HVIRLFA43DOCUMENTSDEPT,FORCIRCULATIONAMONGTEACHERSANDSTUDENTSONLYHISTORYOFPoliceOrganisationinIndiaANDIndianVillagePoliceJlelnyselectChapters oftheReport oftheIndianPoliceCommission,for1902-03PUBLISHEDBYTHEUNIVERSITYOFCALCUTTAWith 1U- PurmissionofIkeGovernmentofImlla1913FORCIRCULATIONAMONGTEACHERSANDSTUDENTSONLY\HISTORYOFPoliceOrganisationin IndiaANDIndianVillagePoliceBeingselectChapters oftheReportoftheIndian PoliceCommission,1902-03.PUBLISHEDBYTHEUNIVERSITYOFWith the Permissionofthe Governmentof India1913PrintedbyAtulchandraBhattacharyya,AT THECALCUTTAUNIVERSITYPRESSSenateHouse,Calcutta.BOCUMENTSDEPT."Ofall thebranchesofthepublicservice inIndia,thepolice,byitshistory andtraditions,isthemostbackwardinits character.Itsorigin maybe traced to thefeudalobligationof theland-owners tomaintain,bymeansof anunderpaidanddisorderlyrabble,the semblance oforder on their estates. Thetaintofits earliestantecedents still affects the moraleofthelowerranks:the constablehas inherited thereputation,if not themethods,of the fairfcui'Jaz. Thehistoryof the Indian Police underBritish rale is markedbyaseries ofattemptsto introduce moreadvancedstandards ofconduct andintegrity,andto raise thetone ofthe forceby improvingthepayandprospectsof itsmembers. The latest of these efforts isrepresented bythelaboursof theCommissionappointed nearlythreeyears ago.Thereformsproposedbythemextend to allgradesofthe Police;theyleave untouchednodetail of itsorganization;andtheyareplannedona scale morecomprehensivethanhaseverbeendeemedfeasible in thepast.Thepresentconditionofthepublicrevenueshasenabled the Governmentof Indiatoacceptthe mainpro-posalsoftheCommission,andtoprovideatoncealarge propor-tionof thecost ofcarryingthemout. It will takealongtimetogivefull effect to thescheme,andlongerstill before itslargerpurposecanbevisiblyfulfilled. Thereconstructionofthe Policeis, indeed,merelyasteptowards theimprovementof thead-ministrationofcriminaljusticein India. Successin thathigheraimwilldependnotonlyon thequalificationsandtrainingoftheforce,butevenmoreonthehonestco-operationof thepeoplethemselves in the work ofreform;on theadoptionofhigherethical standards;onthediffusionofgeneraleducation,especiallyinitsprimarybranches;onthegrowthofgenuine public spiritand a sense of thecommongood;andmostof allperhapsonthe decline of faction and thediscouragement, bya morehealthyand morecourageous public opinion,of the viciouspracticeofresortingto themachineryofthe criminal courts in908ordertogratifyprivateanimosities. As thepopularconsciencedevelopesinthesedirectionstheGovernorGeneralin Councilhopesthat thegreatundertaking,the initialstageofwhichisnowap-proachingcompletion,will alleviate evils which affect invaryingdegreesall classss ofsociety,and will conferuponthepeoplebenefits commensurate with thelabourandthoughtdevoted toitsinceptionand the immenseoutlaywhichits exertion willentail."GovernmentofIndia'sHomeDepartmentResolution,datedthe21stMarch,1905.[ThefirstChapterof theReportsketches in broad out-lines the history ofpolice organizationin India. Itshowshowtheindigenoussystemsofpolice,basedupontheresponsibilityofthe landholders or thevillagecommunities,weregraduallymodifiedbytheprogressiveintervention of the State;howaseries ofexperimentsin differentprovincesculminated in thecomprehensivereorganizationeffectedbythe Police Commissionof1860;and how thearrangementsthenintroduced and im-provedfromtime totime,as Provincial resourcesadmitted,fallshortat thepresentdayofthehigherstandard ofefficiencywhichmodernconditions demand.Intheiranxietytoemphasizethenecessityforfurtherreformthe Commissionhaveomittedto mentiontheimportantcorres-pondenceandinquirieswhich,beginningin1888,led to alargenumber of valuableimprovementsin the establishmentandworkingofthepolice, involvingtheaddition ofconsiderablesumsto thepublic expenditure,andlaid, downrecommendationsforfurtherreformswhich,thoughthe conditions of the financesatthetimerenderedit difficult togiveeffect tothem,would nodoubthavebeenbroughtintooperationhadthe resourcesoftheState been able to bear the cost.Amongthe conclusionsandrecommendationsofLordLansdowne'sGovernmentin 1890werethefollowing:-*-(1)thatthe netpayof constables shouldbefixedatnotless thanRs. 7 amonth;(2),thatthepayandpositionofinvestigating andinspect-ingofficers should begreatly improved,andthatdeservinginspectorsof Police shouldbeconsideredeligibleforappointmentto theProvincialService.;(3)that a reform in thesystemofselecting gazettedofficers(assistantdistrictsuperintendentsofPolice)wasnecessary;[4](4)that the DistrictMagistratesshould exercise closersupervisionover the work of subordinatemagis-trates,especiallywiththeobjectofavoidingdelaysin thedisposalofcases;(5)thatmeasures should be taken tostrengthenthelawwithrespectto thepreventionof offences;(6)that the Crown should beproperly representedincriminalprosecutions;(7)that the statistical formsexhibitingthe results ofpoliceaction should berevisedandimproved,so asto enableaproper comparisonto bemadebetweenthose results in differentprovinces.Theestablishmentofprovincial trainingschoolsforthepolicewasdueto LordLansdowne'sGovernment;and thequestionofarmingthepolice,andtrainingthem in the use offire-arms,wasdealtwithbytheminacomprehensivemanner. Oneofthemostimportantreformsthathave been introduced inregardtothesuperiorofficers, viz.,the recruitment of theEuropeanelementmainlyinEngland,was alsobroughtintooperationduringthesameadministration.In view of thesecarefullyconsideredattemptstoimprovethe administrationof theDepartment,the Government ofIndiaareunableto endorse theopinion, expressedinparagraph27 oftheReport,that theefficiencyof thepolicehas beensacrificed to financial considerations. Of the measures nowadvocatedbythe Commissionmanyof themostimportanthadalreadybeenacceptedinprinciple,and considerableprogresshadbeenmadeinbringingthem intooperation.If it hasnowbeenfoundpossibleto dealalso with thepayandgradingoftheEuropeanofficers,theadministrativeorganizationoftheforce,therailway police,the riverpolice,and theimportantquestionsofcriminalinvestigationandintelligence,this is because theinvestigation latelyundertaken hasexposedto view a widerareaofpracticableandnecessaryreform.]GovernmentofIndia'sHomeDepartmentResolution,dated tne21*tMarch,1905,Theindigenous systemofpolicein Indiawasverysimilarto that of SaxonEngland: both wereorganizedonthebasisoflandtenure,andjustas the Thanein thetime ofKingAlfredwasrequiredtoproducetheoffenderortosatisfytheclaim,so inIndiathezamindarwas boundtoapprehendall disturbers ofthepublicpeaceand to restore the stolenpropertyormakegooditsvalue. Underthelargezamindarswereanumberofsubordinatetenure-holders,all of whom wererequiredin theirdegreetoperformpoliceduties and to bearforthe areas oftheirchargestheresponsibilitieswhich resteduponthezamindar forthewholeestate; and,finally,therewas,as arule,thejointresponsibilityofthevillagers,whichcouldonlybetransferred iftheysucceededintrackingthe offenderto the limits ofanothervillage.Thisvillage responsibilitywas enforcedthroughtheheadman>whowasalwaysassistedbyoneor morevillagewatchmen. Theselatter were the real executivepoliceof thecountry. Althoughtherewas,as arule,onlyonewatchman forthevillage,hewas,whennecessityarose assistedbyall themale members ofhisfamily,bytheothervillageservants,andin some casesbythewholevillagecommunity.His duties were tokeepwatch atnight,findoutall arrivalsanddepartures,observe allstrangers,andreportallsuspiciouspersonsto theheadman. Hewasrequirdtonotethecharacterofeachmanin thevillage,and if atheftwerecommittedwithinthevillagebounds,it washis businesstodetectthethieves. Ifhefailedtorecoverthestolenproperty,hewasobligedtomake uptheamountofthe valueofit so faras hismoanspermitted,and the remainder was leviedonthe wholevillage."The exaction of thisindemnity/''wroteMountstuartElphinstone,"isevidently unjust,since thevillagemightneitherbeable topreventthetheft,norto makeuptheloss,andit wasonlyinparticularcases that it wasinsisted onto its fullextent;butsomefine wasgenerallylevied,andneglectorconnivancewaspunished bytransferringtheinani ofthepatelorwatchmanto his nearestrelation,byfine,by imprisonmentinirons,orby(6)severecorporal punishment.Thisresponsibilitywasnecessary,asbesidestheusualtemptationtoneglect,thewatchmanis oftenhimselfathief,andthepateldisposedtoharbourthieves,withaviewto share theirprofits/''To ensuregreaterprotectionthanthevillage policewereable toafford,paymentswere often madetothe leaders ofplunderingtribes to induce them topreventdepredations bytheirfollowers,asystemwhichobtains to thisdayinmanypartsof thepeninsula.Inlargetownstheadminis-tration of thepolicewas entrusted to an officer called the"kotwal,"whowasusuallypaidalarge salary,fromwhichhe wasrequiredtodefraytheexpensesofaconsiderableestablishmentofpolice.InPoona,forexample,thekotwalreceived Rs.9,000amonth,buthehadto maintainavery largeestablishment ofpeons,somehorsepatrols,anda considerablenumberofRamosis,whilehewasalso answerablefor the value ofpropertystolen.Hisappomtm3nt,however,wasconsideredalucrativeone,asthepayof his establishment wasverylow,andbothhe andhissubordinatessupplementedtheirsalariesbyunauthorisedexactionsfromthe inhabitants.9. Thefollowingextract fromthe edict framedbyAbulFazul,MinisteroftheEmperorAkbar,shows that theMogulsystemofpolicefollowedcloselyonthelines of thatindigenousto thecountry. ThesystemofmutualsecurityisalmostidenticalwiththatwhichexistedinEnglandinAnglo-Saxontimes andwascontinuedbytheNormans:"Thekotwalsofcities,kusbahs, towns andvillages,inconjunc-tionwiththeroyalclerks,shallpreparearegisterof the housesandbuildingsofthesame,whichregistersshall includeaparticu-lardescriptionofthe inhabitantsofeachhabitation. One houseshall becomesecurityforanother;so thattheyshall all bereciprocally pledgedand boundeachfortheother.Theyshallbedividedintodistricts,eachhavingachieforprefect,to whos?superintendencethedistrict shall besubject.Secretintelligencersorspiesshall beappointedto eachdistrict,whoshallkeepajour-nalof localoccurrences,arrivalsanddepartures,happeningeitherbydayornight.Whenanytheft,fire or other misfortune(7)**may happen,theneighboursshall renderimmediateassistance;especiallytheprefectandpublicinformers, who,failingto attendonsuchoccasions,unlessunavoidably prevented,shallbeheldresponsibleforthe omission. Nopersonshall bepermittedtotravelbeyond,orto arrivewithin,the limits ofthedistrict,with-out theknowledgeof theprefect,theneighboursorpublicinformers. Thosewhocannotprovide securityshall reside in aseparate placeofabode,tobeallotted tothembytheprefectofthe districtandthepublicinformers.Acertainnumberofpersonsineach district shall beappointedtopatrol bynightthe several streetsandenvironsof the severalcities, towns,villages,etc.,takingcarethat nostrangersinfestthem,andespeciallyexertingthemselves todiscover, pursueandapprehendrobbers, thieves,cut-purses,etc. Ifanyarticles bestolen orplundered,thepolicemustrestore thearticles, producethecriminal, or,failingto doso,becomeresponsiblefortheequivalent."10. Thesystemdescribedabovewasnodoubtwell suited totheneedsof asimple, homogeneous,agriculturalcommunity;buthowevereffectual itmayhaveoncebeen,it could notsupportthestrain ofpoliticaldisorder and therelaxation ofcontrol fromabove. Extortionandoppressionflourisheduncheckedthroughallgradationsoftheofficialsresponsibleforthe maintenanceofpeaceandorder. Bothvillagewatchmanandthe headsofvillages,andeventhehigherofficials,connived atcrimeand harboured offen-ders in returnforashare ofthebooty.Theirliabilityto restorethe stolenpropertyormakegoodits value wasdisregarded;orif thisobligationwasenforced,neitherthepropertynorits valuewas restored to the owner. Fines wereimposedwhenamoreseverepunishmentwas calledfor;and offenders who werepossessedofanypropertycouldalways purchasetheirliberty."Avery large proportionof thetaliaris/'wrote Sir ThomasMunro,"arethemselvesthieves : allthekavalgarsareeitherthem-selves robbersoremploythem,andmanyofthemare murderers;andthoughtheyarenowafraid to actopenly,there is no doubtthatmanyof them stillsecretlyfollowtheirformerpractices.(8)Manypotailsandkurnamsalsoharbourthieves.Manyoffenders aretaken,butgreatnumbersalsoescape,forconnivancemustbeexpectedamongthekavalgarsandtaliaris,whoare themselvesthieves;andtheinhabitantsare often back-wardingivinginformationfromthefearofassassination,whichwasformerly verycommon,and sometimeshappensonsuchoccasions.*^W herecrimeshavelongbeenencouragedbythe weaknessofGovernment,bythe sale ofpardons,andbyconnivancewhereverpersonsof rank were con-cerned,noreformationcanbelookedfor butfrom theoperationoftimeandthecertaintyofpunishment."11. Thiswasthe state ofthingswhichthe Britishfound inexistenceontheirassumptionof theolderprovincesof theempire.The remediesadopted bythemdiffered somewhatin differentprovinces,butthegenerallines of reformin all weretoretain thevillage systemand toimprovethemachineryforsupervision.Thefirststepin this direction was to relieve the zamindars oftheirliabilityforpoliceservice,whichwascommutedfor apay-mentofenhancedrevenue. Itwas foundthatinstead ofprotect-ingtheinhabitantsoftheirestates,these landownershadgrosslyabusedtheauthorityentrustedtothemforthatpropose. "Theyextortedandamassedwealth,which wasdissipatedin ajealousrivalryofmagnificent pageantry.Theweaponswhich wereintendedfortheenemiesonlyofthe State were tur:i?dagainsttheStateitself,andagainsteachother,andwereused forplansofpersonal aggrandisement,mutualivvjageorpublicplunder.It wassometimeswithdifficultythat theregularorstandingarmyofthe State could restrain theinsolence,or subduetheinsubordination,ofthese intestine rebels and robbers."* TheirplacewasaccordinglytakenbytheMagistratesofdistricts,whohadunderthemforpolice purposesa staff ofdarogas,withsubor-dinate officers and abodyofpeons.Thechargeofadarogawasonanaverageabout 20 milessquare;he hadimmediatelyunderhimfrom20to 50 armedburkundazes,andall thewatch-menofthevillageestablishmentsweresubjectto his orders. He*EastIndiaJudicialSelections,Yol.I, p.154.(9)received a reward of Rs. 10foreverydacoitapprehendedandconvicted,and hewasgranted10percent, of the value of allstolenpropertyrecovered,providedthe thiefwas convicted. Incities the office ofkotwalwascontinued,andadarogawasappoint-edforeachwardofthecity.At alaterperiod special regula-tions weremadeforthepoliceofcities,the costbeingleviedfromthe inhabitantsbyan assesment on each house andshop.Considerablereformswerealso effected in the administration ofcriminaljusticeandamoremildandrationalsystemoftrial andpunishmentwassubstitutedforthe cruelandpartialmethods oftheNativeGovernments.12. Theresults ofthesereforms, however,were far fromsatisfactory.Therewasamarkedincrease ofcrimeeverywhere;robberiesandmurders,accompaniedbythe most atrocious anddeliberatecruelties,were offrequentoccurrence;gangsofdacoitsroameduncheckedaboutthecountry; and,intheexpres-sive nativephrase,"thepeopledid notsleepintranquillity."Thecauseswerenotdifficult ofdiscovery.Thepoliceestablish-mentswereinadequateforthepreventionofcrimenow that thegratuitousassistancewhichwasformerlyrequiredfromnumerousclasses and castes wasnolongerinsistedupon;amuchhigherdegreeofproofwasrequired byourCourts,andthe criminalsoonlearnthowdifficult it wasto secure his conviction;alimitedterm ofimprisonmentwassubstituted,in the case ofoffencesotherthanmurder,forthepunishmentsofdeath,often inacruelform,mutilation or indefinite orperpetualconfinementwhichwereformerlyinforce,andwereoften,in thecase of seriouscrime suchasdacoity,inflicted onthespotwithoutanyformoftrial.Finallyifhe wereconvictedandsenttojail,thecriminalknewthathewouldbecomparativelywelltreated andnolongerbecompelledbytorture to restore the stolenproperty. "Thoughthe nativesput upwithpettydisorders,"said MountstuartElphinstone, "theycheckedgreatoneswith aroughhand andgavethemselvesnoconcernabout theattendantevils;if robberieswerecommitted,theyseized all thesuspiciouscharacters in theneighbourhood,and iftheysucceededinrestoringquiettheydidnotcarethoughahundredRamoosees sufferedimprisonmentortorturewithoutafault. Sucha course would not bethoughtofunderourGovernment;butwemustconsiderhow much ourabstainingfromsuchtyrannymustweakenusandmustprovidearemedyin somemoresuitableshape."13. LordWellesley beganto instituteinquiriesinto thecauses ofthe failure topreserve peaceand orderinBengalsoearlyas 1801;in Madrasacommitteeofpolicewasappointedwith thesameobjectbyLordWilliam Bentinck in 1806;andin 1813the Courtof DirectorsappointedaspecialCommitteeoftheirownbodyto institute aninquiryinto theadministration ofjusticeandpoliceintbeCompany'sterritories in India. In 1814the Courtissued orders onthesubject. Theycondemned theestablishmentsofdarogasandtheirsubordinates,andtheyinsist-edstronglyuponthemaintenanceofthevillage policeasformingineveryvillagethebestsecurityofinternalpeace. Theypointedoutthat thevillage policesecures theaidandco-operationofthepeopleatlargein thesupportandfurtherance of itsoperations,becauseit isorganisedin a mode whichadaptsitself to theircustoms;thatanysystemfor thegeneral managementof thepoliceofthecountrywhichis notbuiltonthatfoundation mustberadicallydefectiveandinadequate;andthatthepreservationofsocial orderandtranquillitynevercanbe effectedbythefeebleoperationsof a fewdarogasandpeonsstationedthroughanextensivecountry, wantinginlocal influence andconnectionwiththepeople,insufficientlyremunerated to inducerespectablementoaccepttheoffice,placedbeyondthesightand control of theMagistrateandsurrounded with varioustemptationstobetraytheir trust.TheCourt, therefore,directed thatmeasuresshouldbetakento re-establish thevillage police,agreeablyto theusageof thecountry,andthatwhere it wasinaneglectedcondition itshouldberestoredtoits formerefficiency.TheCourtanticipatedfromthis measureareductionofthegreaterpartof thedarogaestablishmentand alsoofthepolice corpsthenmaintained.Theywereopposedtoinvestingzamindarsgenerallywithpolice(11)powers,as that measurehadbeen tried andhadfailed inBengal,buttheyagreedto suchauthoritybeinggiveninparticularcasesofapproved respectabilityandwillingnesstoco-operateinpromo-tingtheviewsofGovernment. The Courtfinallydirected thattheduties ofMagistrateandthecontrol ofthepoliceshouldbetransferred fromthe ZillaJudgeto the Collector. Sir ThomasMunroandMr. StrattonwereappointedCommissionerstocarryout these instructions inMadras,andon their recommenda-tion MadrasRegulationXIof 1816 waspassedforthepurposeofestablishing,ageneralpolice systemthroughoutthepresidency.Thesystemwhich wasthenintroducedwasthusdescribedbySirThomas Munro: "Wehavenowin mostplacesreverted to theoldpoliceofthecountry,executedbyvillagewatchmen,mostlyhereditary,underthedirection oftheheadsofthevillages,tahsil-darsofdistricts andthe CollectorandMagistrateoftheprovince.Theestablishments ofthetahsildars areemployedwithoutdistinc-tion either inpoliceorrevenueduties,astheoccasionrequires."InBombayeffectwasgivento the views of the Court ofDirectorsbyRegulationXIIof1827,whichestablished asystemofpolice"foundedchieflyontheancientusagesof thecountry/'andsimilarin all essentialparticularsto thatadoptedin Madras.Attheheadofthepolicewasthe CollectorandMagistrate,aidedbyhis Assistants;nextcamethemamlatdarortahsildar,whoseestablishmentofpeonswas usedindifferentlyfor revenue andpolicepurposes;andbelowthemamlatdarwasthepatelorvillageofficer,whowasauthorisedtoemployonpoliceduties all therevenueservantsofthevillage.Thehead-quartersstation andacertainareaaroundit wereat firstplaced,forpolice purposes,under the CriminalJudge,but thisarrangementwas soonabandonedas unworkable.Thegeneralsuperintendenceof bothcriminaljusticeandpolicewasvestedin the Court of SudderFaujdariAdawlut.InBengal, owingmainlyto thepermanentsettlementandtheconsequentabsence of thesubordinaterevenueestablishmentsfoundinMadrasandBombay,it wasimpossibleto abolish the(12)darogaandhismen,butsomeattempthadbeen made in 1811to curtail hispowersforevilbyremovingfrom hiscognizanceallcomplaintsofpettyoffences as well as of bailableoffences,suchasforgery, adulteryandthelike.14. Thatthis measureproducedlittleimprovementwill beshownlater,but meanwhileit isnecessarytonotice animportantsteptaken in1808,as it marks the firstattemptto introducespecialandexpertcontrol. This was theappointmentof aSuperintendent or,as he would nowbecalled,anInspector-General of Police for the Divisions ofCalcutta,Dacca andMurshidabad. This office wasconstituted for thepurposeofconcentratinginformationobtainablefromdifferentpartsof thecountry,withaviewto moreextensiveandconcertedoperationsforsecuringthepeace,andespeciallyfor thediscoveryandseizureofgangsofdacoits. TheSuperintendent,whohimself held theoffice ofMagistrateofthe24-Pergunnahs,wasgivenwhatmaybedescribedasasuperiorconcurrent criminaljurisdictionwiththe several DistrictandCityMagistrates,and wasdirectly subjecttotheauthorityoftheNizamutAdawlut. f*e hadthepowertograntpardonsand heworkedlargelywiththe aid of informersandspies (goyendas),thusforeshadowingthe methods used sosuccessfullyatalaterperiodbyColonel Sleemaninhiscampaignagainstthecrimeofthagi.Theresults obtainedbytheSuperin-tendentofPolice,especiallyin thesuppressionofdacoity,weresosatisfactory,that in 1810 thesystemwasextendedto theDivisionsofPatna,BenaresandBareilly,the firstbeing placedundertheexisting Superintendentand an additionalSuperin-tendentbeing appointedfor the other two. Thesystemofworkingwith informerswas,however,warmlyattacked,and aswarmlydefended. Anumberofgoyendaswere foundguiltyofhavingthemselves committeddacoities with the connivance ofthepolice,butit wasmaintainedthattherisk of such incidentswasfaroutweighedbythe benefits conferredbythesystem,under whichdacoityhad beencompletelystampedoutinsomedistricts andgreatlyreduced in all.In 1829 DivisionalCommissioners,or Commissioners of(13)Revenue andCircuit,astheywerecalled,werefirstappointed,and the office ofSuperintendentof Police wasthenabolished,partlybecauseits retention wouldhaveinvolved adual controlover theMagistrate,butmainlyon thegroundofexpense.Theoffice ofMagistratewas at the sametime transferred fromtheJudgeto theCollector,and theCollector-Magistratebecametheheadof thepolice,while the functionsofSuperintendentwereperformedforeachDivisionbythe Commissioner. Thesechangeswerefollowedbya deterioration in the state of thepoliceandanincrease ofcrime,especially dacoity.15. The Select Committeeappointedin 1832toreportonthe affairs of theEastIndiaCompanycollectedmuchvaluableinformationon thesubjectofthepoliceadministration. Thesubordinateswereshownto becorrupt,inefficientandopnressive,whilethesuperiorofficers,owingto themultiplicityof theirduties,wereunableto exercise anadequate supervision.Fouryearslater,after the renewal of theirCharter,the CourtofDirectorsdrew attention to theimprovementscalledfor in thepolice,andexpressedadesire that "no financialconsiderationsshould beallowed to stand in thewayofachangesourgentlyrequired/'16. No immediate actionwas, however,takenanywhereexceptinBengal,where a committee wasappointedfor thepurposeofdrawingupaplanforthemore efficientorganizationof the mofussilpolice.Intheirreport,submittedin1838,thecommitteeexpressedageneralconcurrencein theview that thetransferofthesuperintendenceofpoliceto theCommissionershadresultedin a wantofuniformityinits directionandmanage-ment,since eachCommissionertreatedgeneralquestionsaccordingto his individualviews;andthatwithoutuniformityor controlnorealimprovementcould be effected aconclusion which is ofinterestin connection withdevelopmentsinpoliceadministrationthat tookplaceat a later date inBombayandcontinue tothepresenttime. No definite recommendation wasmadeon thissubject;but Mr.(afterwardsSirFrederick)Halliday,in aMiniuteofDissent,proposed, amongothersweepingreformsthat the whole force should beplacedunderthecontrol ofaSuperintendentGeneral,withfour covenanted officersasDeputies,andaSuperintendentandan AssistantSuperintendentfor eachdistrict aschemeoforganizationwhichwas introduced almostin itsentiretysome25yearslater.Nothing,however,was doneatthetime,andit wasinBombay,tenyearslater,thatthe firststepsweretakenalongthepathofreform.17. Aftertheannexation of Sind in18-J3,one ofthe firstmeasuresundertakenbySir CharlesNapierwastheorganizationofaregularpoliceforce.Napiertook as his model the IrishConstabulary,as the circumstances of thenewly conqueredprovincerequiredasemi-militaryrather thanapurelycivilforce.Themostimportantfeature, however,in which the new forcedifferedfrom thepoliceof the rest of thecountrywas in itsbeingaseparateandself-containedorganization,its officers hav-ingnootherfunctions toperform.This characteristic of thesystemattractedthe attention of SirGeorgeClerk,the GovernorofBombay,who visited Siud in 1847. Heattributedthe un-satisfactorycondition oftheBombaypolicetoinefficiencyin itssuperintendence,andhe wasquickto see that the Sind methodoforganization providedaremedyfor this defect. In1853,therefore,theBombaypolicewasremodelled,theleadingfeaturesof the reformbeingtheappointmenttoeverydistrict of aSuperintendent,who,whilegenerallysubordinate to theMagis-trate,hadexclusive controloverthepolice;theappointmenttoeverytahsil ofanativepolice officer,holdingto the mamlatdar(tahsildar)thesamerelation^ asthosebetweentheSuperintendentandtheMagistrate;and the transfer of thesupremecontrolover thepolicefrom the court ofFaujdariAdawlut to theGovernment This last wasthe w^eakpointinwhatwasother-wiseanex