004

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exceptionand to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,no reproduction of any part may take place withoutthe written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2004

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

Typeface Plantin 10/12 pt. System LATEX2 []

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 0 521 62080 5 hardbackISBN 0 521 62937 3 paperback

The publisher has used its best endeavors to ensure that URLs for externalwebsites referred to in this book are correct and active at the time of going topress. However, the publisher has no responsibility for the websites and canmake no guarantee that a site will remain live or that the content is or willremain appropriate.






For Maya






Contents

List of maps page viiiAcknowledgments ixMaps x

Introduction 1

1 In the beginning 8

2 Islam, the West and the rest 38

3 Orientalism and empire 66

4 The American century 99

5 Turmoil in the field 148

6 Said’s Orientalism: a book and its aftermath 182

7 After Orientalism? 215

Afterword 268

Notes 273Bibliography 293Index 304

vii






Maps

1 The rise of Islam and the Arab conquests page x2 The Ottoman empire to 1566 xii3 The Middle East and North Africa on the eve of

the First World War xiv4 The Middle East and North Africa between

the Two World Wars xvi5 The Middle East and North Africa – boundaries xviii6 The Middle East and North Africa in the world xx

viii






Acknowledgments

It will be obvious that this book draws on the work of many other schol-ars. They are (I hope) all properly cited in the notes and listed in thebibliography, but I thank them here for the thinking and writing thathelped make this book possible. I would also like to thank Joel Beinin,Juan Cole, Brandon Fine, Bill Madsen, Eugene Rogan, James Schamusand the anonymous reader recruited by Cambridge University Press fortheir perceptive comments on my manuscript. I must also thank EugeneRogan for editing the series in which this book appears, and MarigoldAcland for supporting the series, and my contribution to it, with patienceand good humor. As has often been the case over the years, Robert Vitalishas been amost careful reader and energetic critic. I suspect that he won’tagree with everything in this book, but I hope that he will like at least someof it and recognize his influence on how it turned out.I took on the project of writing this book soon after my younger daugh-

ter, Maya Michal Lockman-Fine, was born; by the time it is publishedshe will be eight years old. I promised her many years ago that I woulddedicate this book to her, and among the many reasons that I am happyto be done with it is that it allows me to fulfill that promise. I have been,and always will be, grateful for her great spirit, intelligence and energy,and for the joy she brings into my life.

ix






Gibraltar 711

Ceuta 699

TlemcenTahert

BERBERS

Tahudna683

Seville

Cordoba711

Toledo712Lisbon

711

Tangier

Sardinia748

TunisSbeitla Kairouan

670

Carthage 698

Tripoli647

Barka643

Sirte

B Y Z A N

E M P I

Zaragoza

GijonToulouse

721

Bordeaux

Poitiers732

Narbonne715

Arles

MEROVINGIANFRANKS

SLAVS

Rome

Conquests to A.D. 632





Date of occupation or attack

Eastern boundary of Byzantine Empire before attack

Boundaries of Byzantine Empire

Limits of Umayyad Caliphate

LOMBARDS

SERBS

U M A

649

The Fezzan667

Map1: The rise of Islam and the Arab conquests

x






0

0

500 1000 miles

500 1000 1500 km

AVARS

(beseiged 670-7and 717-18)

Rhodes672

Cyprus649

Jerusalem638Alexandria

642

Fustat640

ALWA

ETHIOPIA

AXUM

MAKURIA

Aswan

Tabuk

Medina622

Mecca630

San‘a

Aden632

Sohar632Hijr

Hajar

Jiraft

ShirazBasra638

Kufa

Aylah

Damascus635

Kerbela638

Nehawand642

Medain

Jalula638

Rayy643

Isfahan

Qom

Harran

Antioch

Edessa

Malatya

Tiflis645

KHAZARKHANATE

Ardebil643

Nishapur651

Merv

Bukhara674

Balkh651

P E R S I A N

E M P I R E

Y Y A DC A L I P H A T E

T I N E

R E

Constantinople

Map1: (cont.)

xi






Terhazza

Tamanrasset

Tuat

Ghat

Ghadames

Zuila

S a h a r a D e s e r t

Tripoli

Tunis MALTA

MOREA

BULG

WALLABelgradeVENICE

FRANCE

Algiers

S PA I N

Oran

Ouargla

Ottoman Empire in 1451




Tributary States in 1566

Limits of Ottoman rule in 1566(boundaries in Africa and Arabia very approximate)

Holy Roman Empire

Fez

MarrakechSijilmassa

SULTANATEOF

MOROCCO

CROATIAH.R.E.

Tlemcen

H.R.E.

1565

NAPLES

RUMELIA

ToWest African Kingdoms

and Empires

ToCentral Africa

Map2: The Ottoman Empire to 1566

xii






0

0

500 1000 miles

500 1000 1500 km

CRETE

RHODESCYPRUS

ANATOLIA

EdirneIstanbul

UskudarBursa

Izmir

Bucharest Kaffa

Sinope

KHANATEOF THE CRIMEA

Tarsus

Ankara

Adana

TripoliBeirut

Alexandria Jerusalem

Damascus

SYRIA

Aleppo

Cairo Suez

EGYPT

Aden

San‘a

MeccaJeddah

Medina

ARABIA

Basra

BaghdadIsfahan

KermanshahKirkuk

Tabriz

Mosul

KURDISTAN

TrebizondErzurum

Samsun

SAFAVIDEMPIRE

Nishapur

Yazd

Shiraz

To India

ARIA

CHIA

YE

ME

N

IMERETI

MESOPOTAMIA

ToSudan andE. Africa

To Centraland E. Africa

ToN.W. Asia

India the Eastand E. Africa

Map2: (cont.)

xiii






Athens

Naples

Malta

Tripoli

Tunis

SfaxTUNISIA

1881

Algiers

OranTlemcen

Fez

SPANISHMOROCCO

MOROCCO1912

TangierGibraltar

RabatCasablanca

Ifni

Areas of rule or control

Ottoman Empire

British

French

Italian

Spanish

Independent

Date of occupation or treaty arrangement

International boundaries in 1914(alignments approximate)

Boundaries of the Ottoman Empire in1800 (alignments approximate)

A L G E R I A1830–1902

Marseilles

Venice

L I B Y A1911–1932

Area indispute

1830

Map3: TheMiddle East andNorth Africa on the eve of the FirstWorldWar

xiv






0

0

500 1000 miles

500 1000 1500 km

Alexandria

CYPRUS1878

SYRIA

Damascus

Jerusalem

Izmir

Bursa

Istanbul

Ankara

AdanaAleppo

ANATOLIA

Erzurum

Diyarbakir

Mosul

BaghdadIsfahan

Basra

KUWAIT1899

Shiraz

Yazd

Kerman

BandarAbbas

P E R S I A

TehranRussian Sphere

of influence(1907)

British Sphere

of influence(1907)

Muscat

MUSCATAND

OMAN1861

TRUCIALOMAN

1820

N A J D

JeddahMecca

Medina

ASIR

YEMEN

Port Sudan

San‘a

Aden

ADEN

PROTECTORATE

1839

Odessa

Aswan

Asyut

Wadi Halfa

E G Y P T1882

HIJAZ

SuezPort Said

Cairo

Omdurman Khartoum

ANGLO-EGYPTIANSUDAN

1899

ALIG

NM

ENTAPPROXIMATE

HASA

Map3: (cont.)

xv






L I B Y A

BenghaziTripoli

Gabes

Sfax

TunisTUNISIA

Touggourt

Djelfa

Algiers

Colomb-Bechar

Melilla

OranCeuta

Fez

Tangier

MOROCCO

A L G E R I A

Rabat

(International zone)

Casablanca

Ifni

British

French

Italian

Spanish

Independent

League of Nations mandated territory

Control by protectorate, treaty, or similar arrangement(including Bahrain)

International boundaries

Independent Armenia 1918–21

Maximum extent of Greek advance into Turkey, 1919–22

Hatay ceded to Turkey, 1939

Colonial power

Map4: The Middle East and North Africa between the two WorldWars

xvi






0

0

500 1000 miles

500 1000 1500 km

San‘aYEMEN

Aden

ASIRPROVINCE

1934Port Sudan

Mecca

ADEN

PROTECTORATE

KINGDOM OFSAUDI ARABIA

1932

RiyadhTRUCIALCOAST

QATARBAHRAIN

MUSCATAND

OMAN

P E R S I A

Muscat

ShirazAbadan

Tehran

Baghdad

Basra

NeutralZones

KUWAIT

Jeddah

Tabriz

Mosul

Diyarbakir

Aleppo

Damascus IRAQ(Independent

1932)

SYRIA

AmmanJerusalemTRANSJORDAN

LEBANONBeirutHaifa

PALESTINE

Suez

Adana

TURKEY

Erzurum

Samsun

Ankara

Istanbul

Bursa

KonyaIzmir

CYPRUS

Alexandria

Cairo

E G Y P T(Independent 1936)

Aswan

Wadi Halfa

Khartoum

ANGLO-EGYPTIAN

SUDAN

Al Obeid

Map4: (cont.)

xvii






0

0

500 1000 miles

500 1000 1500 km

WESTERNSAHARA

MAURITANIA

MOROCCO

MALI

A L G E R I A

Ceuta (Spain) Melilla

(Spain)

L I B Y A

NIGER

CHAD

CENTRALAFRICAN

REPUBLIC

GREECE

TU

NIS

IA

International boundary

Map5: The Middle East and North Africa – boundaries

xviii






BULGARIA

T U R K E Y

CYPRUS

LEBANON

ISRAEL

E G Y P T

S U D A N

ZAïRE UGANDA

KENYA

ETHIOPIA

S A U D IA R A B I A

QATAR

YEMEN

Socotra(Yemen)

OMAN

UNITED ARABEMIRATES

BAHRAIN OMAN

KUWAIT

I R A N

AFGHANISTANSYRIA

IRAQ

PAKISTA

N

JOR

DAN

GEORGIA

ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN TURKMENISTAN

ERITREA

Map5: (cont.)

xix






Tunisia

Italy

SpainPortugal

Western Sahara

Mauritania

MaliNiger

Algeria

M

oroc

co

Middle East and North Africa

Countries contiguous with or immediately adjacent to theMiddle East or North Africa

Map6: The Middle East and North Africa in the world

xx






Malta

Bulgaria

Chad

CentralAfrican Rep.

Zaïre

UgandaKenya

Som

alia

Ethiopia

SudanDjibouti

Oman

Yemen

U.A.E.

IranIraq

Saudi Arabia

Afgh

anis

tan

PakistanEgyptLibya

CyprusGreece Turkey

LebanonIsrael/Palestine

Jordan

Syria

BahrainQatar

Kuwait

Eritrea

GeorgiaArmenia Azer-

baijan Turkmenistan

Map6: (cont.)

xxi






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