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Introduction: What is History?

History can be defined as the most complex, inclusive and many faceted of the social sciences. Quite a

statement, but is it true? In fact, it is only a description; it assumes you know what social science is

and, as such, is really not a proper definition at all. History is difficult to define because people, both

present and past, have different preconceptions and viewpoints as to what exactly history is. Mostdefinitions are at least partially true, but what does the term History mean? !enerally, the followin"

aspects of the term History are a"reed upon#

$% Past Actuality & 'll thin"s that have happened until this moment. (pecifically, past human events

that are irrevocably fixed in time and space. It is considered to beabsolute and objective & it is what

happened.

)% Record of Past Actuality & *he human attempt to recapture the past, to fix it in words and to "ive it

meanin". It is relative and subjective and is only a version of what happened from the viewpoint of

the recorder. It used to be primarily considered a written record, but the )+th century saw a

rediscovery of the value of oral history as well as technolo"ical advancement leadin" to visual mediums

other than art% such as movies and television as well as recordin"s. *here are three types of

record, Narrative, Didactic, and Genetic.

• *he oldest and most commonly understood is the Narrative, a true story that is told. It was the

only way to tell history startin" around -+++ / until about 0++ /. It is simply a tellin" of

history in a chronolo"ical order, the order of time if you will.

• *he next form, Didactic, evolved sometime around 0++ / usually credited

to*hucydides Peloppennesian War % and is essentially instructive history or history that teaches

a lesson. *he deocentric, or /hristian, writers of the Middle '"es are the best example of this

type. *hey treated 1ast 'ctuality as a precedent for action and hoped to brin" "uidance to

those who read of the past, whether to "lorify !od, a social "roup or an individual. 2idactic

was the preeminent form until the 3nli"htenment when 4eopold von 5anke, the father ofmodern history, published his first work and exorted his students to "o to the sources.

• (hortly thereafter, the third type, Genetic, emer"ed and is the primary type practiced from

the $6++7s up to the present. *he "oal of !enetic history is to establish the why of historical

events by studyin" the complexity of cause and effect which in turn reveal the "rowth,

development and evolution sometimes called the basic phenomena% of history. ' better way to

put it is that !enetic history tries to establish the why for complex historical events by

investi"atin" causal relations.

8% Main! the Record of Past Actuality & *he process or techni9ue &the method& used to make a record

of past actuality is also considered 7History.7 Method makes history a science, thou"h not an exact one.

*here are - steps to historical method#

• 'n exhaustive search for sources of information.

• *he study of the information in those sources.

• ' critical evaluation of the information. 'n active process to comprehend motives and :ud"e

actions.

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• *he final synthesiin" of material an recastin" it accordin" to personal :ud"ement.

"he basic considerations of #ethod are the ty$e of sources used and their reliability% "he sources

are the data and evidence on &hich an historical case is to be built and there are

different inds of these%

'% Pri#ary (ources ) Are those in &hich $eo$le &rite or s$ea of the#selves or

conte#$oraries%

*% (econdary (ources ) "hose &ritin!s of a later day about earlier events%

+% "ertiary (ources ) A co#$ilation of secondary sources, thou!h they often include so#e

$ri#ary sources%

A Note ) (o#e historians tae this out to even further levels, such as centenary -an

ad#itted e.a!erration/, but !enerally the afore#entioned are enou!h%

Re!ardless of the ty$e of source, it #ust be reliable% "herefore, the Reliability of

(ources #ust be deter#ined% (ources can be 0raudulent, Innaccurate, or 1iased-20I12/ and

#ust be tested for:

'% 3onsistency ) 4nsure the evidence lo!ical and not contradictory?

*% 3orroboration ) 3hec sources a!ainst one another%

+% 0reedo# fro# 1ias

If any of the 20I12s are revealed, the source #ust be evaluated &ith that in #ind%

5555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555

With these factors in #ind, one can #ae another atte#$t to define history% "hus, History

is the science &hich first investi!ates and then records, in their causal relation and

develo$#ents, such $ast hu#an activities as are definite in ti#e and s$ace, social in

nature, and socially si!nificant% "o e.$lain further, History is a science because it does have

a definite #ethod, as &ill be sho&n% It is further i#$ortant to 6ualify &hich hu#an events

are considered historical% "hat the event be 7definite in ti#e and s$ace7 is i#$ortant

because if such is the case, then the event can be $hiloso$hically $roven to have occurred%

"hat an event be social in nature is an affir#ation of the hu#anity of history &hich is

further 6ualified by the fact that it #ust be socially si!nificant, &hich #eans it #ustcontribute to the co##on no&led!e of hu#anity%

As can be i#a!ined, there are a &ide array of definitions of history, #ost of &hich arise out

of various schools of historical inter$retation% 8arious schools of history arise out of

$articular acade#ic trainin! and the belief that one $articular as$ect of hu#an nature or

environ#ent is $ara#ount in inter$retin! history% 9ther 7schools7 are not i!nored, they just

aren7t as i#$ortant% It hel$s to i#a!ine a s$oed &heel, lie that of a 3onasto!a &a!on,

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&here each s$oe re$resents a $articular school of history and the hub of the &heel

re$resents the $ri#ary school to &hich a $articular $ractitioner of history adheres% A

historian &ould be fa#iliar &ith the s$oes and &ould use the# as su$$ort for his

ar!u#ent, but the central thesis &ould be derived fro# the hub%

"here are #any schools of history% 1elo& are a fe& of the #ore co##on ones% "o furtherhel$ e.$lain the#, I &ill use the e.a#$le of &hat each school #i!ht describe as the

$ri#ary cause of the A#erican Revolution%

'% (ocial ) Investi!ates the develo$#ent of hu#an !rou$s and co##unities and their

interaction &ith lar!er society as they e#er!e% 4: "hey &ould focus on the ty$e of

colonist in A#erica -inde$endent, free)thinin!/ as the $ri#ary cause%

*% 3ultural;Intellectual ) 9ften considered different, but a$$roach &ith sa#e #ethod, if

fro# different direction% 1oth deal &ith the #eanin! of ideas and attitudes and their effect

on social chan!es% Generally, Intellectual is considered a study of the elite))the idea

#aers, if you &ill))&hile 3ultural deals #ore &ith the ideas and traditions of the co##on

$eo$le% 4: 1oth #i!ht ar!ue that the $eo$le listened to the !reat thiners, such as <oce

and =efferson, &ho es$oused $hiloso$hical ideas of liberty, etc%

+% Political ) 0ocus on the o$eration and acts of !overn#ents, $arties and institutions% 4:

"he 1ritish Parlia#ent7s idea of ta.ation &ithout re$resentation and the Intolerable Acts

stoed the fires of Revolution%

>% Di$lo#atic ) 0ocus on the relations bet&een !overn#ents% 4: (trained relations

bet&een the 3olonies and Great 1ritain led to the &ar%

% 4cono#ic ) (tudy develo$#ents in technolo!y, $roduction, consu#$tion and division of

&ealth% 4: Money &as the cause as the 1ritish atte#$ted to interru$t co##erce%

@% Psychohistory ) Investi!ate e#otional develo$#ent of individuals and fa#ilies usin!

techi6ues derived fro# $sychoanalysis% 4: in! Geor!e III had $oor relations &ith his

father &hich affected his jud!e#ent%

B% Post)#odern ) "here is no such thin! as historical truth, thus, because no&led!e is

arbitrary, so is our conce$tion of the $ast% 4: We &ill never really understand the causes

of the Revolution, but each of us can inter$ret or reinter$ret the event as &e see fit%

CN9"4: Please re#e#ber, these are very !eneric definitions and si#$listic e.a#$les and

don7t be!in to cover the &ide array of $ossibilities%5555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555

3losely related to 7(chools7 of History are 7Philoso$hies7 of History% A $hiloso$hy of history

e.$lains the forces of history))&hat #oves the# and in &hat direction they are headed% It

is an e.$lanation not only of the #ost i#$ortant causes of s$ecific events but of the

broadest develo$#ents in hu#an affairs% "here have been three schools of historical

thou!ht that are !enerally a!reed u$on%

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'% 3yclical ) -> 13 ) ' AD/: "he ti#e&orn 7History Re$eats7 school% 4vents $eriodically

re)occur% 4ssential forces of hu#an nature are unchan!eable and so hu#ans #ae the sa#e

decisions, or #istaes, over and over &hen confronted &ith si#ilar or identical situations%

A cycle of 1irth;<ife;Death &as !enerally acce$ted and served as a te#$late for this

$hiloso$hy%

*% Providential ) -' AD ) 'Eth 3entury/: Pri#arily a result of the rise of 3hristianity &hich

held that there &as life after death and thus hu#ans could have so#e for# of i##ortality%

"his broe the 1irth;<ife;Death cycle and further believed that Divine Intervention could

overthro& the $ast as the course of history &as deter#ined by God% History &as an ebb and

flo&, a constant stru!!le bet&een !ood and evil &ith the eventual victory of !ood forseen,

as deter#ined by God%

+% Pro!ressive ) -'Eth 3entury ) about 'F>/: 1rou!ht about by the scientific and secular

a!e of the 4nli!hten#ent% niversal la&s of science &ere unloced and the 6uestion &as

ased: What are the universal la&s of hu#an nature? Hu#an history &as a continual

$ro!ress in &hich the situation of hu#anity &as i#$rovin! because of it7s o&n efforts, not

God7s% 0urther, each !eneration built u$on the no&led!e of the $revious% In 'F'E, after

World War I, this idea &as challen!ed and doubt &as cast as to &hether hu#anity &as

really $ro!ressin!% "he inter&ar years sa& serious debates &hich e.$loded durin! and after

World War II% "hou!h 0ascis# and Nais# &as defeated, 3o##unis# still loo#ed lar!e as

did the threat of nuclear &ar and the ulti#ate destruction of #anind% Ho& could this be

$ro!ress?

(o &here are &e no&? "here is no& no 2definitive2 $hiloso$hy, thou!h #any $hiloso$hies

abound, and #any historians 6uestion &hether a definin! $hiloso$hy is even $ossible or

necessary%

"he Meanin!s of History

Introduction

Many think that history is passive and unalterable. It has been called an excitin" and vivid

costume drama or a tedious catalo"ue of dates. *his attitude towards history is lar"ely a

result of people bein" tau"ht that history is a (tatic process, that it never chan"es. *his is

the predominant way it is tau"ht in our schools and is usually considered <5I=!. History as

tau"ht in colle"e, especially on the "raduate student level, is shown to be more of

a Dyna#ic process. *he essential plot and the people are the same, but new

interpretations are investi"ated. *his last is what is known as revisionis#. >nfortunately,

revisionism has "ained a ne"ative connotation because of the excessive eal with which

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some historians have attempted to rewrite history. (ome of these radical historians left,

ri"ht and middle% have too often thrown the baby out with the bath water when reassessin"

historical events. *hey are "uilty of anachronism or presentism&&applyin" the morals and

mores of the present to the past&&and have produced historical re&interpretations that seem

excessively critical and dismissive of previously honored historical actors. *his has

alienated many non&historians who have in turn shut out all attempts at historical

reinterpretation and resi"ned themselves to the borin", static history they learned in

school. Historical revisionism is "ood, but it must be done correctly and carefully.

(tatic and Dyna#ic 3once$ts of History

's mentioned, the (tatic form is the prevalent form and is basically a fixed story of the

past. 'lternatively, the Dyna#ic concept of history is a story of the past that is in constant

dialo"ue with the present. /ontrary to any impression which may have been "iven, not all

historians embrace the dynamic concept. *hey would prefer that past interpretations be

kept as they are. (ome are simply disconcerted with the idea of shiftin" from a (tatic to a

2ynamic concept, thou"h this is probably not so much the case any more. It would seem

that these historians have lapsed into a comfortable belief that some history has already

been ade9uately researched and nothin" new has come up. 1erhaps they have

confused Past Actuality with its Record?

*he primary benefit of a dynamic concept of history is that it continually invites historians

to reassess the past. If the scholarship is "ood, it will be embraced, if not, it will be

re:ected. *his concept of a chan"in" past offers intellectual reward and inspiration to

keep researchin". *his does not mean that responsible historians are attemptin" to chan"e

the past, rather, they are always strivin" for a better explanation.

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Revisionis#

5evisionism is a central tenet of historical scholarship. It is the unendin" search for fresh

material, sources and interpretations of the past. *he debates which develop out of revised

interpretations of the past are essential to the field of history. 's has been said, the term

5evisionist has "ained a ne"ative connotation, but it is not some new phenomena; it7s a

constant process that has "one on for centuries, thou"h especially the last few. hy should

we revise history?

's the pace of chan"e 9uickens, from such forces as science and technolo"y and the rapid

dissemination of information, there arises a pressure to revise accounts of the past.

Human7s identities are wrapped up in the past. 's our self&perceptions in the ever&chan"in"

present chan"e, our view of past actuality also chan"es. =ew 9uestions are asked about the

past, especially as new, previously i"nored "roups minorities and women, for example%

emer"e. 'lso, new historians may revisit old records or these records may "ain new

importance and are reinterpreted. *he philosophies of the 3i"hteenth /entury, dominated

by the 3nli"htenment, inspired a desire to use revision of history in a campai"n to exult

reason.

8oltaire and Gibbon

@oltaire broke with lon" established tendencies of studyin" history and 3dward

!ibbon7sHistory of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire offered a new interpretation

for why the 5oman empire fell. !ibbon asserted that /hristianity turned the minds of the

5oman leaders from problems of this life to the afterlife and they also suffered from

immoderate "reatness. oth !ibbon and @oltaire wrote reverentially of past "overnments

and countries. *heir works are re"arded as classics and were manifestos to advance liberty

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and reason. *hey weren7t supporters of their contemporary "overnments. *his idealo"y

inspired them to reassess past interpretations of history as they looked for ways to buttress

their own ar"uments a"ainst the status 9uo. *hey were searchin" for historical precedents.

Malthus, Mar. and ne& for#s of History

*he 5everend *homas Malthus, the "loomy economist, was concerned with population

"rowth. He viewed contemporary history as a history of hi"her classes and believed that a

history of the "eneral population was needed. He also believed that statistical analysis was

key and called on others to do research in his Essay on the Principle of Population. Heedin"

his call, historians studied )++ years of statistics related to the poor and the "eneral

population. *his led to the development of the social sciences, especially demo"raphics, as

a reaction to history of the wealthy. 'fter the study, Malthus concluded that lower classes

couldn7t control their lust and he proposed to keep population in check by keepin" wa"es at

subsistence level. 3ssentially, he felt that "overnment should simply leave the poor alone

rather than make life better for them. efore continuin", it is important to provide some

context.

Malthus7 study occurred durin" the Industrial 5evolution when massive demo"raphic chan"e

and political unrest developed as people moved from farms to factories in or near the city.

Malthus7 concern with population "rowth didn7t properly factor in the Industrial 5evolution

so his perception of the overpopulation problem was skewed. His conclusion that the best

way to control overpopulation was to basically let the poor fend for themselves, or die

tryin", was a bad idea, to say the least. Aet, his investi"ation opened up an area of in9uiry,

the study of the common man, which proved beneficial. ' fine example of the silver linin"

on a very dark cloud.

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Meanwhile, durin" the Industrial 5evolution which Malthus missed%, militant "roups of

workers evolved out of social unrest as they vowed to fi"ht for better wa"es and workin"

conditions. How could this be accomplished? Barl Marx studied the roots of social unrest

and thou"ht that he had an answer in his Communist Manifesto of $6-6. *his was not a

work of scholarship, but rather a call to arms. Marx believed that human history was the

history of class stru""le, which proved to be one of the most sweepin" statements ever

made in the history of History. Marx believed each epoch related to economic interests and

challen"ed people to think about the causes of social unrest.

(lowly at first, historians be"an to embrace his concepts, some more wholeheartedly than

others. *he Marxist school was dominant throu"h the )+th /entury, thou"h it took a serious

fall with that of the erlin all in $C6C. Historians didn7t necessarily embrace Marxism,

thou"h there were a 9uite a few who did, but used it as a new way of thou"ht and a new

focus for research. Marxism helped to reveal that the people could be studied and that

history was more than the study of leaders of nations. It was a :uxtaposition of old form

with new methods. *oday, many Marxists still clin" to the more utopian ideas of the theory

and continue to champion neo&Marxist philosophies. *ime will tell if Marxism will re"ain its

status as a ma:or school of historical thou"ht or if its valuable aspects have already been

accepted and its time for the rest of it to wither away.

Peo$le7s History

*he rapid transformations of the $6th /entury, alon" with the influences of Malthus and

Marx, also created a new movement towards what became known as 71eoples History.7 In

$6D-, 5everend Eohn 5ichard !reen wrote  A Short History of English Peoplein which he

passed over the traditional historical hi"hli"hts and the elite and instead focused on the

avera"e people. It was released at a time when populist and nationalist movements and

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tendency to "loss over the bad and hi"hli"ht the "ood of a particular overlooked "roup. 't

the same time, it does exactly the opposite with the perceived oppressors usually, rich,

elite, white men%.

Initially, particularly in minority history, the elite of these "roups, such as Malcolm

G or!eor"e . /arver, were hi"hli"hted. 's the "enre matured and developed, more studies

of avera"e people were done. *he methods used in 1eople7s history are often the same as

those used in sociolo"y and there are many instances of cross&fertiliation. *his points to a

dan"er of losin" the actual craft of history as a viable discipline within the "enre of 1eople7s

history, but most historians still do rely on a narrative form of exposition. hat is re9uired

for 1eople7s historians is to maintain or rediscover "ood methodolo"y, i"nore the temptation

to propo"andie and to properly tell history. 5e"ardless, their work con:ures up debate,

which is always beneficial.

"he Annales (chool and 3lio#etrics

In $C)C, a new kind of historical scholarship, called the 'nnales (chool, arose. Its

practitioners aimed to capture the totality of the human experience and relied heavily on

social sciences to achieve this "oal. *hey emphasied the endurin" patterns of culture that

chan"ed little over time. /entral to their approach was a re:ection of event oriented

history as such events were :ust ripples on a lake. ' concern with events was replaced

with a search for societal patterns. *he concept of mentalites was put forth, the idea that

a particular way of life and values persisted over time, despite upheavals. Marc

loch and Fernand raudel were the key founders of the 'nnales school and it was raudel

who coined the term longue duree, the vast sweep of time durin" which little real chan"e

occurred. He did this in his !he Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of

Philip "", written in $C-C, which emphasied the area around the Mediterranean basin

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rather than a particular nation. =o doubt, he was influenced by his times =ationalism,

/ommunism, orld ar II% in attemptin" to write history in this manner. 's a result, the

'nnales school, in its purest form, be"an to throw out any sense of history as story and

became a conceptual meltin" pot of disciplines, includin" sociolo"y, anthropolo"y and

"eolo"y.

'nother method, /liometrics, also came to the fore durin" this time. /liometricians

attempt to use 9uantification to reveal historical meanin" and rely on statistics, computers

and scientific models to achieve their "oal. *heir work was very valuable, especially in the

particular area of 3conomic history, but there is a tendency for cliometricians to re:ect

source material that can7t be 9uantified. *hey term such material as soft or

impressionistic and use them reluctantly or only to support their hard evidence. 's a

result, /liometrics is a self&limitin" field in that its practitioners can only study such topics

as have suitable amounts of statistical data. 5obert Fo"el and (tanley 3n"erman7s !ime on

the Cross provides an example of /liometrics bein" taken too far. *he authors set out to

disprove the accepted view of slavery and ended up seemin" to attempt to make the

institution of slavery look beneficial based on their statistical evidence. *heir study opened

the entire school of /liometrics to attack. Included amon" its attackers was Eac9ues

arun, whose now&classic Clio and the Doctors poked holes in the "rowin" scientification

of history and also was an elo9uent plea for keepin" history in the domain of narratives.

Psycholo!y and History

1sychohistory attempts to apply the Freudian or other psychoanalytic methods to historical

study. *he inherent problem within the field is that there are rou"htly $0 "enerally

reco"nied methodolo"ies of clinical analysis and the 9uestion of which&to&apply&when is a

"enuinely critical 9uestion. =onetheless, psychohistory is a "ood tool for dealin" with

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motive as it seeks to determine the real, often unstated, reason of the actions of historical

entities. 3rik 3rikson7s book #oung Man $uther  was probably the first example of this

approach. 4ewis =amier used a psychohistorical approach in his work on the ritish House

of /ommons and Fawn rodie7s psychobio"raphy of *homas Eefferson,!homas Jefferson% An

"ntimate History , also is a notable work in the field. rodie7s work showed that man7s inner

life affects all and that to illuminate it takes techni9ue as well as empathy and nuance.

1sychohisotry is a bold discipline that believes in the science of clinical evidence. It also

lends itself to narrative and has helped revive the historical bio"raphy. (ocial psycholo"y

inte"ration of the (outh in the $C0+7s% and abnormal psycholo"y Hitler% also add

dimensions to the field. *he primary problem of psychohistory is that its practitioners often

must resort to post& mortem psychoanalysis of their sub:ect, somethin" that neither Freud

nor those of other psycholo"ical schools had in mind when developin" and expandin" upon

their theories of psychoanalysis.

3han!in! Roads to the Past

's has been seen, history is an or"anic, dynamic, and not anachronistic, process. 2espite

fads and trends, it is still usually expressed in a narrative form, thou"h those approaches

are also evolvin". ' definitive history is non&existant and scholars refrain from usin" the

term anymore as it implies a static body of knowled"e and lends support to those who

criticie the validity of historical scholarship. 'dditionally, the teachin" of Historio"raphy,

the study of the practice of history influenced by ideas of continuity, must continue.

5elated to the maintenance of an awareness of historio"raphy is a mastery of sound

methodolo"y and a willin"ness to embrace new techni9ues with the ability to discriminate

between valid theories and fads while bein" critical of the latter. 's has been seen, many

of the new theories of historical research have been valid, if not overestimated, in their

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comprehensive ability to explain history. *here is no one ma"ic method that stands above

the others and the historians task is to consider these approaches, in addition to their own

preferred method, as they strive to create the historical record.

W 4 D N 4 ( D A , A G ( " * > , *

Introduction to Historical Method: "he History of Historical Method

[Nota Bene: What follows is Part 3 of a five-part series entitled Introduction to Historical Method . The Series Index is

located here.]

"he History of Historical Method

*he Ancient Grees made no distinction between the writin" of history and rhetoric. History found noplace in their concept of an or"anied system of science. For his part,'ristotle ranked poetry above

history as he believed poetry was closer to philosophy, which he held primary. He did believe that

source material was necessary for scholarly treatment of history and that it couldn7t :ust be made up.

(ome !reeks held history in hi"her re"ard. Herodotus is the acknowled"ed Father of History and was

the creator of the narrative recital in his tellin" of the wars between !reece and 1ersia. *hucydides is

considered by many to have been the first scientific historian and his Peloponnesian War is considered

the first work of 2idactic history as its aim was to instruct rather than entertain. Genophon is "enerally

classified as the lesser of the three "reat !reek historians. He was a "ood writer but weak in criticism.

He was more of a reporter than a historian, thou"h his Ana&asis is a rivetin" first person account. *he

last of the ancient !reeks to mention is 1olybius. He was a pra"matist and seeker of historical causes.

He had views as to the function of the historian and the scope of his art, which is the most noteworthyof the historians of the ancient world.

*he three "reat Ro#an historians were (allust, 4ivy and *acitus. (allust was a truth&seeker, but was

under the spell of party tradition, fails to mention sources and was careless with his chronolo"y.

However, he was skillful in depictin" character. 4ivy is noteworthy for his psycholo"ical delineation of

character and "ift of presentation, but he is deficient in documentary research, methodical testin",

critical selection and his main interests is rhetorical. *acitus has a lofty outlook and love of truth. He is

pra"matic and severely critical. He is adept in character sketchin" and psycholo"ical analysis, but he7s

also influenced by party spirit and is distortin"ly pessimistic and resorts to rhetorical finery. ' later

contemporary of the 5omans is the often overlooked Eewish historianEosephus, who "ives account of

events in which he personally participated. However, his statements often need verification and he

wrote accordin" to the historical canons of the day and on the side of the 5oman 3mperor. Most

importantly, he "ives one of the very few non&/hristian testimonies that refer to a historical Eesus.

*he Medieval period started with works in /hristian anti9uity. 3usebius was the author of

a Chronicle and a history of the /hurch. His history of the /hurch is a "ood source with important

ori"inal documents not extant elsewhere and its method of treatment, which was critical for its day.

(t. Eerome revised and supplemented 3usebius7 Chronicle, which furnished the conventional

chronolo"ical framework for historio"raphy all thru the Middle '"es. hen discussin" the medievalist,

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it is important to note, as was the case with the 'ncients for the most part, that none of their work

rises to modern standards of criticism and discrimination in the use of historical sources wasn7t typical.

History in the Middle '"es meant everythin" told and written in books, but many do show more than a

measure of caution in dealin" with sources.

!re"ory of *ours wrote the History of the Fran's, which is the most important work on the th /entury

Franks. *he @enerable ede wrote the Ecclesiastical History of the English ation and was modern in

method and included a biblio"raphy of his own writin"s in the aforementioned work. <tto of

Freisin" wrote the !(o Cities and he posited an ob:ective and impartial aim for historians.

Interestin"ly, he believed that history passed from east to west and as there was no more land left in

3urope, the end of the world was ni"h (alvian wrote De gu&ernation Dei in which he painted a picture

of moral and economic confusion that went with the barbarian invasions of the 0th /entury. He

believed that the disinte"ration of the 5oman 3mpire was a triumph of barbarian virtue over 5oman

vice. 3inhard7s $ife of Charlemagne was probably the first and best secular bio"raphy written in the

Middle '"es in contrast to 'sser7s $ife of )ing Alfred  which was poorly or"anied, but is remarkable

because it is the only existin" primary source of its sub:ect. Matthew 1aris wrote a Chronicle that he

also illustrated. He was a prolific chronicler and ha"io"rapher. Froissart, yet another writer of

a Chronicle, echoed the views of his contemporaries and really had no ori"inal thou"ht, but his work is

a mirror on his era. 1hilip de /ommines wrote Memoirs and was interested in what events reveal about

men more than the men themselves.

*he Italian Renaissance, or the a"e of  Humanism, saw both /hristian and (ecular or even 1a"an%

historians advance the field of history. *he latter "roup elevated the !raeco&5oman world as a model

for literature and art as well as standards of private and public conduct. oth "roups worked to restore

the $+th /entury copies of ancient texts and printed them with the advent of the printin" press. *he

5enaissance saw the be"innin"s of formal historical method, an example of which was the

Italian 4oreno @alla7s work of historical criticism attackin" ri"htly% the authenticity of the 2onation

of /onstantine.

*he (i.teenth thru 4arly 4i!hteenth 3enturies saw many "eneral developments in historical method.

*he critical attitude was "iven impetus by the 1rotestant 5eformation. *he Magde&urg Centuries was

an a""ressively pro&1rotestant work and was countered byaronius, a /atholic scholar, whose Annales

ecclesiastici was marked by vast research and sound criticism. *he period also saw the emer"ence of

the ollandists, a "roup of Eesuits who be"an editin" existin" lives of the (aints by applyin" textual

criticism and authentication. *heir ha"io"raphical series known as the Acta Sanctorum was a landmark

of historical techni9ue.

*he ollandists were also involved in the bella diplomatica, a series of academic controversies

between Eesuit and enedictine scholars that resulted in permanent "ains in critical history and paved

the way for source analysis. *he most important of these incidents involved the Eesuit ollandist1apebroch and the enedictine Mabillon. 1apebroch challen"ed the "enuinness of cetain charters of

the Merovin"ian period and Mabillon came to the defense. He drew up a series of tests to distin"uish

"enuine documents from false. *his resulted in his De re diplomatica, which laid the foundation for the

sciences of diplomatics the exact reproduction of ori"inal documents% andpaleo"raphy. 1apebroch was

the first to con"ratulate Mabillon on his success and the former7s letter to his collea"ue is an expression

of the correct attitude in an academic controversy.

History was becomin" more distinct from literature. Mabillon7s De re diplomatica is often called the

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first methodolo"y. !erhard Eohann @oss7  Ars historia was the first effective statement that history is an

independent sub:ect of study. Henri !riffit also wrote a work that has been characteried as the most

si"nificant book on method after Mabillon7s and the most clear&cut statement of fundamentals of

historical research. *he shapin" of methodolo"y also owed much to the atheistic and anti&/hristian

writin"s of /harles de Montes9uieu. His Considerations uncovered various factors that influenced 5oman

history and his Esprit des lois set forth "eo"raphical and social conditions which effected the various

forms in which the state had assumed in different lands. Finally, the philosopher 4eibni formulated his

law of historical continuity in which every historical phenomenon is the effect of antecedent

phenomena and the cause of phenomena that follow.

"he closin! decades of the 4i!hteenth and all of the Nineteenth 3entury saw methodolo"y make

notable strides due to various causes. Eohann Herder opened the way to a "enetic or evolutionary

concept of history and, alon" with arthold =iebuhr, was a ma:or influence at the >niversity at

erlin. arthold =iebuhr emphasied that historians had an obli"ation to appraise sources carefully and

from the viewpoint of evidential value. In essence, he codified a method of source criticism. *he rise

of =ationalism after the =apoleonic ars as nations became concsious of their own past. @oltaire had

anticipated this history of civiliation, or 'ulturgeschichte in his $e siecle de $ous *"+ .

*he 5omantic Movement, a reaction to the rationalism of the '"e of 5eason, drew attention to the

/hristian viewpoint in history and held up the Middle '"es as the flowerin" of /hristian spirit. <ne of

the 5omanticists, /hateaubriand is said to have unlocked the Middle '"es. *he cultivation of le"al

history also advanced methodolo"y as historians like (avi"ny% researched the history of !erman and

5oman law durin" the Middle '"es.

*he literary study of classical scholarship, philolo"y, also "ained new attention and elevated the study

of historical lin"uistics. Friedrich olf  infamously tackled the Homeric 9uestion to prove his theory

that the Homeric poems had multiple authors. He a""ressively used hi"her criticism to prove his point

and inspired rationalists who applied his method to the ible. olf7s theory is no lon"er favored, but his

method of procedure, especially his use of internal criticism, has become convention. Finally, Eohn4in"ard, in his History of England , strove to use only ori"inal sources in his research and is a landmark

in historio"raphy.

*he Modern 4ra was probably most affected by the Father of Modern History, 4eopold von 5anke. He

was the inventor of the historical seminar in which his students performed first hand investi"ation of

source material under the "uidance of a professional. His exhortation to "o to the sources insti"ated

the cult of the document in the modern historical profession. 5anke7s students disseminated

throu"hout 3urope, then 'merica, and brou"ht his teachin"s with them. 4ess celebrated is 4ord Eohn

'cton. He was a /atholic who was prohibited from attendin" /ambrid"e because of his faith and went

to learn in Munich instead. He became convinced of the importance of political liberty in the modern

state. He eventually returned to 3n"land and ascended to the /hair of History at /ambrid"e. Heplanned one of the first "reat corporate works, the Cam&ridge Modern History . He had a profound

influence on his contemporaries and the development of ritish historical studies.

*he modern era also saw the emer"ence of collections, which overcame a ma:or handicap of

inaccessability to necessary sources that were often buried in public or private archives.

*he Monumenta ,ermania Historia M!H% of !ermany, Documents "nedits of France and the Rolls

Series of !reat ritain are all examples of these. ut this was :ust the tip of the icebur". y the

*wentieth /entury, photo"raphic reproduction of source materials and microfilm of newspapers and

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other written works hastened the democratiation of historical research, as did the wide availability of

already translated texts. *echnolo"y has continued to improve the accessibility of source data with

computers and the internet. *hus, in this current atmosphere of massive data availability from multiple

sources, the need to promote sound method is important to maintain solid scholarship.

Introduction to Historical Method: Practicin! "he Historical Method

[Nota Bene: What follows is Part 4 of a five-part series entitled Introduction to Historical Method . The Series Index is

located here.]

Practicin! "he Historical Method

Introduction

's has been implied, history as a discipline often seems to be splinterin" and a knowled"e of sound

methodolo"y is needed now more than ever to keep the workin" historian centered. Initially, the

"reatest challen"es came from those who raised up thesocialsciences ie# sociolo"y, anthropolo"y, psycholo"y% as bein" the ultimate techni9ues for studyin" man

and his past, present and future. 1ost&modernism, with its re:ection of the ability of anyone to be

ob:ective, posed an even "reater challen"e. hat follows is an attempt to lay the "roundwork for usin"

a solid methodolo"y when researchin", analyin" and writin" history.

Meanin! of Historical Method

First, a definition of Historical Method should be "iven. It is a systematic body of principles and rules

desi"ned to aid effectively in "atherin" the source materials of history, appraisn" them critically, and

presentin" a synthesis "enerally in written form% of the results achieved. More simply put, it is a

system of ri"ht procedure for the attainment of historical truth. *here are three ma:or operations with

method#

$% Heuristic & *he search for material on which to work to ac9uire sources of information.

)% 3riticis# & *he appraisement of the material or sources from the viewpoint of evidential value. *his

step is so important to the process of historical method that it is sometimes called Historical

/riticism.

8% (ynthesis and 4.$osition & ' formal statement of the findin"s of heuristic and criticism. It includes

assemblin" a body of historical data and the presentation usually in writin"% in terms of ob:ective

truth and si"nificance.

ses of Historical Method

*he phrase tyranny of the printed pa"e is accurate. hatever has arrived at the di"nity of print has a

tendency to be believed. 's one historian put it, JaK person without proper criteria for evaluatin" the

information that reaches him from the outside risks a thousand deceptions and errors.

*he written word must not be believed without critical analysis or real facts and falsifications will have

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e9ual wei"ht in the eyes of the researcher. 1roper trainin" of a historian "ives him a skill in assemblin"

material, critically assessin" it and settin" out the results with effect. *he self&tau"ht historian is

sometimes dispara"ed within the ranks of academia despite the inumerable valuable contributions

made by these amateurs.

hether classically trained or self&tau"ht, a practitioner of history must "uard a"ainst fallin" into

mistakes. 3ven the simplest document can offer many content and interpretation problems that those

unaware or untrained may not reco"nie. In this, there is a dan"er that such problems, if left

unreco"nied, will remain unsolved or i"nored alto"ether. It is easy to exa""erate the necessity of

technical trainin", after all, critical method in history is often really :ust sound :ud"ement and

common sense. Aet, by themselves, sound :ud"ement and common sense do have limitations even

thou"h they are the historian7s most indispensible aid. In practical research they can take one a lon"

way&& but not the whole way.

Eud"ement alone doesn7t 9ualify a historian to decipher, to date, to localie, or to interpret simple

ancient, medieval, or even modern documents. *echnolo"y has eased the burden of such concerns for

the layperson somewhat, but it cannot yet be totally relied upon for accuracy and translation. It must

be remembered that all science can be approached from a historical point of view.

History as (cience

Is history a science? *he disciplines concerned with man in his social relations are known as social

sciences and History is very clearly considered to be part of the social sciences. *he difference of

opinion is probably more apparent than real. *he discussion practically revolves around the meanin"

one chooses to attach to the term science. In practically all instances where the claim of history to be

a science is denied, the denial is based on the assumption that the term science means an exact

science. *he crux of this discussion be"ins with a definition of science.

Most would a"ree that science is a systematied body of "eneral truths concernin" a definite sub:ectmatter and established by an efficient, effective method. *his definition is sufficient, thou"ht there

really is no hard and fast, universally accepted definition of the term. Followin" is a breakdown of the

four elements essential to the concept of science as has been defined#

• A body of syste#atied no&led!e & 2ata or information that is ordered, or"anied and

classified. =ot :ust a heap of isolated facts or truths, but a complex of them knit to"ether

accordin" to some principle of rational, lo"ical order, such as time, space, topic or causation.

• An effective #ethod & (cience relies upon sound method more than anythin" so that

conclusions derived from its practice can be deemed le"itimate. *he method must be correct

and effective. History as record employs a reco"nied correct and effective techni9ue, or

method, from which the writer of history, at least scholarly history, cannot afford to depart.

*he use of a reco"nied method is a prime factor 9ualifyin" history to rank as a science.

• A definite subject #atter & Material can7t be va"ue or limitless. ' science must work within

some sharply defined field of human knowled"e.

• 0or#ulation of !eneral truths & History deals primarily with particular happenin"s, with the

uni9ue, but a broader conception makes it pass at will beyond the uni9ue to "eneral and

universal. *here are two kinds of "eneral truths# those restricted to time and place and those

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not. It is from broad, comprehensive truths that history derives its practical utility. History as

record of human past has been understood to include the reportin" of particular facts and

interpretation and "eneraliation based upon the facts.

It can be concluded that History is a science, though not an exact science, because History includes

the above four elements. *hus, we can desi"nate it as science, but only in a broad, qualified sense,as has been described.

What are the differences bet&een history and the 2e.act2 sciences?

$% *he central truths of History are only morally uniform, not ri"idly uniform as they are considered to

be in the exact sciences.

)% *he field of History has no universally accepted technical terminolo"y, except for a few terms used

in methodolo"y. It has stock words, but none are ri"idly fixed in meanin" by usa"e or convention.

'bsence of technical terms is a weakness of history as science and results in va"ueness and ambi"uity

in historical writin". *he overuse of :ar"on only complicates matters.

8% History is not a science of direct observation except perhaps oral history%, which sets it apart from

the exact sciences and their endless possibilities of immediate test and verification. *he method of

indirect observation, throu"h the use of sources, is the only avenue open to the historian except in the

few cases where he can draw on personal knowled"e of facts.

-% History is a human story and has to deal with man, the ultimate self&determinin" a"ent. Free will,

the incalcuble element, is a factor of which a historian must be constantly mindful. 'dditionally, and

very basic to the problem, is the fact that there is no sin"le definition to describe human *he exact

sciences have no such incalcuble element.

0% 1rediction in History is less reliable than in the exact sciences. From intimate understandin" of anindividual or "roup, one may forecast with "reat probability, and sometimes with moral certainty. Aet,

it is impossible to predict with the same certainty what man, with free will, will do in the future as in

the exact sciences and their sub:ects.

History enables man to predict events, thou"h in a limited manner, and it is a science, thou"h not an

exact one. <ne thin" that is for certain, History is not literature. If history is science, it cannot

primarily be literature and, as such, fine art. 4iterary satisfaction is a nice byproduct of historical

record makin", but it is not a re9uirement despite the wishes of some of us% nor is it essential to the

craft. 4iterary 9uality, however desirable in itself, belon"s to the accidentals, not to the essentials of

history.

2espite the precedin" ar"uments, the 9uestion as to whether History is a science is academic. *he

resolution of the ar"ument won7t help the historian do his :ob more effectively. (uch traits as honesty,

impartiality, thorou"hness, accuracy and documentation make a work scholarly, which is more

conse9uential than it bein" characteried as scientific or otherwise.

3haracteristics of a Historian

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' competent historian should strive to have the followin" characteristics#

• A eal for truth, which postulates sincerity and frankness in statin" the facts, however much

feelin"s may be hurt. /icero said, It is the first law of history that it dare say nothin" that is

false nor fear to utter anythin" that is true, in order that there may be no suspicion either of

partiality or hostility in the writer. 'dditionally, ritish historian 4ord 'cton said, Impartial

history can have no friends.

• Honesty re9uires that important facts and circumstances, "ood or bad, be recorded. *o omit

can create the wron" impression and is virtually the same as falsification. *he suppression of

the truth is the su""estion of a falsehood. 'dditionally, be aware that sources often passively or

actively did not hold themselves to this standard. hen studyin" a source, remember that the

failure to mention facts does not imply their non&existence. =ever for"et that the normal is

taken for "ranted, both now and in the past. *he ar"ument from silence is invalid as a linchpin

of historical proof.

• Industry is also important as research takes a lot of time. ' historian must learn to be

economical in his work and must be prepared to research to near exhaustion. =o research iswasted; a ne"ative result is often as valuable, if less satisfyin", as a positive. It must also be

remembered that it is the substance of the fact that matters, not the accidentals. 'll

circumstances attendin" an event in history do not have to be known before the record can be

made as it happened. It is helpful to think of law and the concept of reasonable doubt as a

"uide. If historians attempted to ac9uire all of the facts they would find themselves in

indefinite or even infinite study and the field would not advance.

• 3oncentration is closely tied to industry. It is the mental alertness that makes a historian ready

to reco"nie and account for every piece of causal information that can help master a sub:ect.

'spects important to particular research automatically reveal themselves as such, at least if

one is wide awake to the task. ' finely honed ability to simply concentrate helps the researcher

separate the wheat from the chaff.

• A critical sense and sound jud!e#ent are a historian7s primary assets. /andor is always

desirable, but it must not be restrained. If research reveals somethin" about a sub:ect that is

ne"ative and non&essential, omit it. 2on7t en"a"e in superfluous, tell&all practices for their own

sake. However, also beware of a lac of criticis#, which is an in:udicious attitude of mind.

• oth the mania for the extraordinary or narrow and exa""erated conservatism that looks upon

criticism as the natural enemy of cherished traditions are both pitfalls. Hy$ercriticis# is the

abuse of a "ood thin". <verratin" internal evidence, absorption with trifles, and an itch for

novelties and an ur"e to upset established beliefs and traditions on no "rounds of ade9uate

evidence renders any valid criticism suspect. *hey are the historical version of cryin" wolf. In

the end, the nature and true spirit of critical research is a benefit to the field. For example,

the impression may be that modern critical investi"ation has cast doubt on many ancient and

medieval sources of history and that they should be re"arded skeptically. *he fact is that a

considerable proportion of the old historians have stood successfully a"ainst ri"id scrutiny. *his

shows that criticism at its best is constructive and is a preservative of traditional viewpoints.

• 9bjectivity is really :ust the other side of the coin from a eal for truth. It is a detached and

neutral attitude in the historian that enables him to deal with material in li"ht of the evidence

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alone. @on 5anke7s exhortation to record a thin" as it really happened is especially "ermane.

However, there are some misconceptions about ob:ectivity. It doesn7t re9uire the historian to

be free from pre:udice or to approach the task free of principles, theories or philosophies of

life. It doesn7t mean a historian must divorce himself from sympathy for his sub:ect or refrain

from formin" :ud"ements or drawin" conclusions. Instead, the historian simply needs to be

aware of his own biases and predispostions. Impartiality, ri"htly understood, on the part of the

historian is a practical ideal. 3vents can be recorded as they happened as far as the evidence

permits and historical truth can be achieved&& even thou"h numberless details remain unkown.

*he 9uestion of whether history can be ob:ective is kept alive by loose and unwarranted use of

the term. *he debate is speculative and has little practical bearin" on the historian7s actual

task. *he temptation to succumb to the ideal of ob:ectivity must be fou"ht with a pra"matic

understandin" of the term.

Hall#ars of 3ritical History

/ritical history is also referred to scholarly or scientific history. 'ny of the three terms is acceptable.

*here are five aspects that establish a historical piece as meetin" the standard of a scholarly work.

$% Method & *he application of a correct techni9ue to find and criticie data and the arran"ement and

presentation of the data accordin" to an effective plan. 's 4ord 'cton said, Method makes the

historian.

)% 3andor& /ritical history makes no attempt to pass for more than it is. It acknowled"es all

appropriations made by the author and doesn7t conceal or "loss over matters which can7t be so treated

without a sacrifice of the truth. 2ishonesty or failure to "ive due credit is pla"iarism, which is the act

by which one appropriates anothers work and passes it off as one7s own.

8% Accuracy or "ruth& =othin" diminishes interest in history more than the suspicion that facts are

missin". ' meticulous correctness of statement in all matters of fact is the ideal. efore "oin" to press,a manuscript should be scrupulously checked for errors. History is innacurate when too many mistakes

su""est the author is careless, earnin" him the ultimate ne"ative ta" in the field. (lo$$y. However, a

historian can7t try to be perfect or he would never publish a thin"

-% "horou!hness & >se of all important sources bearin" on a sub:ect and treatment of all si"nificant

phases of the sub:ect. *here are always workin" standards at hand that enable one to :ud"e whether a

work reaches or falls below the demand of thorou"hness.

0% 8erifiability & ' work of history must be fortified with indications of sources, which will enable the

reader to check for accuracy and reliability.

's historians, we sometimes become enamored with pet pro:ects or theories and for"et those tools

that have "rounded historical scholarship in our modern era. ' little reminder every now then&&

rememberin" the basics&& will help us refocus historical scholarship.

3ertainty in History

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*he field of history seems to be under"oin" a serious challen"e to its validity, primarily from those who

wonder whether knowled"e is real or relative, ob:ective or sub:ective. In"n Pursuit of History , Eohn

*osh frames the 9uestions well. How secure is our knowled"e of the past? hat authority should be

attached to attempts of historical explanation? /an historians be ob:ective? In his attempt to

elaborate, *osh puts forth !eoffrey 5udolph 3lton author of his own book on Historical Method, !he

Practice of History % and*heodore Leldin as representatives of two positions on the matter.

'ccordin" to *osh, 3lton believed that humility in the face of evidence and trainin" in technical

research have enlar"ed the stock of historical knowled"e. History is a cumulative, if sometimes

contentious, discipline. /onversely, *osh writes that Leldin believes that all a historian can offer is a

personal vision of the past and that everyone has a ri"ht to their own perspective. *osh then explains

that most academic historians a"ree with 3lton, but every viewpoint between the two extremes has

adherents. Finally, says *osh, despite their seemin"ly confident bluster, many historians are confused

about what they7re doin". Maybe what follows will help.

What is the nature of historical belief?

*here are a few characteristics that contribute to a theory of true historical belief.

no&led!e & *here are many types of knowled"e. First, there is "eneral human knowled"e, which is a

combination of sense perception and mental processes, such as thou"ht and analysis.

$% no&led!e Restricted & In its restricted sense, knowled"e is only what one experiences directly or

what one reasons, this does not include what one believes and belief is not to be confused with

reli"ious Faith%.

)% no&led!e 3o#$rehensive & In this sense, knowled"e includes all facts and truths apprehended by

the human mind from experience, reasonin" or belief as previously defined%. For an example of this

last, we know that !eor"e ashin"ton existed because we read it or were told so by many people whowe trust. e didn7t see him ourselves, but we know he existed because those who we deem

believable told us he did.

8% Historical no&led!e based on 1elief  & 's exhibited in the example of !eor"e ashin"ton, this is a

mental assent to a truth or fact on the word or authority of another. *here are some very important

factors to this. First, there must be two parties to process the information# the witness to the event

and the believer one communicates to the other%. (econd, the actual communication of knowled"e&&

the testimony&&must occur. *hird, the testifier to the event must have authority. 'uthority in this sense

means a complex of reasons or motives that makes the witness worthy of belief and induces others to

accept his testimony as true. *his all assumes that the witness is credible and that the fact that a

testimony is bein" rendered has been established. (o how can we be sure we can believe?• 3redibility of the Witnessis "uaranteed by three elements. First, the actual possession by the

witness of the knowled"e to be communicated Bnowled"e%. (econd, the intention and desire

of the witness to communicate the knowled"e as he possesses it @eracity%. *hird, the

witnesses7 accuracy in communicatin" the knowled"e 'ccuracy%.

• "he 0act of "esti#ony means the determination whether a witness testified to a specific fact

based on specific knowled"e or interpolation. ' couple examples# /aesar knew about the

warriors of !aul as he had first hand knowled"e, but does this mean he knew the various

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aspects of the whole tribe? 'nother would be# Eoe believes !od spoke to him. 2id !od speak to

him? (ee the difference?

• 1elief is a necessity of life. 'n enormous proportion of knowled"e is "ained from belief, not

first hand experience or reasonin". 3ven the most educated person must take thousands of

thin"s on the authority of others. (cience is the servant of authority and the belief in that

authority. (cientists re"ularly accept the findin"s of collea"ues. *hey don7t attempt to reinvent

the wheel on their way to desi"nin" a new car. Mankind cannot constantlyre&prove thin"s or

nothin" would "et done 's(t. 'u"ustine said, It can be shown that human society would fall

apart if they took nothin" for "ranted except what they experienced first hand.

Ho& do &e 1elieve?*here is belief on the word of another, thou"h this has become increasin"ly

difficult in the current a"e of irony and cynicism. *here is belief based on evidence produced, such as

in a le"al case or in footnotes. elief occurs if trustworthiness is established. ' critical attitude can

establish trust and can acknowled"e a hisortian as a worthy "uide while at the same time reservin" the

ri"ht to 9uestion facts or assertions. Here, credentials are important in establishin" trustworthiness,

thou"h some would ar"ue :ust the opposite elief is doctrinal when assent is "iven to a truth or

doctrine, such as in reli"ion or even "overnment or politics. elief is historical when assent is "iven to afact. *he difference can be confusin" to some. elief can be human or divine whether the witness is

human or !od.

>ntil the =ineteenth /entury, belief based on a divine witness, or 5evelation, was paramount. *he two

are psycholo"ically alike, but (u$ernatural belief -0aith/ and Hu#an 0aith are different. Faith is

supernatural, often called divine !race. Human faith is a different sort. Martin 27'rcy, in his !he

ature of -elief  said we start life on the shoulders of the past. illiam Monta"ue !he Ways of

)no(ing. or the Methods of Philosophy % believed that one had to trust others in matters that one was

unable to investi"ate and assume that the testimony of others was the same as one7s own if there is no

suspicion. Franklin !iddin"s !he Scientific Study of Human Society % stated that even if somethin" was

scientific, it still must be proved true. Hereford . !eor"eHistorical E/idence% said there is no such

thin" as historical knowled"e in the strictist definition because it is based on the word of others.

Finally, the words of  (t. 'nselm may help to resolve the problem. I believe in order that I may

understand. In essence, in the study and practice of history, 3vidence and 'uthority are identical.

What is the nature of historical certainty?

*he purpose of methodolo"y is to arrive at a way to determine or establish historical certainty, which is

the firm assent of the mind to a historical datum without reasonable fear of it bein" false. *here are

three types of historical certainty.

$% Moral & Moral certainty is made up of the known uniformity or re"ularity of some moral law alon"

with a conver"in" series of probabilities and a certainty excludin" all reasonable doubt. 3xampleswould be# $% the unconditional love a parent has for his child, )% people are ea"er to know the truth, 8%

people usually don7t lie when no advanta"e is to be "ained.

)% Physical & 1hysical certainty includes the known uniform operation of a physical law and that law7s

role in critical assessment of evidence. 'n example would be the time consumed on a :ourney.

8% Meta$hysical & *his means absolute principles with no exceptions. *he principle of contradiction

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states that a thin" can7t exist and not exist at the same time. *he principle of sufficient reason states

that nothin" exists without sufficient reason. *hen there is causation where it is stated that somethin"

causes somethin" else to "uess. 's can be seen, Metaphysical /ertainty lays solididly in the domain of

1hilosophy.

For the purpose of History, Moral /ertainty is enou"h&&eyond all reasonable doubt. It probably

happened and it probably happened this way. Aet, what about the role of scientific 1robability in

History? /an a historical entity be mathematically established? *ake a theoritical historical fact. /ould

its truth be established by some sort of mathematical function, such as dividin" all of those who

support a "iven fact by all those who don7t by the total number of opinions to "ive a percenta"e of

certainty? <bviously, this is rife with problems. *here are de!rees of moral certainty and of the

veracity of witnesses. *he flaw in such a mathematical construct is that all opinions or testimonies are

"iven e9ual wei"ht. Factors of probability have to be wei"hed, not counted. <utwei"h does not mean

the same thin" as outnumber. In History, it is truly Quality that trumps Quantity thou"h they aren7t

mutually exclusive%.

What is the $ossibility of historical certainty

*his is a ma:or 9uestion for historians. /an we really be morally certain about any of the supposed

facts of history? *his 9uestion is too simple. *here are really three 9uestions that need to be asked,

and all must be answered affirmatively to answer the first. First, is the human mind capable of

knowin" historical truth? Is such truth even knowable? Is such truth ever presented on "rounds

ade9uate to "uarantee it7s certainty?

"he Mind7s ca$acity for truth is a !iven% It is proven in any sound philosophical epistimolo"y. *o deny

that the mind knows truth is to commit intellectual suicide. 'll attempts to erect some form of

skepticism as a system of knowled"e have failed. *he mind is able to know scientific truth and it

follows that it must be capable of knowin" historical truth.

Idealists and (e$tics are the bi""est critics of history as an ob:ective entity. *he Idealists, such

as Immanuel Bant, !eor" He"el and ennedetto /roce, undermine the foundations of extra&mental

reality and limit the human bein". 'llen Eohnson, in his !he Historian and Historical E/idence, said the

9uest for truth is hopeless. It7s limited by human intelli"ence. *his is a Bantian view which takes the

outside world to be a hypothetical structure.

!ilbert !arra"han, in his /rocean @iew of History from !he Modern Schoolman, attacked /roce for

applyin" philosophical idealism to history. History as record is relative because it comes from human

bein"s. Eust because we don7t know all of the facts absolutely doesn7t mean we don7t know anythin".

History as record is actually part relative and part absolute. It is fixed in time and space absolute% and

relative. (keptics too often exa""erate the difficulty of reachin" truth. Modern critical investi"ation

has actually caused many to 9uestion the validity of history as a whole, as seen by Henry Ford7s famous History is bunk statement. *he French methodolo"ists 4an"lois and (ei"nobosstated that "eneral

facts can be established and proved easier; contemporary history has more particular facts. *his is

true, but can be taken farther.

4.$erience and "esti#onyare the "rounds for historical certainty. *o deny one7s own experience would

be to deny one7s own senses, but it can be 9ualified# sometimes perception isn7t reality, after all.

*estimony must meet many re9uirements, such as consistency, corroboration, freedom from bias and

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veracity. Human testimony&&oral or written, direct or indirect&&under "iven conditions is a dependable

source of certain knowled"e. *his is common sense 3dward '. Freeman, in his !he Methods of History ,

said that historians can never attain certainty e9ual to science, but evidence we "et every day in our

lives is the same or similar to that which we use to write history.

In conclusion, there is such a thin" as historical certainty. *o 9uote Eohn /. 'lmack, *he historian who

selects all the sources, who sub:ects them to criticism after the approved tenets, who checks the

testimony of one witness a"ainst the testimony of others, who records all the facts of his sub:ect

faithfully, who reports his facts accurately, and who makes reasonable "eneraliation on the basis of his

facts... achieves historical certainty. Finally, as 5ichard E. 3vans said in his "n Defense of History ,

History is neither an exemplar of realism, nor a victim to relativism. It occupies a middle "round in

which scholarly procedures are upheld in order to keep the avenues of en9uiry as close to the 7real7 and

as far removed from the 7relative7 as possible.

The German Historical School

The German Historical School may not have known it was a "school" before it

 became involved in the long Methodenstreit  with Carl Menger  and the AustrianSchoolat the end of the 1th Century! However it always knew its economics was distinctly

different from that #ractised in the Classical Anglo$Sa%on world of &icardo and Mill!

'ts flavor as its name indicates was "historical" and thus relied much on em#irical

and inductive reasoning! 'ts roots were in Hegelian #hiloso#hy and the

romantic(nationalist criti)ues of abstract theory by *ist and M+ller ! 'ts kinshi# across

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the ,nglish Channel lay not with the Classical but rather with the ,nglish

Historical School!

The early methodological #rinci#les of the Historical school were laid down by

-ilhelm &oscher ! .ollowing Hegel &oscher dis#araged the idea of universal

theoretical systems $ arguing that economic behavior and thus economic "laws" werecontingent u#on their historical social and institutional conte%t! To derive any

economic "laws" the he argued the method is thus inevitably cross$disci#linary/ one

must look at economic life with the eye of a historian and sociologist as well as an

economist! Hence the first task would be essentially that of combing through history

for economic details in order to arrive at some idea of what this relationshi# between

the social and economic organi0ation of society might be! As a result much of the

work of the early Historical school $ notably in the work of &oschers early followers

2runo Hildebrand and 3arl 3nies is couched in terms of "stages" of economic

organi0ation through history!

-hen the 4ounger  Historical School under Gustav Schmoller  emerged this modesty

was gradually relin)uished! ,conomics they claimed was inherently a normative

disci#line and thus should be engaged in forging tools for use by #olicymakers and

 businessmen! 'n their view history e%ists only to #rovide illustrations for the

 #articular #roblem at hand! The Historicists #ut their words into #ractice and formed

the Verein für Sozialpolitik  in 1567 as a vehicle for economic #olicy activism!

However the Verein was )uickly seen as an instrument of the conservative 8russian

government and it earned Schmoller and his colleagues the label of "socialists of the

chair" 9 Katheder Sozialisten:!

-hen Carl Menger  turned his methological guns on the the Historicists in 155; who

then had a virtual mono#oly over German academia to the e%clusion of both Classical

and <eoclassical theory the Historicists retreated from their normative #osition back

into the old arguments of &oscher $ claiming that their method merely sought to find

historical laws first a #ositive effort before theory could be a##lied! -hile

the Methodenstreit  was highly acrimonious and resolved nothing in terms of im#act

on later economics Menger and the Austrians emerged victorious! 2ut in the short

term it was an em#ty victory/ the Historicists retained control of German economic

chairs and went on to e%tend their influence into America $ through &ichard ,ly

,dwin Seligman and the early American 'nstitutionalists!

The members of the "4oungest" Historical School were of a very different flavor $

initially they were much less conservative than the Schmoller generation and sought

to return to the early #ositivism of &oscher! 'ndeed -erner Sombart

Arthur S#iethoff  and Ma% -eber  had closer ties to Mar%ian economics than they did

to the Schmoller grou# $ although Sombart would later im#licate himself with his

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connections to German nationalism! To this "4oungest" school one can also include

the 3iel School led by Adol#h *owe in the 17=s which was an im#ortant center for

 both inde#endent business cycle research as well as cross$disci#linary social science!

'n that sense it ado#ted the #ositivist #osition of &oscher and >lder Historical school!

However its es#ousal of normative "instrumentalism" made it also a #olicy$oriented

grou# $ thus may almost be regarded as a socialist version of Schmollers Verein!The 3iel School was heavily involved in Social ?emocratic #olitics and social and

economic #olicy under the -eimar &e#ublic! 't was dismantled after Hitlers rise to

 #ower and most of its members were e%iled $ finding a home at the <ew School for

Social &esearch in <ew 4ork!

Although the im#act of the German Historical School on social science in general has

 been wides#read in economics it is virtually absent $ although there may seem to be

some trace of their ideas scattered in various )uarters $ such as in the "goldsmith" and

Chartalist theories of money "stages" of economic develo#ment and economic

location theory! .urthermore there has always remained elements of the German

Historical School in ,uro#ean and American heterodo% economics!

Leopold von Ranke

historicism

  "You have reckoned that history ought to judge the past and to instruct thecontemporary world as to the future. The present attempt does not yield to that

high office. It will merely tell how it really was." 

  Leopold von Ranke

  The son of an attorney, and a scion of an old Luther theological family, Leopold vonRanke was born in Wiehe, Thuringia, in December 17! and later became a famous

"erman historian and educator# Thuringia was then part of the $ingdom of %a&ony

but was awarded to 'russia by the peace terms of 1(1! at the close of the)apoleonic wars#

  Ranke attended the famous 'forta private school and, after further study at the

*niversities of Leip+ig and alle, he worked as a schoolmaster teaching "reek andRoman classics at the "ymnasium in -rankfort.on.the.oder/ this post being one held

within the 'russian system# 0t was only whilst employed as a schoolmaster at

-rankfurt that he began to consider attempting to become seriously involved in

historical studies initially with the view to improving his knowledge of the classicalages in order to be a better teacher#

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  is first book, istory of the Latin and Teutonic )ations, 1.1!1 21(34 written

at -rankfort, included an appended section entitled Zur Kritik neuerer

Geschictschreier  2criti5ue of modern historical writing4 that presented a convincingcriticism of contemporary historiography condemning its reliance on tradition andproposed, instead, Ranke6s own more obective method# Ranke6s aim was to

reconstruct the uni5ue periods of the past as they actually were and to avoid

inecting the history of former times with the spirit of the present/ this approach to

historiography is known as historicism#  Ranke intended that his method would be applicable to modern history . 8arthold

)iebuhr had already pioneered a scientific method of historical investigation to be

applied to ancient history# 9s a student Ranke had studied, and been greatly

impressed by )iebuhr6s !oman istory  . he acknowledged a debt to )iebuhr whoseapproach had been a source of backround inspiration#

  Ranke distrusted historical te&tbooks and turned, at every convenient opportunity,to the study of more original sources# This method Ranke later developed to featurea primarily reliance on the :narratives of eye.witnesses and the most genuine

immediate documents#: e considered that :the strict presentation of the facts,

contingent and unattractive though they may be, is undoubtedly the supreme law#:

  Ranke6s Zur Kritik neuerer Geschictschreier  was favourably noticed by the

'russian minister of education and, in 1(3!, he was rewarded with a supernumerary

professorship at the *niversity of 8erlin that initiated what were to become more

than fifty years of association between Ranke and that *niversity#  This appointment brought with it opportunities of access to the 'russian royal

library#

  -urther studies resulted in Ranke6s second book on the ;ttomans and the %panishmonarchy and the 5uality of this work invited the continued favour of the 'russian

authority which agreed to facilitate Ranke6s studies being further undertaken in

archives in <ienna# -rom these times 21(374 Ranke was enabled, by the support of

"ent+, to gain the protection of the powerful 9ustrian minister =etternich and thiswas to allow him very wide access to archived materials and thereby to gain very

valuable information from <enetian and other sources located in <ienna#

  8etween 1(3(.>1 Ranke pursued his lonely, sincere, and path.breaking studies, in

the 0talian peninsula where =etternich6s influence had the power to open every doore&cept those in the <atican#

  =ost of these archived sources had not been seriously accessed by any historical

scholar in the past and Ranke6s researches in <ienna and the 0talian peninsula

provided the material for some of the most respected historical writing of the age#

  The 'russian authority sought to employ Ranke6s talents, for a time, in the

editorship of the istorische#$olitische#Zeitschrift% a periodical that was intended to

help to defend the 'russian "overnment against the rising tide of liberal and

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democratic opinion# 0n this role, which lasted some four years, Ranke producedsome of the best political thought that had appeared in the "ermanies for a long

time# Two famous essaysThe Great $owers, which surveys great power rivalry,

and & $olitical 'onversation, which treats with the nature of the state and itsrelationship with the citi+en, date from this period#  9 talent for historical and political scholarship proved, however, to be somewhat ill

matched to the intended task of impairing the effectiveness of the e&pression of

democratic aspirations#

  Ranke was thus able to return to historical study and authorship#

  is subse5uent works cover the histories of the maor ?uropean countries and

include the istory of the 'opes During the 1@th and 17th Aenturies 21(>.>@4,

istory of the Reformation in "ermany 21(>.74, Aivil Wars and =onarchy in-rance in the 1@th and 17th Aenturies 21(!34#

  e was awarded the security, and much enhanced salary, of a full professorship in8erlin in 1(>7 and was appointed as 'russian historiographer by $ing -rederickWilliam 0< in 1(1#

  e died in =ay, 1((@ at the age of 1/ the last ten years of his life having been

given over to a(eltgeschichte 2universal history4 that Ranke had been able to bring,over nine volumes, to the end of the 1!th century at the time of his death#

  9s a historian, Ranke attempted to put aside prevailing theories and preudices and

by the scrupulous use of primary sources to present an unvarnished picture of thefacts# )evertheless, because he viewed political power as the principal agent in

history he tended to emphasi+e political history, dwelling upon the deeds of kingsand leaders and ignoring economic and social forces#

  9 famous educator, he introduced the seminar as a method of teaching history andtrained a generation of influential scholars# %ince Ranke6s time the seminar method

of teaching history has become very widely adopted#

  9t the time of his death Ranke was regarded as the foremost historian in the

world# Ranke6s method of historicism has largely pioneered the modern insistenceon rigorously analy+ing firsthand documentation# e has variously been described as

:The greatest "erman historian:, :The father of the obective writing of history:, and

:The founder of the science of history#:

  Ranke does occasionally adopt a literary approach in his writing of history that

tends to build up to a presentation of historical clima&es and also to build up certain

historical figures whose contributions are deemed to be particularly significant# This

adds to the readability and the drama of Ranke6s works but it may not be strictlytrue that such literary effectiveness is fully in line with history :as it had really

been#:

  Ranke aimed at an universal or world view of history, but his basic mood was

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nationalistic and conservative, accepting of monarchy and sincerely religious, themassive changes after the -rench Revolution are hardly discussed# Ranke seems to

have seen the role of liberalism as being perhaps confined to the calling of the

attention of statesmen to wrongs that needed correction#

  is books on 'russian history contained, with no intention for it to be used for

propaganda purposes, the seeds for a 'russian national "erman picture of history#

This legacy compels one to critical reflection, but at the same time it points to a

flourishing time in historical research at the 8erlin *niversity, started by Ranke,which above all =a& Len+ and -riedrich =einecke were able to continue#

  ")rom the particular% one can carefully and oldly move up to the general* from

general theories% there is no way of looking at the particular." 

  Leopold von Ranke