A (short)A (short)History of History of

Great BritainGreat Britain(0 – 1685)(0 – 1685)

Pre-historyPre-historyTraces of early humans have been found in Traces of early humans have been found in

Great Britain from some 700,000 years Great Britain from some 700,000 years ago and modern humans from about ago and modern humans from about 30,000 years ago. Until about 9,000 years 30,000 years ago. Until about 9,000 years ago, Great Britain was joined to Ireland ago, Great Britain was joined to Ireland and as recently as 8,000 years ago it was and as recently as 8,000 years ago it was joined to the continent by a strip of low joined to the continent by a strip of low marsh to what is now north-eastern marsh to what is now north-eastern France. France.

When it was formed…When it was formed…Great Britain became an island at the end of Great Britain became an island at the end of

the Pleistocene ice age when sea levels the Pleistocene ice age when sea levels rose due to isostatic depression of the rose due to isostatic depression of the crust and the melting of glaciers. The crust and the melting of glaciers. The island was first inhabited by people who island was first inhabited by people who had crossed over the land bridge from the had crossed over the land bridge from the European mainland.European mainland.

Celts then Romans to Anglo-Celts then Romans to Anglo-Saxons..Saxons..

Its Iron Age inhabitants are known as the Britons, Its Iron Age inhabitants are known as the Britons, a group speaking a Celtic language. a group speaking a Celtic language.

The Romans conquered most of the island (up to The Romans conquered most of the island (up to Hadrian’s Wall, in northern England) and this Hadrian’s Wall, in northern England) and this became the Ancient Rome province of became the Ancient Rome province of BritanniaBritannia..

For 500 years after the Roman Empire fell, the For 500 years after the Roman Empire fell, the Britons of the south and east of the island were Britons of the south and east of the island were assimilated or displaced by invading Germanic assimilated or displaced by invading Germanic tribes (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, often referred tribes (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, often referred to collectively as Anglo-Saxons). to collectively as Anglo-Saxons).

Roman BritainRoman Britain

Caesar made two expeditions to Britain in Caesar made two expeditions to Britain in the successive campaign seasons of 55 the successive campaign seasons of 55 and 54 BC, during which he effectively and 54 BC, during which he effectively rattled his armour and thus coerced the rattled his armour and thus coerced the native inhabitants to pay tribute to Rome.native inhabitants to pay tribute to Rome.

Almost a century later the legate Aulus Almost a century later the legate Aulus Plautius conducted the Roman invasion of Plautius conducted the Roman invasion of southern Britain under the direction of the southern Britain under the direction of the emperor Claudius. He and subsequent emperor Claudius. He and subsequent governors of Britain were to find the governors of Britain were to find the troublesome native tribes a severe test of troublesome native tribes a severe test of their abilities as the province was their abilities as the province was expanded.expanded.

The campaigns conducted in Britain by the The campaigns conducted in Britain by the militaristic governors of the first century, militaristic governors of the first century, carried in their wake the luxuries of Roman carried in their wake the luxuries of Roman civilization, and were to have a profound civilization, and were to have a profound effect on the future development of the effect on the future development of the British Isles. British Isles.

Native British artisans, attracted by the Native British artisans, attracted by the regular salaries of the Roman soldiers, regular salaries of the Roman soldiers, gathered outside the defences of almost gathered outside the defences of almost every Roman fort in England and Wales. every Roman fort in England and Wales. Some of these shanty-towns quickly Some of these shanty-towns quickly disappeared once the military moved on, disappeared once the military moved on, but where local conditions permitted, many but where local conditions permitted, many communities were able to survive the communities were able to survive the resultant upheaval and later developed resultant upheaval and later developed into self-sustaining settlementsinto self-sustaining settlements. .

As a tribute to the foresight of the Roman As a tribute to the foresight of the Roman military engineers, many of their forts now military engineers, many of their forts now lie buried yards deep beneath the streets lie buried yards deep beneath the streets of modern British towns.of modern British towns.

Up north and a bit down Up north and a bit down southsouth

At about the same time Gaelic-speaking Scots At about the same time Gaelic-speaking Scots invaded from Ireland, absorbing both the Picts invaded from Ireland, absorbing both the Picts and Britons of northern Britain, and in the 9th and Britons of northern Britain, and in the 9th Century the Kingdom of Scotland was formed.Century the Kingdom of Scotland was formed.

The south-east of Scotland was colonised by the The south-east of Scotland was colonised by the Angles and formed, until 1018, a part of the Angles and formed, until 1018, a part of the Kingdom of Northumbria. Kingdom of Northumbria.

Ultimately, the population of south-east Britain Ultimately, the population of south-east Britain came to be referred to, after the Angles, as the came to be referred to, after the Angles, as the English people.English people.

Rather confusing….Rather confusing….Germanic speakers referred to Britons as Germanic speakers referred to Britons as WelshWelsh. .

This term eventually came to be applied This term eventually came to be applied exclusively to the inhabitants of what is now exclusively to the inhabitants of what is now Wales, but it also survives in names such as Wales, but it also survives in names such as Wallace, and in the second syllable of Cornwall.Wallace, and in the second syllable of Cornwall.

CymryCymry, a name the Britons used to describe , a name the Britons used to describe themselves, is similarly restricted in modern themselves, is similarly restricted in modern Welsh to people from Wales, but also survives in Welsh to people from Wales, but also survives in English in the place name of Cumbria. English in the place name of Cumbria.

Vikings?Vikings?In the ninth century, a series of Danish In the ninth century, a series of Danish

assaults on northern English kingdoms led assaults on northern English kingdoms led to them coming under Danish control (an to them coming under Danish control (an area known as the Danelaw). area known as the Danelaw).

In the tenth century, however, all the English In the tenth century, however, all the English kingdoms were unified under one ruler as kingdoms were unified under one ruler as the kingdom of England.the kingdom of England.

The Vikings in BritainThe Vikings in BritainIn the year 793 Viking pirate raiders sailed across In the year 793 Viking pirate raiders sailed across

the North Sea to a Christian monastery at the North Sea to a Christian monastery at Lindisfarne in north-east England. They stole its Lindisfarne in north-east England. They stole its treasures, murdered the monks and terrified treasures, murdered the monks and terrified everyone. This was followed by other violent everyone. This was followed by other violent 'Viking raids' all over Britain.'Viking raids' all over Britain.

In 865 a 'Great Army' of Danish Vikings invaded In 865 a 'Great Army' of Danish Vikings invaded England. There were fierce battles for several England. There were fierce battles for several years. years.

In the end the Vikings conquered all of northern, In the end the Vikings conquered all of northern, central and eastern England, and seized much central and eastern England, and seized much of the land for their own farms. This area was of the land for their own farms. This area was called 'The Danelaw'.called 'The Danelaw'.

Canute (Cnut) the first Viking KingCanute (Cnut) the first Viking King

""Let all men know how empty and worthless is the Let all men know how empty and worthless is the power of kings. For there is none worthy of the name power of kings. For there is none worthy of the name but God, whom heaven, earth and sea obey".but God, whom heaven, earth and sea obey".

So spoke King Canute the Great, the legend says, seated So spoke King Canute the Great, the legend says, seated on his throne on the seashore, waves lapping round his on his throne on the seashore, waves lapping round his feet. Canute had learned that his flattering courtiers feet. Canute had learned that his flattering courtiers claimed he was "So great, he could command the tides claimed he was "So great, he could command the tides of the sea to go back". Now Canute was not only a of the sea to go back". Now Canute was not only a religious man, but also a clever politician. He knew his religious man, but also a clever politician. He knew his limitations - even if his courtiers did not - so he had his limitations - even if his courtiers did not - so he had his throne carried to the seashore and sat on it as the tide throne carried to the seashore and sat on it as the tide came in, commanding the waves to advance no further. came in, commanding the waves to advance no further. When they didn't, he had made his point that, though the When they didn't, he had made his point that, though the deeds of kings might appear 'great' in the minds of men, deeds of kings might appear 'great' in the minds of men, they were as nothing in the face of God's powerthey were as nothing in the face of God's power..

But on Cnut's death, the country collapsed But on Cnut's death, the country collapsed into a number of competing Earldoms into a number of competing Earldoms under a weak king, Edward the Confessor.under a weak king, Edward the Confessor.

The strongest of the earls was Harold, Earl of East The strongest of the earls was Harold, Earl of East Anglia. Anglia.

Through a series of battles and intermarriages, Through a series of battles and intermarriages, Harold controlled Wessex and was in a powerful Harold controlled Wessex and was in a powerful position.position.

So when Edward the Confessor died in 1066 So when Edward the Confessor died in 1066 without a male heir, Harold claimed the throne.without a male heir, Harold claimed the throne.

His claim was disputed by William, Duke of His claim was disputed by William, Duke of Normandy, whose claim to the English throne Normandy, whose claim to the English throne was even more tenuous than Harold's.was even more tenuous than Harold's.

When Edward the Confessor died, the Vikings saw When Edward the Confessor died, the Vikings saw a chance to regain a foothold in Britain, and a chance to regain a foothold in Britain, and landed an army in Yorkshire in 1066. landed an army in Yorkshire in 1066.

Harold marched north to take on the Vikings under Harold marched north to take on the Vikings under Harald of Norway and Tostig (King Harold's Harald of Norway and Tostig (King Harold's brother). He defeated the Norsemen near York, brother). He defeated the Norsemen near York, but while celebrating his victory, learnt that but while celebrating his victory, learnt that William of Normandy had landed in southern William of Normandy had landed in southern England.England.

Within 13 days he had marched his army some Within 13 days he had marched his army some 240 miles from Yorkshire to Sussex, where the 240 miles from Yorkshire to Sussex, where the Normans were camped near Hastings. The Normans were camped near Hastings. The ensuing Battle of Hastings was won by the ensuing Battle of Hastings was won by the Normans who were fresh, and had better Normans who were fresh, and had better archers and cavalry. Harold died with an arrow archers and cavalry. Harold died with an arrow through his eye. William was crowned William I through his eye. William was crowned William I in London on Christmas Day 1066in London on Christmas Day 1066

Normans!!!!Normans!!!!In 1066, England was conquered by the In 1066, England was conquered by the

Normans, who introduced a French ruling Normans, who introduced a French ruling élite that was eventually assimilated.élite that was eventually assimilated.

Wales came under Anglo-Norman control in Wales came under Anglo-Norman control in 1282, and was officially annexed to 1282, and was officially annexed to England in the sixteenth century.England in the sixteenth century.

The NormansThe NormansThe Tower of London was built with the express aim The Tower of London was built with the express aim

of showing the inhabitants of London who was in of showing the inhabitants of London who was in charge now.charge now.

William continued with a demonic round of castle William continued with a demonic round of castle building across the whole country. The uniqueness building across the whole country. The uniqueness of the Norman conquest in British history is that not of the Norman conquest in British history is that not only did the ruler change, but also the whole of the only did the ruler change, but also the whole of the ruling class changes, and there was even a new ruling class changes, and there was even a new language. language.

The English nobility lost their lands, and the new The English nobility lost their lands, and the new landowners built castles like Warwick and Windsor landowners built castles like Warwick and Windsor that survive to this day. By the time William died in that survive to this day. By the time William died in 1087 around 100 major castles had been built1087 around 100 major castles had been built..

The other major legacy of William's reign is The other major legacy of William's reign is the Domesday Book. William wished to the Domesday Book. William wished to know the existing and potential value of know the existing and potential value of his new kingdom. Surveyors were sent out his new kingdom. Surveyors were sent out across the whole country and their report across the whole country and their report was the massive Domesday Book which was the massive Domesday Book which noted land down to individual noted land down to individual landholdings.landholdings.

The Magna CartaThe Magna CartaMagna Carta is one of the most celebrated Magna Carta is one of the most celebrated

documents in English history but later documents in English history but later interpretations have tended to obscure its real interpretations have tended to obscure its real significance in 1215. significance in 1215.

This iconic document was not intended to be a This iconic document was not intended to be a lasting declaration of legal principle. lasting declaration of legal principle.

It was a practical solution to a political crisis which It was a practical solution to a political crisis which primarily served the interests of the highest primarily served the interests of the highest ranks of feudal society by reasserting the power ranks of feudal society by reasserting the power of custom to limit despotic behaviour by the king.of custom to limit despotic behaviour by the king.

The majority of the clauses in Magna Carta The majority of the clauses in Magna Carta dealt with the regulation of feudal customs dealt with the regulation of feudal customs and the operation of the justice system, and the operation of the justice system, not with legal theory and rights.not with legal theory and rights.

It was King John's extortionate exploitation It was King John's extortionate exploitation of his feudal rights and his ruthless of his feudal rights and his ruthless administration of justice that were at the administration of justice that were at the core of the barons' grievances.core of the barons' grievances.

All but three of Magna Carta's clauses have All but three of Magna Carta's clauses have now become obsolete and been repealed, now become obsolete and been repealed, but the flexible way in which the charter but the flexible way in which the charter has been reinterpreted through the has been reinterpreted through the centuries has guaranteed its status and centuries has guaranteed its status and longevity.longevity.

The Reformation & HenryThe Reformation & Henry

Henry VIII, who came to the throne in 1509, Henry VIII, who came to the throne in 1509, was a man who left his stamp on history. was a man who left his stamp on history.

His six marriages in search of a male heir His six marriages in search of a male heir led to two daughters (Mary and Elizabeth) led to two daughters (Mary and Elizabeth) and a son Edward (who died young).and a son Edward (who died young).

Henry's need for a divorce led to a row with Henry's need for a divorce led to a row with the pope who refused to grant Henry one. the pope who refused to grant Henry one. Henry countered by dissolving the Roman Henry countered by dissolving the Roman Catholic Church in Britain, and setting up Catholic Church in Britain, and setting up the Church of England.the Church of England.

A Church of England with Henry at the head A Church of England with Henry at the head could then allow Henry to divorce his wife. could then allow Henry to divorce his wife. Of the Six the pneumonic goes - divorced, Of the Six the pneumonic goes - divorced, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, survived. He divorced the two European survived. He divorced the two European wives, Anne of Cleeves and Catherine of wives, Anne of Cleeves and Catherine of Aragon. The English ladies were more Aragon. The English ladies were more easily dispensable.easily dispensable.

Henry was a tyrant and a despot. Henry was a tyrant and a despot. Completely ruthless, and he let nothing Completely ruthless, and he let nothing and nobody get in his way.and nobody get in his way.

Cardinal Wolsey was banished, Thomas Cardinal Wolsey was banished, Thomas Cromwell and Thomas More were Cromwell and Thomas More were executed.executed.

One other bonus for Henry from his split with One other bonus for Henry from his split with Rome was that he gained control of the Rome was that he gained control of the monasteries - the monastic buildings and monasteries - the monastic buildings and land were sold off after the dissolution of land were sold off after the dissolution of the monasteries in 1538. the monasteries in 1538.

Many of the buildings fell into decay, and Many of the buildings fell into decay, and they lost their farmlands for ever. they lost their farmlands for ever.

Pre-amble to Elizabeth IPre-amble to Elizabeth IHenry's elder daughter Henry's elder daughter Mary was a Mary was a CatholicCatholic - -

and a militant Catholic at that. and a militant Catholic at that. Her efforts as queen to restore Catholicism to Her efforts as queen to restore Catholicism to

England made her the most unpopular queen in England made her the most unpopular queen in British history.British history.

The means that she used to pursue her aims The means that she used to pursue her aims earned her the nickname "bloody Mary". earned her the nickname "bloody Mary".

There were 283 Protestant martyrs burnt at There were 283 Protestant martyrs burnt at the stake in her reign. Among the martyrs the stake in her reign. Among the martyrs were Cranmer (Archbishop of Canterbury), were Cranmer (Archbishop of Canterbury), Ridley (Bishop of London) and Latimer ( a Ridley (Bishop of London) and Latimer ( a leading preacher).leading preacher).

A loveless marriage to the King of Spain A loveless marriage to the King of Spain produced no children. produced no children.

So when Mary died she was succeeded by So when Mary died she was succeeded by her her Protestant half-sister ElizabethProtestant half-sister Elizabeth..

Elizabeth's reign brought in one of the most Elizabeth's reign brought in one of the most glorious eras of British history. glorious eras of British history.

Exploration, colonisation, victory in war, and Exploration, colonisation, victory in war, and growing world importance. growing world importance.

The Arts flourished, this was the age of The Arts flourished, this was the age of Shakespeare and Bacon. Shakespeare and Bacon.

It was the age of Drake and Raleigh, It was the age of Drake and Raleigh, Hawkins and Frobisher.Hawkins and Frobisher.

Francis DrakeFrancis DrakeSir Francis DrakeSir Francis Drake, (1540 – 27 January 1596), was a sea captain, , (1540 – 27 January 1596), was a sea captain,

privateer, navigator, slaver, a renowned pirate, and politician.privateer, navigator, slaver, a renowned pirate, and politician.Queen Elizabeth I awarded Drake a knighthood in 1581. He was Queen Elizabeth I awarded Drake a knighthood in 1581. He was

second-in-command of the English fleet against the Spanish second-in-command of the English fleet against the Spanish Armada in 1588. Armada in 1588.

He died of dysentery in January 1596 after unsuccessfully He died of dysentery in January 1596 after unsuccessfully attacking San Juan, Puerto Rico.attacking San Juan, Puerto Rico.

His exploits were legendary, making him a hero to the English but His exploits were legendary, making him a hero to the English but a pirate to the Spanish.a pirate to the Spanish.

King Philip II was claimed to have offered a reward of 20,000 King Philip II was claimed to have offered a reward of 20,000 ducats about £4,000,000 (US$6.5M) by modern standards, for ducats about £4,000,000 (US$6.5M) by modern standards, for his life.his life.

Drake's voyage round the world in the Drake's voyage round the world in the Golden Hind started in 1577 and took 3 Golden Hind started in 1577 and took 3 years. years.

Though he did not find Australia or the north Though he did not find Australia or the north west passage, he brought back great west passage, he brought back great wealth from raids on the Spanish wealth from raids on the Spanish possessions in the Pacific and from possessions in the Pacific and from cargoes of spices. Drake was the first cargoes of spices. Drake was the first Briton to sail round the world. Briton to sail round the world.

Eventually there was all out war with Spain. Philip Eventually there was all out war with Spain. Philip of Spain assembled the largest fleet the world of Spain assembled the largest fleet the world had seen, and in 1588 it set sail to invade had seen, and in 1588 it set sail to invade England. England.

The smaller, more manoeuvrable English ships The smaller, more manoeuvrable English ships harried the Spanish armada all the way up the harried the Spanish armada all the way up the English Channel. English Channel.

But the Armada reached Calais and anchored. The But the Armada reached Calais and anchored. The English sent in fireships (crammed with burning English sent in fireships (crammed with burning tar and gunpowder). tar and gunpowder).

This forced the Spanish to cut anchor and This forced the Spanish to cut anchor and scatter. The power of the Armada had scatter. The power of the Armada had been in its tight disciplined formation that been in its tight disciplined formation that the English could not break. Now it was the English could not break. Now it was just a collection of individual ships.just a collection of individual ships.

The Spanish ships made their way back The Spanish ships made their way back home to Spain via the north of Scotland home to Spain via the north of Scotland and down the Irish coast. 50 ships and and down the Irish coast. 50 ships and 20,000 men perished. Spain was 20,000 men perished. Spain was humiliated on the world stage.humiliated on the world stage.

This was also the England of Shakespeare, This was also the England of Shakespeare, Marlow and Bacon. Marlow and Bacon.

Shakespeare left Stratford upon Avon in Shakespeare left Stratford upon Avon in 1587, and by 1599 he was the part owner 1587, and by 1599 he was the part owner of the Globe playhouse in London. of the Globe playhouse in London.

He wrote his plays while in London, and He wrote his plays while in London, and retired to Stratford in 1611, where he died retired to Stratford in 1611, where he died in 1616.in 1616.

James I, Charles I and the James I, Charles I and the descent into Civil War, the King descent into Civil War, the King

executed, Cromwell rulesexecuted, Cromwell rules

James Stuart was a Scottish Catholic who James Stuart was a Scottish Catholic who believed in the "Divine Right" to rule as he believed in the "Divine Right" to rule as he pleased. This brought him into conflict with the pleased. This brought him into conflict with the English Parliament. English Parliament.

The failed Catholic Gunpowder Plot to blow up The failed Catholic Gunpowder Plot to blow up Parliament in 1605 led to anti catholic riots. The Parliament in 1605 led to anti catholic riots. The failure of both James and his son Charles I to failure of both James and his son Charles I to understand the English tradition of parliamentary understand the English tradition of parliamentary liberty led eventually to civil war.liberty led eventually to civil war.

The Gunpowder plotThe Gunpowder plot

The The Gunpowder ConspiracyGunpowder Conspiracy of 1605, as it was of 1605, as it was then known, (also known as then known, (also known as The Powder The Powder TreasonTreason or or The Gunpowder PlotThe Gunpowder Plot) was a failed ) was a failed assassination attempt by a group of provincial assassination attempt by a group of provincial English Catholics against King James I. English Catholics against King James I.

The plot intended to kill the King and most of the The plot intended to kill the King and most of the Protestant aristocracy by blowing up the Houses Protestant aristocracy by blowing up the Houses of Parliament during the State Opening on 5 of Parliament during the State Opening on 5 November 1605.November 1605.

James died unlamented in 1625. Charles I James died unlamented in 1625. Charles I immediately came in to conflict with Parliament. immediately came in to conflict with Parliament.

He tried to rule without summoning parliament for He tried to rule without summoning parliament for 11 years, but eventually ran out of money, and 11 years, but eventually ran out of money, and summoned Parliament in 1640 Parliament was summoned Parliament in 1640 Parliament was naturally peeved about his neglect of their rights.naturally peeved about his neglect of their rights.

They refused him money, and the country split They refused him money, and the country split between supporters of the king and supporters between supporters of the king and supporters of parliament.of parliament.

The first major Engagement of the Civil War The first major Engagement of the Civil War was at Edgehill in the Cotswolds on 1642. was at Edgehill in the Cotswolds on 1642. Indecision among the Royalists and the Indecision among the Royalists and the moulding of the New Model army by the moulding of the New Model army by the parliamentarians led to Parliament gaining parliamentarians led to Parliament gaining the upper hand, and by 1645 Cromwell the upper hand, and by 1645 Cromwell won the decisive Battle of Naseby.won the decisive Battle of Naseby.

Charles I was captured and put on trial for Charles I was captured and put on trial for treason in 1649. treason in 1649.

He refused to recognise the court, but was He refused to recognise the court, but was regardless found guilty.regardless found guilty.

59 republicans signed the death warrant 59 republicans signed the death warrant and after the restoration Charles II and after the restoration Charles II prosecuted those that he could. prosecuted those that he could.

Oliver Cromwell and the army emerged as Oliver Cromwell and the army emerged as the power in the land. the power in the land.

Cromwell dissolved parliament with the Cromwell dissolved parliament with the words "Depart I say, and let us have done words "Depart I say, and let us have done with you. In the name of God , go!“with you. In the name of God , go!“

It was the start of England's only period of It was the start of England's only period of dictatorship Cromwell was unable to find dictatorship Cromwell was unable to find anything to replace the monarchy. anything to replace the monarchy.

Oliver CromwellOliver Cromwell

Oliver CromwellOliver Cromwell was an English military was an English military and political leader best known for his and political leader best known for his involvement in making England into a involvement in making England into a republican Commonwealth and for his republican Commonwealth and for his later role as Lord Protector of England, later role as Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland. Scotland and Ireland.

He was one of the commanders of the New He was one of the commanders of the New Model Army which defeated the royalists in the Model Army which defeated the royalists in the English Civil War. After the execution of King English Civil War. After the execution of King Charles I in 1649, Cromwell dominated the Charles I in 1649, Cromwell dominated the short-lived Commonwealth of England, short-lived Commonwealth of England, conquered Ireland and Scotland, and ruled as conquered Ireland and Scotland, and ruled as Lord Protector from 1653 until his death in Lord Protector from 1653 until his death in 1658. 1658.

Cromwell was one of the signatories of Charles Cromwell was one of the signatories of Charles I’s death warrant in 1649 and was an MP in the I’s death warrant in 1649 and was an MP in the Rump Parliament (1649-1653), being chosen Rump Parliament (1649-1653), being chosen by the Rump to take command of the English by the Rump to take command of the English campaign in Ireland during 1649-50. campaign in Ireland during 1649-50.

He then led a campaign against the Scottish army He then led a campaign against the Scottish army between 1650-51.between 1650-51.

On April 20, 1653 he dismissed the Rump On April 20, 1653 he dismissed the Rump Parliament by force, setting up a short-lived Parliament by force, setting up a short-lived nominated assembly known as the Barebones nominated assembly known as the Barebones Parliament before being made Lord Protector of Parliament before being made Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland on 16 December England, Scotland, and Ireland on 16 December 1653 until his death. 1653 until his death.

He was buried in Westminster Abbey, but when He was buried in Westminster Abbey, but when the Royalists returned to power his corpse was the Royalists returned to power his corpse was dug up, hung in chains and beheaded. dug up, hung in chains and beheaded.

Cromwell has been a very controversial figure in Cromwell has been a very controversial figure in the British history – a regicidal dictator to some the British history – a regicidal dictator to some historians and a hero of liberty to others. historians and a hero of liberty to others.

In Britain he was elected as one of the Top 10 In Britain he was elected as one of the Top 10 Britons of all time in a 2002 BBC poll.Britons of all time in a 2002 BBC poll.

His measures against Irish Catholics have been His measures against Irish Catholics have been characterized by some historians as genocidal characterized by some historians as genocidal or near-genocidal, and in Ireland itself he is or near-genocidal, and in Ireland itself he is widely hated. widely hated.

When he died in 1658 his son Richard When he died in 1658 his son Richard succeeded him, but "Tumbledown Dick" succeeded him, but "Tumbledown Dick" was not a man to rule Britain, and in 1660 was not a man to rule Britain, and in 1660 Charles II was restored to the throne his Charles II was restored to the throne his father had died for. father had died for.

Cromwell's failure to put in place a workable Cromwell's failure to put in place a workable alternative to the monarchy, resulted in the alternative to the monarchy, resulted in the country bringing back from exile the country bringing back from exile the monarchy in the form of Charles II, son of monarchy in the form of Charles II, son of the beheaded Charles I. the beheaded Charles I.

Charles II lasting place in posterity is due to Charles II lasting place in posterity is due to his penchant for mistresses and the his penchant for mistresses and the resultant illegitimate children, many of resultant illegitimate children, many of whom received dukedoms which survive whom received dukedoms which survive to this day. to this day.

Soon after Charles succession Britain had Soon after Charles succession Britain had two major catastrophes - the Plague in two major catastrophes - the Plague in 1665 70,000 died in London alone and the 1665 70,000 died in London alone and the Great Fire of London the following year.Great Fire of London the following year.

However it was the succession that However it was the succession that concerned the country. concerned the country.

Charles produced no legitimate heirs, and it Charles produced no legitimate heirs, and it was his Catholic brother James II who was his Catholic brother James II who succeeded him in 1685. succeeded him in 1685.

Britain had briefly been republic, but it was Britain had briefly been republic, but it was now back to Protestant and Catholic kings. now back to Protestant and Catholic kings.