WSU Field-Based Superintendent's Certification Program

History of the School Superintendency

WSU Superintendent Program2008-10 Cohort

Questions???

• Define the word “superintendent”.• How does one become a school

superintendent?• What does a school superintendent do?

Paul Houston, Executive Director of AASA says . .

“The history of the school superintendency has been a fitful journey from manager to leader. The role has evolved from an ad hoc response to local needs for school management to leading a complex community learning enterprise. It is a position that is widely influential but narrowly understood.” (2006)

Types of Superintendents• Three levels of superintendents

– state, regional, and local

• “Directly or indirectly, the position of superintendent evolved at all three of these levels for essentially the same reason--those charged with operating state government recognized the need to develop and coordinate state systems of public elementary and secondary education.”(Kowalski, 1999)

1830-1850 Era of the Common School Movement (State Level)

• Goal was to build a state system of elementary and secondary schools– Emphasis on educating all children in a

common facility– Use schools as an instrument of government

policy– Create state agencies to control local schools

• First state superintendent position established in 1812 in New York– Duties

• Developing a plan for a common school system• Reporting the management of public funds• Providing school related information to the

legislature

(Intermediate Level)• Confederations of local school districts• Term “County Superintendent” often associated

with intermediate districts• Liaison between small rural districts and the state

department of education• Services differ greatly from state to state• Chief administrator not always called

superintendent--some executive director or director

(Local Level)

• Local school districts unique to U.S.• Rooted in principles of liberty and equity• Even in earliest years, inequities in the

quantity and quality of education among communities was apparent

“Faced with this dilemma, state officials sought a compromise that would reasonably balance the principles of adequacy and equity in education with liberty. Their solution was to simultaneously establish state control and reaffirm local control. This seemingly contradictory approach was accomplished by creating state agencies to oversee public education, while delegating select policy powers to local school boards. The strategy effectively made local school boards legal extensions of state government. It was within this context that state officials achieved the compromise between seeking adequacy and efficiency through a state system of public education and the provision of liberty through local boards of education.” (Butts & Cremin, 1953)

• School boards have these primary responsibilities:– Ensure that state laws, rules, and regulations are followed– Establish policy in areas not covered by state law, rules,

and regulations– Employ a superintendent to serve as chief executive

officer– Raise money through taxes– Expend public funds– Enter into legal contracts and otherwise function as a

legal entity

Superintendents• First superintendents appointed in late 1830’s• Primarily in large urban systems• First full-time, paid superintendent

• Nathan Bishop; Providence, Rhode Island; Salary: $1250/yr.; Later was first superintendent of New York

• Duties primarily instructional; board managed fiscal– “The primary reason for creating the position was to have a

person work full-time at supervising classroom instruction and assuring a uniformity in the curriculum.” (Spring, 1994)

• Most men who became the first superintendents had been teachers– “Some were elevated to administration because they

were perceived by school trustees, or others legally in control of the school, as possessing the qualities of a leader; some were selected because they were effective teachers; others were advanced because of political connections; and still others were promoted simply because they were men.” (Kowlaski and Reitzug, 1993)

• Around 1910 the superintendency became preoccupied with management due to changes occurring:– Scientific Management--practices in industry

were applied to schools– Schools Agencies of Control--supervision

necessary to ensure goals were being attained– Separating Teaching from Administration--

management a male responsibility and teaching, a subordinate role, primarily a female role

– Establishing Bureacratic-like Structures--efficiency achieved is administrators managed the resources; teachers and others needed supervision to be sure doing work in accordance with policies

– Quest for Identity and Prestige--administration recognized as responsibility separate from, and superior to, teaching, since it was management

– Demarcation between Policy Development and Policy Administration--schools boards responsible for determining what should be done and administrators responsible for determining how things would get done

• Bottom Line:– To create a distinct occupational role and then

persuade others to accept this role as the standard.

– “In exchange for systematic training and endorsement of a code of ethics, the professional demands autonomy in the process of exercising judgment over practice.” (Eaton, 1990)

The First “School Reform” Era (1880’s and 1890’s)

• Led by Horace Mann, Catharine Beecher, others

• Goals: Standardization and Quality• Strategies: Longer school year; improved

attendance, professionalization of teaching, standardized curriculum

• Driven, largely, by changes in the nature of work

Emerging Professionalism (1900’s and 1910’s)

• Led by Ellwood Cubberley (Stanford), George Strayer (Columbia), Frank Spaulding (Minneapolis) and Ella Flagg Young (Chicago)

• Movement away from the “political spoils” of the 1800’s towards a system build around qualifications and merit

• Between 1905 and 1910, 28 states appointed commissions to investigate educational problems

• “Surveys” (management reviews) became powerful tool• Increased professionalization of educational leadership• In 1890, a survey of 20 leading universities uncovered only two

courses in educational administration• % of superintendents with doctorates:

1923 = 3% 1951 = 14% 1971 = 23% 1992 = 36% 2000 = 48%

The Scientific Management Era (1920’s and 1930’s)

• Moved away from political model towards a bureaucratic model based on business administration concepts

• Based on Fredrick Taylor’s theory of “scientific management” which promised increased efficiency and higher levels of “production”

• Division of labor, time management, and increased supervision were key techniques

• Moved significant degree of decision making control from the boards to superintendents

• Advanced the professional training of administrators• Concept still influences much of how we organize and

operate school districts

The Democratic Administration Era (1940’s and 1950’s)

• Based on teacher demand for participatory role in decision making• Also, sense that scientific management concepts were detrimental to

teacher/administrator relations• Every teacher should be provided “...some regular organic way in

which he can, directly or through representatives chosen, participate in the formulation of the controlling aims, methods, and materials of the school of which he is a part.” John Dewey (1937)

• AASA (1938): “exemplify in the relations between teachers and pupils and between administrators and teachers, the essential spirit of democracy.”

• Moved focus towards issues of human relations, motivation, etc...

The Civil Rights Era (1960’s and 1970’s)

• Greater involvement of boards and the community in the work of the superintendent

• De-centralization of decision making• Focus on human relations (Win-Win bargaining)• Greater attention to issues of diversity; but, racial and

gender equality remain an unachieved goal

The Educational Reform Era (1980’s and 1990’s)

• Heightened concern over quality of schools and education -- focused by A Nation at Risk report in 1983

• Inspired by concerns over equity issues and the inability of industry to compete in a worldwide marketplace

• Politicians, corporate leaders, media and others rushed to “fix” public schools

• Policy making pendulum swung back and forth between superintendents and school boards; disagreement about what constitutes policy making and what constitutes management

• A mix of top-down mandates and move towards site-based decisions

• Role of the superintendent shifted from manager to leadership for change with focus on improvement of teaching and learning

Superintendents at the Start of the 21st Century

• Average superintendent is in his/her second superintendency, and has been a superintendent for 9 years

• Most are married, and grew up in a rural areas or a small towns• Teacher > Principal > Central Office > Superintendent (48%) Teacher > Principal > Superintendent (32%)• 87% are male; 95% are white; 45% have a doctorate• 11% identify themselves as liberals; 33% conservatives; 56%

moderates; 34% Democrats; 31% Republicans; 35% independents• 7.8% report “very great” stress; 42.3% report “considerable” stress• When asked if they’d chose the superintendency, again, for a

career, 67% indicate that they would• “The opportunity to make a significant difference in the lives of

children” is the strongest motivating factor for most career choices

The Superintendent of the Future (Janet’s Presentation Tomorrow)

Washington StateArticle IX, Section 1: “It is the paramount duty ofthe State to make ample provision for the education of all children residing within its borders withoutdistinction or preference on account of race, color, caste, or sex”

(ample: liberal, fully sufficient, without parsimony)

Article IX Section 2: “The legislature shall provide for a general and uniform system of public schools . . .

(general: applying to a whole kind, class, common, widespread) (uniform: always the same; identical; conforming to standard)

Early Schools

• First School in the Oregon Country @ Fort Vancouver, 1832 by John Ball, mostly Indian students

• Spokane Garry @ Spokane Falls started school 20X50 feet, for his people

• Missionaries started schools but none lasted more than ten years or after 1847 except Fort Vancouver and Willamette

• First school for white children in Olympia, 1852, by A. W. Moore, the postmaster, in his home

• 1853 three such schools north of Columbia River

Establishment of Early School System

• Territorial Governor Issac Stevens• 1854 Basic Common School Law of Washington Territory

Formation of school districts by county superintendents

Created the offices of school director and county superintendent and prescribed the duties Authorized the levying of school tax by vote of electors Created Permanent School Fund Failed to provide for chief school administrative officer for the territory

• County superintendents No qualifications required One year term Salary $25.00 (increase possible) Duties--visit schools, examine persons

wanting to teach and divide inhabited areas into districts

• 1861 first Territorial Superintendent of the Common Schools B.C. Lippincott--Olympia

Three year term Duties--collect information, report to legislature, make

recommendations for improvements 1862 were 53 schools and 2000+ students

ages 4 to 21 • In 1862 Lippincott removed and the office abolished because

he recommended against establishing a territorial university

• 1871 legislature created the Territorial Superintendent of Public Instruction

Elected every two years by legislature in joint sessionNelson Rounds, former president of Willamette

University was appointed superintendent Office in his home in Olympia

Later offices of territorial superintendents were in Goldendale, Waitsburg, Port Townsend,

Garfield, and Ellensburg

• 1877 Territorial Board of EducationTerritorial board consisted of Territorial Superintendent and one person from the three judicial districts appointed for two years by Governor with approval of the legislature

Composition and duties of board unchanged until statehood in 1889

• 1854 Legislature established three month minimum school year

• By 1889 length of school year ranged from three to eight months with an average of four and one-half months

• During territorial periodGrade schools mandatory in towns having 500 or more studentsUniting of school districts to improve servicesExtension of duties of school boards, including authorization to hire a superintendent and to levy a local tax if approved by voters was established prior to statehood

Washington Superintendents• Superintendent of Public Instruction

– One of eight elected state officials– Elected on a non-partisan basis every four years– Duties

• Gather and report information• Secure needed laws and appropriations from the state and federal governments

and implement those statutes• Apportion and distribute moneys to local school districts and ESDs• Administer the state school construction assistance program and other grant

programs• Provide technical help in finance and curriculum matters to ESDs and school

districts• Issue certificates for school employees• Ex-officio member of State Board of Education and serve on various other

boards

• Educational Service District Superintendents– Nine ESDs defined as “regional agencies”– Hired by boards of seven to nine members representing

subdivisions of the ESD– Non taxing districts--depend on state, federal government and

local school districts for funding– Duties

• Provide cooperative and informational services to local school districts

• Assist the superintendent of public instruction and the state board of education in the performance of their duties

• Provide services to districts . . . to assure equal educational opportunities (local districts reimburse)

• Local School District Superintendent– 296 (now 295) school districts– Enrolled 1,021,502 students October 2004– Hired by non-partisan members of the board of

directors who are elected to four year terms– Superintendent responsible to the board of directors for

carrying out district policy, administering the operation of the district, supervising district personnel, and advising the board of directors on all educational matters for the welfare and interest of the students

• RCW 28A.330.050 Duties of superintendent as secretary of the board. In addition to the duties as prescribed in RCW28A.400.030, the school district superintendent, as secretary of the board, may be authorized by the board to act as business manager, purchasing agent, and/or superintendent of buildings and janitors, and charged with the special care of school buildings and other property of the district, and he or she shall perform other duties as the board may direct.

• RCW28A.400.010 Employment of superintendent--

Superintendent’s qualifications, general powers, term, contract renewal. In all districts the board of directors shall elect a superintendent who shall have such qualification as the local school board alone shall determine. The superintendent shall have supervision over the several departments of the schools thereof and carry out such other powers and duties as prescribed by law. Notwithstanding the provisions of RCW28A.400.010(1), the board may contract

with such superintendent for a term not to exceed three years when deemed in the best interest of the district. The right to renew a contract of employment with any school superintendent shall rest solely with the discretion of the school board employing such school superintendent.

• RCW28A.400.02o Directors’ and superintendents’ signatures filed with auditor. Every school district director and school district superintendent, on assuming the duties of his or her office,shall place his or her signature, certified to by some school district office, on file in the office of the country auditor.

• RCW28A.400.30 Superintendent duties. In addition to such other duties as a district school board shall prescribe the school district superintendent shall:– (1) Attend all meetings of the board of directors and cause

to have made a record as to the proceedings thereof.– (2) Keep such records and reports and in such form as the

district board of directors require or in such form as required by law or rule or regulation of higher administrative agencies and turn the same over to his or her successor.

(3) Keep accurate and detailed accounts of all receipts and expenditures of school money. At each annual school meeting the superintendent must present his or her record book of board proceedings for public inspection, and shall make a statement of the financial condition of the district and such record book must always be open for pubic inspection.(4) Give such notice of all annual or special elections as otherwise required by law; also give notice of the regular and special meetings of the board of directors.(5) Sign all warrants ordered to be issued by the board of directors.(6) Carry out all orders of the board of directors made at any regular or special board meeting.

District Classifications• First Class Districts --usually any district having a

student enrollment of 2000 students or more. For 2004-05 were 103 first class districts serving approximately 88% of all public school children.Largest--Seattle

• Second Class Districts--usually any district having fewer than 2000 students. For 2004-05 were 193 second class districts serving approximately 12% of all public school children.Smallest--Star

• High School Districts– 249 high school districts in 2004-05 serving

997,599 students (99% of total public school enrollment)

Nonhigh School Districts-- 47 nonhigh school districts in 2004-05 serving

8,254 students (1% of total public school enrollment)

Washington Superintendents2008-09

• 50 New Superintendents– 2 positions still open (Bremerton and Shaw Island) – 14 positions filled by females (28%)– 23 positions filled by “inside” candidate (46%) WHY?

• Application pool small• Know candidate• “Grow” your own approach to filling leadership positions• Ensure stability and sustainability

• Three out of state successful candidates • Longview, Tenino, and Oakesdale

• 295 School Districts– 230 male superintendents (78%)– 65 female superintendents (22%)

Districts Selecting Inside Candidates

• Auburn (assistant superintendent)• Bainbridge Island (assistant superintendent)• Bellevue (assistant superintendent)• Burlington-Edison (board member)• Castle Rock (interim)• Clover Park (assistant superintendent)• Easton (board member)• Ellensburg (assistant superintendent)• Everett (assistant superintendent)• Hood Canal (principal)• Kennewick (assistant superintendent)• Kittitas (secondary principal)• Lakewood (assistant superintendent)

• Lind (interim)• Mercer Island (interim)• Napavine (Principal)• Richland (assistant superintendent)• South Kitsap (assistant superintendent)• Spokane (interim)• Stevenson-Carson (interim)• Tacoma (interim)• Tukwila (interim)• Vancouver (interim)

Districts Hiring Female Superintendents2008-09

• Arlington• Bainbridge Island• Bellevue• Burlington-Edison• Castle Rock• Clover Park• Granite Falls• Longview• Oakville• Pateros• Richland• Selah• Spokane• Tukwila