History of MythHistory of MythHistory of MythHistory of Myth

Based on Karen ArmstrongBased on Karen Armstrong’’ssA Short History of MythA Short History of Myth

Based on Karen ArmstrongBased on Karen Armstrong’’ssA Short History of MythA Short History of Myth

Neanderthals (600,000-30,000 Neanderthals (600,000-30,000 BCE)BCE)

Neanderthals (600,000-30,000 Neanderthals (600,000-30,000 BCE)BCE)

Neanderthals were buried with tools, weapons, and bones of sacrificed animals

Neanderthals were buried with tools, weapons, and bones of sacrificed animals

These graves suggestThese graves suggestThese graves suggestThese graves suggest

Neanderthals were meaning-seeking creatures

They had imagination—they could imagine another world beyond this one

They had mythology; that is, they could create abstract stories to explain or interpret the world

Neanderthals were meaning-seeking creatures

They had imagination—they could imagine another world beyond this one

They had mythology; that is, they could create abstract stories to explain or interpret the world

Lessons from the Lessons from the NeanderthalsNeanderthals

Lessons from the Lessons from the NeanderthalsNeanderthals

At their core, myths are rooted in the experience of (and fear of) death.

Myths are inseparable from ritual (animal bones)

Myths are about the unknown; the most powerful myths are about the extremes of human existence (and the desire to surpass or overcome those extremes)

Myths are not told for their own sake—they show us how to behave.

All myths speak of another plane that exists alongside our own and that in some sense supports it.

At their core, myths are rooted in the experience of (and fear of) death.

Myths are inseparable from ritual (animal bones)

Myths are about the unknown; the most powerful myths are about the extremes of human existence (and the desire to surpass or overcome those extremes)

Myths are not told for their own sake—they show us how to behave.

All myths speak of another plane that exists alongside our own and that in some sense supports it.

Paleolithic (20,000-8,000 Paleolithic (20,000-8,000 BCE)BCE)

Paleolithic (20,000-8,000 Paleolithic (20,000-8,000 BCE)BCE)

No agriculture

Hunters and gatherers

No written record--but their stories are so powerful that many survive to this day (flood myth, Hercules)

No agriculture

Hunters and gatherers

No written record--but their stories are so powerful that many survive to this day (flood myth, Hercules)

1st Myth: Golden Age1st Myth: Golden Age1st Myth: Golden Age1st Myth: Golden Age

The original myth of the paleolithic peoples was of a lost paradise: at one point, divine and physical realms were one (Garden of Eden).

Then there was a catastrophe and the divine was separate from the physical.

So the purpose of life is to get back to the divine.

The original myth of the paleolithic peoples was of a lost paradise: at one point, divine and physical realms were one (Garden of Eden).

Then there was a catastrophe and the divine was separate from the physical.

So the purpose of life is to get back to the divine.

Sky GodSky GodSky GodSky God

Nothing was connected to the divine more than the sky

Sky God was first divine being--but was an aloof figure in most cultures

Sky god (or high god) created everything, but then disappeared or was otherwise absent. He was a shadowy, powerless figure.

Examples of sky gods: Ouranos, Baal, Indra

Nothing was connected to the divine more than the sky

Sky God was first divine being--but was an aloof figure in most cultures

Sky god (or high god) created everything, but then disappeared or was otherwise absent. He was a shadowy, powerless figure.

Examples of sky gods: Ouranos, Baal, Indra

2nd Myth: Ascent2nd Myth: Ascent2nd Myth: Ascent2nd Myth: Ascent

No sky god + desire for divine = second great myth:

transcend the constraints of human life and reach the sky and the divine (which were often one and the same)

No sky god + desire for divine = second great myth:

transcend the constraints of human life and reach the sky and the divine (which were often one and the same)

ShamansShamansShamansShamans

Shamans were spiritual leaders in communities.

They could also talk to animals (who were revered as holding superior wisdom)

They guided behavior and gave a spiritual (transcendent) meaning to daily tasks, especially hunting.

Shamans were spiritual leaders in communities.

They could also talk to animals (who were revered as holding superior wisdom)

They guided behavior and gave a spiritual (transcendent) meaning to daily tasks, especially hunting.

AnxietyAnxietyAnxietyAnxiety

Humans needed to eat, so they needed to hunt

Humans were smart enough (logos) to develop tools and strategy and organization, making it easier to hunt and to kill

But that knowledge could not mitigate the anxiety felt when killing animals--creatures that were considered sacred.

Humans needed to eat, so they needed to hunt

Humans were smart enough (logos) to develop tools and strategy and organization, making it easier to hunt and to kill

But that knowledge could not mitigate the anxiety felt when killing animals--creatures that were considered sacred.

Two Mythical ProblemsTwo Mythical ProblemsTwo Mythical ProblemsTwo Mythical Problems

So Paleolithic men and women desired a return to the divine of an imagined past

They also desired to reconcile the need to survive with the pain of killing

Myth solved both of these problems

So Paleolithic men and women desired a return to the divine of an imagined past

They also desired to reconcile the need to survive with the pain of killing

Myth solved both of these problems

According to According to Karen Karen

Armstrong:Armstrong:

According to According to Karen Karen

Armstrong:Armstrong:Mythology springs

from profound anxiety about practical

problems that cannot be assuaged by logical

arguments.

Mythology springs from profound anxiety

about practical problems that cannot

be assuaged by logical arguments.

Ritual of HuntingRitual of HuntingRitual of HuntingRitual of Hunting

Rituals were imposed on hunting: abstain from sex; strip meat from bones; lay out skeleton and pelt to reconstruct the animal and give it a new life

Rituals reconciled anxiety, allowed them to hunt and to thrive.

They also brought the divine into everyday life.

The spiritual world of the hunt was considered more real than the regular world.

Rituals were imposed on hunting: abstain from sex; strip meat from bones; lay out skeleton and pelt to reconstruct the animal and give it a new life

Rituals reconciled anxiety, allowed them to hunt and to thrive.

They also brought the divine into everyday life.

The spiritual world of the hunt was considered more real than the regular world.

InitiationInitiationInitiationInitiation

Even more important, however, was the ritual of initiation into the hunting society

A young boy was often forced to be buried in the ground, tortured, circumcised, or tattooed

The purpose was to ceremonially die so as to understand and accept death as part of life

At the end, initiate was “born again”

Even more important, however, was the ritual of initiation into the hunting society

A young boy was often forced to be buried in the ground, tortured, circumcised, or tattooed

The purpose was to ceremonially die so as to understand and accept death as part of life

At the end, initiate was “born again”

Myth and SacredMyth and SacredMyth and SacredMyth and Sacred

The initiation ceremony is the point when the initiate hears most of the sacred myths of the tribe for the first time.

Myths were often only told during rituals--they imparted sacred knowledge that could only be understood in the context of a spiritual and psychological transformation

The initiation ceremony is the point when the initiate hears most of the sacred myths of the tribe for the first time.

Myths were often only told during rituals--they imparted sacred knowledge that could only be understood in the context of a spiritual and psychological transformation

Hero MythsHero MythsHero MythsHero Myths

Most of the myths retold during initiations and other sacred settings were hero stories that told of one man leaving home, fighting monsters, gaining new knowledge, and returning to his people

The stories told paralleled the initiations themselves

Most of the myths retold during initiations and other sacred settings were hero stories that told of one man leaving home, fighting monsters, gaining new knowledge, and returning to his people

The stories told paralleled the initiations themselves

Paleolithic WomenPaleolithic WomenPaleolithic WomenPaleolithic Women

One of key myths to emerge from this time was the Greek myth of Artemis, goddess of the hunt and of animals

Why would a female be so dominant in this male society?

Men held unconscious resentment of female: they had to risk their lives to provide food for the tribe, yet women were also the source of life for that tribe.

Men could die and the tribe could continue--not so women. So Artemis was worshipped but also feared.

One of key myths to emerge from this time was the Greek myth of Artemis, goddess of the hunt and of animals

Why would a female be so dominant in this male society?

Men held unconscious resentment of female: they had to risk their lives to provide food for the tribe, yet women were also the source of life for that tribe.

Men could die and the tribe could continue--not so women. So Artemis was worshipped but also feared.

Neolithic (8000-4000 Neolithic (8000-4000 BCE)BCE)

Neolithic (8000-4000 Neolithic (8000-4000 BCE)BCE)

Development of agriculture led to great spiritual awakening

Focus for myth shifted from sky to the earth

Key figure: Mother Goddess

Development of agriculture led to great spiritual awakening

Focus for myth shifted from sky to the earth

Key figure: Mother Goddess

Rituals of FarmingRituals of FarmingRituals of FarmingRituals of Farming

Farming was a sacred act; there were many rituals connected to it

1st seeds were thrown away as offerings; same for 1st fruits

In some places (parts of Central America, parts of Africa), human sacrifice was common

Farming was a sacred act; there were many rituals connected to it

1st seeds were thrown away as offerings; same for 1st fruits

In some places (parts of Central America, parts of Africa), human sacrifice was common

Purpose of Farming RitualsPurpose of Farming RitualsPurpose of Farming RitualsPurpose of Farming Rituals

These rituals followed two principles:

Nothing is free; in order to receive, you have to sacrifice (or give back)

The sacred can only be encountered in the earth and in the products created from the earth

These rituals followed two principles:

Nothing is free; in order to receive, you have to sacrifice (or give back)

The sacred can only be encountered in the earth and in the products created from the earth

Sex as Ritual in AgricultureSex as Ritual in AgricultureSex as Ritual in AgricultureSex as Ritual in Agriculture

Another key ritual associated with agriculture was sex:

Couples would copulate in a field just after the first seeds were planted. This mirrored the process of creation in the earth (the seeds planted into the womb)

Evidence of this ritual extends as far as 6th century BCE Israel and 1st century BCE Rome.

Another key ritual associated with agriculture was sex:

Couples would copulate in a field just after the first seeds were planted. This mirrored the process of creation in the earth (the seeds planted into the womb)

Evidence of this ritual extends as far as 6th century BCE Israel and 1st century BCE Rome.

Creation MythsCreation MythsCreation MythsCreation Myths

Key creation myths at this time focused on human beings emerging (like plants) out of the ground

Often certain myths would be linked to specific places, like the story of Erechthonius, the mythic king of Athens who was born from the soil of the Acropolis.

Key creation myths at this time focused on human beings emerging (like plants) out of the ground

Often certain myths would be linked to specific places, like the story of Erechthonius, the mythic king of Athens who was born from the soil of the Acropolis.

Meaning of Creation MythsMeaning of Creation MythsMeaning of Creation MythsMeaning of Creation Myths

These myths were based on a fundamental truth: we all belong to the earth and must respect her natural rhythms

And, yes, the earth was a she--personified as the Mother Goddess (which was a new version of the Great Mother of hunting societies)

These myths were based on a fundamental truth: we all belong to the earth and must respect her natural rhythms

And, yes, the earth was a she--personified as the Mother Goddess (which was a new version of the Great Mother of hunting societies)

Mother GoddessMother GoddessMother GoddessMother Goddess

Mother Goddess was both loved and feared. She personified the struggle of agriculture: the fight against sterility, drought, famine, and the forces of nature

Neolithic people weren’t in love with nature. They feared and respected it.

Neolithic myths reflected this ambiguity.

Mother Goddess was both loved and feared. She personified the struggle of agriculture: the fight against sterility, drought, famine, and the forces of nature

Neolithic people weren’t in love with nature. They feared and respected it.

Neolithic myths reflected this ambiguity.

Myth of Anat & BaalMyth of Anat & BaalMyth of Anat & BaalMyth of Anat & Baal

Anat was the Syrian mother goddess; she was the wife and sister of Baal (sky god)

One day, Mot (god of death) ate Baal. Thereafter, there was no rain, the crops died, and everyone was terrified.

Anat went crazy. She found Baal’s remains and gave him a proper burial. Then she found Mot, killed him, ground him up, and cast his remains into the field (like seeds)

Anat was the Syrian mother goddess; she was the wife and sister of Baal (sky god)

One day, Mot (god of death) ate Baal. Thereafter, there was no rain, the crops died, and everyone was terrified.

Anat went crazy. She found Baal’s remains and gave him a proper burial. Then she found Mot, killed him, ground him up, and cast his remains into the field (like seeds)

Life and DeathLife and DeathLife and DeathLife and Death

Above all, Neolithic myths demonstrated the inexorable link between life and death.

This is best exemplified by the fact that, in most cultures of this time, the god of the harvest (or god of life) was also the god of death (or the underworld).

Examples: Osiris in Egypt, Ereshkigal in Mesopotamia, and Demeter in Greece.

Above all, Neolithic myths demonstrated the inexorable link between life and death.

This is best exemplified by the fact that, in most cultures of this time, the god of the harvest (or god of life) was also the god of death (or the underworld).

Examples: Osiris in Egypt, Ereshkigal in Mesopotamia, and Demeter in Greece.

The Early CivilizationsThe Early Civilizations(4000-800 BCE)(4000-800 BCE)

The Early CivilizationsThe Early Civilizations(4000-800 BCE)(4000-800 BCE)

First cities appear in Mesopotamia & Egypt (later China, India, and Crete)

Development of writing

Order vs chaos & human hubris are central mythic themes

First cities appear in Mesopotamia & Egypt (later China, India, and Crete)

Development of writing

Order vs chaos & human hubris are central mythic themes

City as Divine PlaceCity as Divine PlaceCity as Divine PlaceCity as Divine Place

The early Babylonians (and others in Mesopotamia) saw the development of cities as a means of reaching the divine

Cities replaced mountains as homes of gods; every city was holy

The cultivation of culture was equivalent to hunting and farming for previous eras

The early Babylonians (and others in Mesopotamia) saw the development of cities as a means of reaching the divine

Cities replaced mountains as homes of gods; every city was holy

The cultivation of culture was equivalent to hunting and farming for previous eras

City as DisasterCity as DisasterCity as DisasterCity as Disaster

Others (like the Israelites) saw cities as the epitome of hubris, a way for humans to forsake the gods (or to become gods themselves)

In the Bible, the first murderer (Cain) was also the first city-builder

The story of the Tower of Babel illustrates this anti-city attitude

Others (like the Israelites) saw cities as the epitome of hubris, a way for humans to forsake the gods (or to become gods themselves)

In the Bible, the first murderer (Cain) was also the first city-builder

The story of the Tower of Babel illustrates this anti-city attitude

Flood MythFlood MythFlood MythFlood Myth

The flood myth emerged during this time

The perspectives of the peoples define how the flood myth is interpreted

For Israelites, the flood was God’s punishment against the sinful corruption of civilization (and cities)

For the Mesopotamians, the flood was the work of a petty and arrogant god who was kept awake by the noise of the human beings in the city where he lived.

The flood, then, is seen as a rebuke of those gods and a realization that humans must create their own world.

The flood myth emerged during this time

The perspectives of the peoples define how the flood myth is interpreted

For Israelites, the flood was God’s punishment against the sinful corruption of civilization (and cities)

For the Mesopotamians, the flood was the work of a petty and arrogant god who was kept awake by the noise of the human beings in the city where he lived.

The flood, then, is seen as a rebuke of those gods and a realization that humans must create their own world.

Enuma Elish Creation MythEnuma Elish Creation MythEnuma Elish Creation MythEnuma Elish Creation Myth

In this Mesopotamian myth, the gods evolved into their present form from a big glob of goo. They grow, develop, and (in the process) create the world around them.

This myth suggests that, like humans, the gods (and their myths) must evolve and change with the times.

Like these gods, the people evolved from hunters and gatherers to farmers to city dwellers.

In this Mesopotamian myth, the gods evolved into their present form from a big glob of goo. They grow, develop, and (in the process) create the world around them.

This myth suggests that, like humans, the gods (and their myths) must evolve and change with the times.

Like these gods, the people evolved from hunters and gatherers to farmers to city dwellers.

GilgameshGilgameshGilgameshGilgamesh

Gilgamesh, King of Uruk, is the city dweller who tames the wild man Enkidu (via a prostitute) and fights giant monsters (including the goddess Ishtar, thus rejecting the traditional end of epics, marrying the goddess)

When his best friend, Enkidu, is killed by Ishtar, Gilgamesh goes in search of eternal life.

Unlike heroes of other myths, the gods don’t grant his wish--because he is human and he must die. So he goes back to his city and governs.

Gilgamesh, King of Uruk, is the city dweller who tames the wild man Enkidu (via a prostitute) and fights giant monsters (including the goddess Ishtar, thus rejecting the traditional end of epics, marrying the goddess)

When his best friend, Enkidu, is killed by Ishtar, Gilgamesh goes in search of eternal life.

Unlike heroes of other myths, the gods don’t grant his wish--because he is human and he must die. So he goes back to his city and governs.

Axial Age (800-200 BCE)Axial Age (800-200 BCE)Axial Age (800-200 BCE)Axial Age (800-200 BCE)

This period marks the development of four key religious and philosophical systems:

Confucianism and Taoism in China

Hinduism and Buddhism in India

Judaism in Israel

Rationalism in Greece

This period marks the development of four key religious and philosophical systems:

Confucianism and Taoism in China

Hinduism and Buddhism in India

Judaism in Israel

Rationalism in Greece

Common IngredientsCommon IngredientsCommon IngredientsCommon Ingredients

Each of the Axial developments shared some common traits:

Suffering as part of human condition

Emphasis on spirituality and de-emphasis on ritual

Concern for the individual

Abhorrence of violence and love of justice and compassion

Seek truth in one’s own mind & heart

Each of the Axial developments shared some common traits:

Suffering as part of human condition

Emphasis on spirituality and de-emphasis on ritual

Concern for the individual

Abhorrence of violence and love of justice and compassion

Seek truth in one’s own mind & heart

Axial Age & MythsAxial Age & MythsAxial Age & MythsAxial Age & Myths

Myths were still necessary--people still cared about the stories and their messages

But there was now a gulf between gods and humans

Sacred was now a remote, alien place that humans can neither understand nor experience without pain (see Moses talking to God)

Myths were still necessary--people still cared about the stories and their messages

But there was now a gulf between gods and humans

Sacred was now a remote, alien place that humans can neither understand nor experience without pain (see Moses talking to God)

One Example: GreeceOne Example: GreeceOne Example: GreeceOne Example: Greece

Greek culture is founded on mythology, but during the Axial Age, two new developments transformed Greek life (and eventually our own):

Tragedy

Logos

Greek culture is founded on mythology, but during the Axial Age, two new developments transformed Greek life (and eventually our own):

Tragedy

Logos

TragedyTragedyTragedyTragedy

In the 4th century BCE, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripedes and others developed the tragedy, which effectively used myths to put the gods on trial and to question the purpose and significance of life.

The goal of tragedy was to produce catharsis, a purification of the soul “resulting from the violent invasion of the heart and mind by the emotions of pity and terror.”

Catharsis also allowed audiences to feel the pain of another as though it were their own (compassion).

In the 4th century BCE, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripedes and others developed the tragedy, which effectively used myths to put the gods on trial and to question the purpose and significance of life.

The goal of tragedy was to produce catharsis, a purification of the soul “resulting from the violent invasion of the heart and mind by the emotions of pity and terror.”

Catharsis also allowed audiences to feel the pain of another as though it were their own (compassion).

LogosLogosLogosLogos

Plato didn’t like myth. He felt that only logical, rational discourse (logos) could produce true understanding.

Greek philosophy, then, was centered on distancing logos from mythos--thus associating myth with lie

But philosophers didn’t all dismiss myths--seeing them as a forerunner of philosophy and psychology and essential to religious discourse.

Plato didn’t like myth. He felt that only logical, rational discourse (logos) could produce true understanding.

Greek philosophy, then, was centered on distancing logos from mythos--thus associating myth with lie

But philosophers didn’t all dismiss myths--seeing them as a forerunner of philosophy and psychology and essential to religious discourse.

Post-Axial Period Post-Axial Period (200 BCE to 1500 CE)(200 BCE to 1500 CE)

Post-Axial Period Post-Axial Period (200 BCE to 1500 CE)(200 BCE to 1500 CE)

The Axial Age helped create the world’s major religions

Hinduism

Buddhism

Confucianism

Judaism

Christianity

Islam

The Axial Age helped create the world’s major religions

Hinduism

Buddhism

Confucianism

Judaism

Christianity

Islam

In the East...In the East...In the East...In the East...

Hinduism and Buddhism were (and are) comfortable with myths, and myths still play a role in rituals and religious practices today

In China, myths were never as significant as ritual, so nothing really changed (though neither are they dismissed, either).

Hinduism and Buddhism were (and are) comfortable with myths, and myths still play a role in rituals and religious practices today

In China, myths were never as significant as ritual, so nothing really changed (though neither are they dismissed, either).

In the West...In the West...In the West...In the West...

Jews, Christians, and Muslims, however, have a problem with myth--or in seeing their religious stories as myths.

The stories that shape these religions are seen as history, not myth--borrowing Plato’s notion that myth=lies

Jews, Christians, and Muslims, however, have a problem with myth--or in seeing their religious stories as myths.

The stories that shape these religions are seen as history, not myth--borrowing Plato’s notion that myth=lies

The Great Western Transformation The Great Western Transformation (1500-2000)(1500-2000)

The Great Western Transformation The Great Western Transformation (1500-2000)(1500-2000)

The last 500 years have witnessed massive changes to civilizations: industrialization, the transformation of agriculture, political and social revolutions, intellectual enlightenment

The last one is key for myths: it led to the slow death of mythology in the western world in favor of logos and scientific rationalism

The last 500 years have witnessed massive changes to civilizations: industrialization, the transformation of agriculture, political and social revolutions, intellectual enlightenment

The last one is key for myths: it led to the slow death of mythology in the western world in favor of logos and scientific rationalism

Logos and ReligionLogos and ReligionLogos and ReligionLogos and Religion

Even western religions have embraced logos history to the detriment of myth

• The Protestant Reformation was largely about removing ritual and myth from Christianity--replacing it with an austere, factual, and practical approach to religion.

• Even heroes of western world are commonly geniuses of logos (scientists, military leaders, politicians) rather than spiritual leaders inspired by mythos (though there are plenty of exceptions).

Even western religions have embraced logos history to the detriment of myth

• The Protestant Reformation was largely about removing ritual and myth from Christianity--replacing it with an austere, factual, and practical approach to religion.

• Even heroes of western world are commonly geniuses of logos (scientists, military leaders, politicians) rather than spiritual leaders inspired by mythos (though there are plenty of exceptions).

20th Century20th Century20th Century20th Century

• Before the 20th century, science and reason promised to save the world and end all suffering

• In the 20th century, the opposite came true--massive wars, nuclear bombs, genocide, pollution...

• It has led to a world of increased alienation and anxiety

• Before the 20th century, science and reason promised to save the world and end all suffering

• In the 20th century, the opposite came true--massive wars, nuclear bombs, genocide, pollution...

• It has led to a world of increased alienation and anxiety

Armstrong saysArmstrong saysArmstrong saysArmstrong says

• “We may be more sophisticated in material ways, but we have not advanced spiritually beyond the Axial Age: because of our suppression of mythos we may even have regressed” (134-135).

• “We may be more sophisticated in material ways, but we have not advanced spiritually beyond the Axial Age: because of our suppression of mythos we may even have regressed” (134-135).

HeroesHeroesHeroesHeroes

• The myth of the hero, for example, was designed to tap into the vein of heroism within us.

• Today’s heroes--movie stars, rock stars, athletes--are meant for passive consumption, not active emulation.

• The myth of the hero, for example, was designed to tap into the vein of heroism within us.

• Today’s heroes--movie stars, rock stars, athletes--are meant for passive consumption, not active emulation.

According to Armstrong, it is through art and According to Armstrong, it is through art and literature that we still can feel the power and literature that we still can feel the power and

the wonder of myth. the wonder of myth.

According to Armstrong, it is through art and According to Armstrong, it is through art and literature that we still can feel the power and literature that we still can feel the power and

the wonder of myth. the wonder of myth.