I'sycholoxicalMedicine,1971,I,207285Historyinthe studyof suicide*GEORGEROSENi'romtheDepartmentoftheHistoryofScienceandMedicineandDepartmentofEpidemiologyandPublicHealth,YaleUniversitySchoolofMedicine,U.S.A.SYNOPSISHistoricalanalysis can contributeto the studyof suicide as a formof human behaviourbyprovidingperspective.Examiningsuicideinrelationtochangingsocialconditions,valuesystems,institutionsandideologiesatdifferentperiodsandinvarioussocietiesmaysuggestways oflookingatsuicide in oursociety.Materialspresentedhere alsoindicatepossibilities forfurtherinvestigation.Asaformofhumanbehaviour,suicideisprobablyasancientasmanhimself.Suicidehasbeen practisedfor thousands of years in primitiveandhistoricsocieties,buttheubiquityofthephenomenonhasbeenassociatedwithawidediversityofattitudeandfeelinginthejudgmentofsuicidalbehaviour.Societalresponsestotheactofself-destructioncanbeviewedasaspec-trumranging fromoutright condemnation on theonehand,throughmilddisapprovaltoaccept-anceandincorporationintothesocio-culturalsystemontheother.Butjustassocietiesvaryin theirreactions tosuicide, so attitudeswithin asocietyhavechangedinthecourseoftime.Inview of this diversityof socialinterpretationandevaluation,itmaybeusefultoexaminethehistoryofsocialattitudestowardsuicideinordertoseepresentviewsofsuicideinperspec-tive,andpossiblytoestablishthecircumstancesinwhichsocialgroupsacceptorrejecthumanself-destruction.Sinceitismanifestlyimpossibletoofferanexhaustivestudyalongthoselineswithinthelimitsofthispresentation,1 have chosentodealmore or less chronologically with selected societiesandperiods.Onthisbasis,itwillbepossibletodelineatevariousviewsofsuicideandtoshowinwhatcircumstancesmentaldisorderandsuicidalbehaviourhavebeenlinked.Thispaperwillbeachapterintheforthcomingvolume,AHandbook forthe Study of Suicide, editedby Dr. S. Perlinandtobe publishedby OxfordUniversityPress,Inc., NewYork,in1972. Copyright1971, byOxfordUniversityPress,Inc.,,*,Thenumberednotesandreferencesareprintedinacombinedlistattheendofthepaper.SUICIDEAMONGTHEJEWSOFANTIQUITYBiblicalsuicidesarerare.ThereareonlyfiveinstancesreportedintheHebrewBibleandoneintheNewTestament.ThesuicideofSaul, firstkingofIsrael,occurredinbattle.WhenthePhilistinesandtheIsraelitesclashedonMountGilboa,Saulfoughtbravelyaslong as hecould,andkilledhimselfbyfallingonhisswordonlyafterthreeofhissonshadbeenkilled,andhehadbeenseverelywounded.WhenSaul'sarmour-bearersaw thatthe king was deadhe toofell upon his sword and died with him.1 Saul tookhislifesoasnottofallintothehandsofhisfoeswhowouldmockandtorturehim.Hisarmour-bearer died out of loyalty to his sovereignandleader.Self-destructionto escapethe consequencesofpoliticalor military defeat is likewiseexemplifiedbyAhithophel,whosupportedAbsalominhisrevoltagainstDavid, andby Zimri, whousurpedthe throne of Israel in 876 BC.2 WhenAhithophelrealizedthatAbsalomwouldbedefeated,'hesaddledhisass,andwentoffhometohisowncity.Andhesethishouseinorderandhangedhimself.'Zimri'sawarenessofthehopelessnessofhissituation,afterthecaptureofthecityofTirzahin whichhe was besieged,ledhimto seekdeath.'Hewentintothecitadeloftheking'shouse andburnedthe king's house over him withfire,anddied.'Samson'sdestructionofthePhilistinesinthetempleofDagonwas anactof vengeance,butitwas also suicidal.Recognizing thathis desireforrevenge couldbe achievedonly atthe costofhis267268George Rosenlife,Samsonprayed'LetmediewiththePhilistines',andhiswishwasgranted/'NeithertheHebrewBiblenortheNewTesta-mentprohibitsuicide,norissuicidalbehaviourcondemned.Indeed,thereisnospecificwordforsuicide.Eachinstanceisreportedfactuallyandgenerallybriefly.EvenofJudasIscariotwearetoldsimplythat'hewentandhangedhimself'.4However, Josephus, writinginthe firstcenturyAD,seemstoindicatetwocurrentsofthoughtaboutsuicide.FindingthesituationhopelessafterthedefeatofhisarmybytheRomans,JosephusdecidedtosurrendertoVespasian.ButtheJewswhowerewithhiminsistedthatit wouldbe morehonourableforallof themtodie in a mass suicide. Arguingagainstthis demand,Josephusrecalledtothemthat'for those who have laid mad hands upon themselves,thedarkerregionsofthenetherworldreceivetheirsouls,andGod,theirfather,visitsupontheirposteritythe outrageousacts ofthe parents. Thatiswhythis crime, sohatefultoGod,is punishedalsobythesagestoflegislators.Withusitisordainedthatthebodyofasuicideshouldbeexposedun-buried until sunset.. . .6Nevertheless,Josephusagreedwithhiscom-patriotsontheobligationtoupholdandtodefendtheTorah,'tosanctifytheHolyName',inallcircumstances,andinthiscauseevensuicidewasjustified.6Thisprofoundreligiousconvictioncombinedwithanequallystrongsense offreedomled the960 survivingdefendersofMasada,afterthreeyearsofsiege,tokillthemselves rather than surrender to the Romans.7ThatsuchbehaviourcouldbecarriedtoexcessandmightevenendangerthecommunityledJewish religious leaders afterthe fall of JerusaleminAD70todefinemorecloselywhenself-destructionwasanecessity.Theirobjectwastodiscouragefanaticalvoluntarymartyrdom,butreligious suicide as such was accepted.8SUICIDEAMONGGREEKS,ROMANS,ANDNEIGHBOURINGPEOPLEAttitudestowardssuicide among the Greeks andRomansalso variedwidelyin the courseof time.Suicide tomaintainone'shonourwasapproved.Charondas,thelegendarylaw-giverofCatana,a GreekcolonyinSicily,hadmade alaw thatnoarmedman shouldenter the townassemblyuponpainordeath.Whenheinadvertentlyenteredwithoutremovinghisdagger,hisenemiesaccusedhimof annullingthelaw. Thereupon,tovindicatehisposition,hedrewthedaggerandslew himself.9Honoursuicidesto avoid capture,humiliation,andshamefuldeatharefrequentintheconflictsamongtheGreeks,theRomans,andtheirneighbours.WiththecaptureofAthensbyAntipaterin322 BC, Demosthenes,theopponentoftheMacedonians,fledtoCalauria,wherehetookpoisoninthetempleofPoseidontoavoidfallingintoMacedonianhands.HannibaltheCarthaginiancommittedsuicidebypoison,probablyin183BC,whenPrusias,kingofBithynia,withwhomhehadtakenrefuge,wasabouttosurrenderhimtohis swornenemiestheRomans.Lucandescribeshow,inthecivilwarbetweenCaesarandPompey,thetribuneVulteiusandhiscohortattemptingtocrosstheAdriaticweresurroundedbyPompeiantroops.Defendingthemselveswithgreatcourage,theCaesariantroopsrepulsedattackafterattack,but finally recognizedthat escape was impossible.Thereupon,Vulteiuscalledonhis soldierstodiebytheirownhandsratherthantofallaliveintotheenemy'shands.NonesurvivedtobecomeprisonersofthePompeians.AsLucanempha-sized, 'how simple afeatit is to escape slavery bysuicide'.10ThispositionisexemplifiedbythesuicideofCassiusandBrutusaftertheirdefeatbytheCaesarianforcesatPhilippi(42BC),andbythatoftheEmperorOthoaftersufferingadefeatbyVitellius,hisrivalfortheimperialthroneinAD 69.UInhisaccountofOtho'sdeath,Tacitusmentionsthat'Somesoldiersslewthemselvesnearhispyre,notbecause of any faultor fromfear,but promptedby adesire to imitate his glorious example and moved byaffectionfortheiremperor.AfterwardsmanyofeveryrankchosethisformofdeathatBedriacum,Placentia, andin other camps as well.'12Suchsuicidesoutofloyaltyarequiteclosetoinstitutionalizedandritualsuicide.Instancesofthiskindaredescribedamongdifferentpeoplesinvarioushistoricalperiods.AsreportedbyHistoryinthe slmlyof suicide 26VNicolasofDamascus,ahistorianofthetimeofAugustus,thechieftainoftheSotiani,aCeltictribe,hadabodyguardof600pickedmenwhowere boundby a vow to live andto die withhim,nomatterwhetherthechiefdiedinbattleorofdiseaseorinanyothermanner.1:)Anotherformofinstitutionalsuicideisthepracticewherebyawidoworaconcubineoffersherlifewhenthehusbandormasterdies.HerodotusdescribesthiscustomamongtheThracianswhopractisedpolygamy.Whenamandied,hiswives viedforthehonourofbeingjudgedthe onehe hadlovedmost. Thewifewhowasaccordedthishonourwasslainoverthegraveandburiedwithherhusband.SimilaristheaccountofaRusfuneralbyIbnFadlan,anArab,whoduring921-22servedassecretaryofanembassyfromtheCaliphofBagdadtotheBulgarsofthemiddleVolga.TheRuswereScandinavianchieflySwedishtradersandsoldiersinRussia. When one of their chiefsdied,hiswomenslaveswereaskedwhowoulddiewith him. The one who answeredTwent throughaseriesofritualsandafter10 dayswaskilledandcrematedtogetherwithhermaster.14AnalogoustothesetwocasesistheHinducustomofsuttee inwhichthewidowimmolatedherselfwiththecorpseofherhusband.Indeed,accordingtoStrabo,sutteewasalreadybeingpractisedwhenAlexandertheGreatcametoIndia.15Greco-Romanantiquityalsoknewofseveralspectacularsuicidesbyimmolation.Calanus,aBrahmin,followedAlexanderwhenheleftIndia,andwhenhefellillinPersiadecidedtoendhislife,asStrabosays,'inaccordancewiththe ancestralcustom,beingplaceduponapyreandburnedup'.Thesecondinstanceoccurredsome300 yearslater.AmongthemembersofanIndianembassytoAugustuswasaBrahminwho immolatedhimself at Athens.16 Commentingonthepossiblemotivationofthisact,DioCassius says:'Wishing to die eitherbecause he was of the caste ofsophists(thatis,Brahmins)andwasthereforemoved by ambition, or because he wished to make adisplayforthebenefitofAugustus(whohadcomethere) and of the Athenians. . .he casthimself aliveinto thefire.1This elementof theatricalityis evenmore evidentinthelierydeathofPeregrinusProteus,aCynicphilosopher,attheOlympicFestivalinADI65.'7TheGreeksatiristLucianwitnessedthishappeningandwroteanessayon'TheDeathofPeregrinus',whichprovidesmostofourin-formationabouthim.Born of wealthyparents atPariumontheHellespont,Peregrinusgotintotroubleasayoungmanbecauseofdisreputablelove-affairs.Having fallenoutwithhis father,helefthomeundersuspicionofhavingstrangledhiminordertogethishandsonthefamilyfortune.Whateverthetruthofthematter,Peregrinusspenttheremainderof his lifeinrest-lesswandering,endeavouringtoassuagehisguiltfeelingsthroughvariousreligiousandphilosophicalfaiths.InPalestine,hebecameaChristian, and when jailedrefusedtorenouce hisfaith,butthe governoroftheprovince,decidingnottomakeamartyrofPeregrinus,releasedhim.ThereafterhereturnedtoParium,wherehemettheaccusationofpatricidebydonatinghis propertyto the townforcharitablepurposes.But he was soon at loggerheads withthe authori-ties, and,failingtoobtaina returnof his estates,wentofftoEgyptwhereheadoptedtheCynicphilosophyandwayoflife.Mortificationofthefleshthroughflagellation,poverty,andotherpracticesdidnotsatisfyPeregrinus,andhethenappearedinRomewhencehewasexpelledforpubliclycriticizingandinsultingtheEmperorAntoninus Pius. Moving on to Greece, Peregrinusrepeatedthepattern.InAthens,hebaitedandinsultedthephilanthropistHerodesAthicus,andincitedanti-Romanriotsinseveralcities.Finally,inAD 165,heendedhislifebeforealargecrowdbycrematinghimselfrituallyonapyre in theIndianmanner.Having instructedhisdisciplestoestablishacultinhishonourafterhisdeath,thiswasdoneatParium,hisnativetown.Astatuesetupinhishonourworkedmiraclesandattractedpilgrims.LuciandepictsPeregrinusasanexhibitionist,amanwithaninsatiablecravingfornotoriety.Thereissometruthinthisview,justasthebehaviourofPeregrinusis in accordwiththatofotherexponentsofcynicism.Rudeness,in-differencetoconventionalstandards,voluntarypoverty,asceticpracticesarealltraditionalCynictraits.18Nevertheless,theseelementsdonotfullyexplainthisbizarrelife.AulusGellius,270 (icoi\vr Rosenwho met Peregrinus in Athens, describedhim as aman of dignity and fortitudewho saidmany help-fulandnoblethings.Indeed,some200yearsafterhisdeath,AmmianusMarcellinusstillreferredtohimasacelebratedphilosopher.19Perhapshislastwordsprovideacluetohispersonalityandbehaviour.Justbeforejumpinginto the fire, he exclaimed:'Gods of mymother,godsofmyfather,receivemewithfavour.'Suggestivealsoisthethemeofasermonpreachedby Peregrinus at Athens. The burden ofhis discourse was thatthosewho sin in the hopeofremainingundetectedlabourunderself-deception,sincewrongdoingcannotbeper-manentlyconcealed.Therefore,oneshouldalwaysrememberthe linesof Sophocles,'Seetoitlestyou try aughtto conceal;Time sees and hears all, and will all reveal.20This evidence, thoughfragmentary,suggeststhatPeregrinus was 'a sick soul' of the type describedbyWilliamJames.21Anintensehostilitytoauthority as well as an equally strong tendency topunishhimselfsuggestthatPeregrinusborewith him an emotionalwoundthatneverhealed,anunresolvedconflictwhichwas finally resolvedbysuicide,byanactofself-destructionwhichinsuredhis justificationthroughcultapotheosis.PSYCHOPATHOLOGY,PHILOSOPHY,ANDSUICIDEThetimeofPeregrinuswasaperiodofsicksoulsinwhichmanywerefilledwithcontemptforthehumancondition,feltthemselvestobealiensinthisworld,andaskedthequestion,'Whatareweherefor?'Innumerousin-dividualsthisresentmentagainsttheworldwasintimatelyassociatedwithhostilitytowardtheself,whatSenecacalleddisplicentia sui, self-dissatisfaction.22Thishostilitymighttakevariousforms,evenself-mutilationorsuicide,especiallyamongindividualswithmentalandemotionaldisordersincertainsocio-culturalcontexts.Seneca (c. 5 DC-AD 65) in his Epistles referstoadesirewhichpossessed" many,alongingfordeath(affectusquimultosoccupavit,libidomoriendi). Epictetus(c. AD50-120)notedsuch adeath-wishamongyoungmen andfeltobligedtorestrainit, urging themnot to commitsuicide.TheNcoplatonislPorphyry(AD 205270) hadcontemplatedsuicideasayoungmanbutwasdissuadedfromsuchan act.'Imyselfatone period",hesays,'hadformedtheintentionof endingmy life;Plotinusdiscerned mypurpose; he came unexpectedly to my house where Ihad secluded myself, toldme my decision sprang notfromreasonbut frommere melancholy and advisedme to leaveRome.I obeyedand leftforSicily.. . .ThusIwasinducedtoabandonmyfirstinten-tion"23Fascinationwithvoluntarydeathcan alsobeseen in the apologiafor Christianity of Tertullian(c.AD160-225).24Indeed,voluntarymartyrdomwasfrequentamongthe earlyChristians.Asayouth,Origenof Alexandria(c.AD185-253/54)experiencedthe martyrdomof his fatherin202,andwaspossessedbyapassionatedesiretosufferthesamefate.Althoughhismotherpreventedhimfromachievingthisaim,hisfundamentalattitudedidnotchange.Perhaps,hisself-castrationtobecomeaeunuchforthekingdomofheaven(Matthewxix,12)may beinterpretedas a symbolic surrogate for voluntarydeath.AsimilarattitudeisrevealedinthepassionofVibiaPerpetua,ayoungmarriedwoman, 22 years of age, who was executedin thereignofSeptimiusSeverus.Despitetheappealsofher father,who was not aChristian,and thefactthatshehadaninfantatthebreast,shepreferredtodie inthearenaandtoexperienceblissinthenextworld.Eusebius(c.AD260-339/40),bishopofCaesarea,tellsofChristiansabouttobetorturedwhocommittedsuicide,'regardingdeathasaprizesnatchedfromthewickednessofevilmen'.25Thepathologicalelementinthecravingformartyrdomappearsmostevidentin the wildlanguageand thestateofexaltationborderingonmaniadisplayedbyIgnatiusof Antiochin his letters,particularlyinthat to the Christian community of Rome.'Ibeseech you . . . , ' he wrote, 'Sufferme to be eatenbythebeaststhatImay befoundpurebreadofChrist.Ratherentice the wildbeaststhatthey maybecomemy tomb,andleavenotraceofmy body,thatwhenI fallasleep I be not burdensometo any.Then shall I be truly a disciple of Jesus Christ, whenthe world shall not even see my body. Beseech ChristHistoryin the studyoj'.suicide 271onmy hcluill', (hatI nuiyho Ibiiiul a sacriliccthroughthoseinstruments."-"ApparentlyforsomepersonsChristianitywasattractivebecause among otherbenefitsitolferedachanceofmartyrdomandapossibleoppor-tunitytodieablood-witnesstoChrist.Smallwonderthatwithsuchaprospectthereshouldhavebeenanexcessiveeagernesstoattainthisaimbyaprematurevoluntarydeath.Generally,Christiansdespisedthetendencytowardsuicideamongpagans,butwasmartyrdomsuicide?YetthistypeofsensibilityanditsassociatedemotionalclimatecharacterizedlargegroupsintheRomanEmpirebetweenthereignsofNeroand Julianthatis AD 54-363.27Whatmanytroubledpeoplelookedforwas ameaninginlife,araison c^etre foradisciplinedlife.AreligionsuchasChristianity,orthatofAschcpius, was the solutionforsome;forothersthereweremoralphilosophiesthatofferedalifewithascheme.28TherewastheCynicdoctrineespousingalifeofdetachmentandfreedom,teachingmenthatconventionalstandardswereworthlessandurgingthemtocutthemselvesloosefromthebondsofsociallife.Thewander-ingCynicphilosopher,garbedinhisraggedcloak,begginghisbread,haranguingandlectur-ingthosewhowouldlistentohiminthestreetorthemarket-place,behavingrudelyandevenobscenelyin defianceof social convention,was afamiliarfigureinthelaterEmpire.29Epicurean-ism imbued its ideal of the calm life with a strongdrivingqualityof joybecauseitsadherentsfeltthemselvesdeliveredfromsupernaturalterrorsandfearsofcapriciousdivineaction.Stoicismwi.'hitsdoctrineofnaturallawandman'scon-formitytoit,thevalueofactivelydoinggoodandtamingthepassions,andmoregenerallyoftheneedtorecognizeandtoacceptaworldorder,providedawayoflifeforothers.30Indeed,thephilosopherwas consideredamanabletorelievehumanityofnumerousfailingsbyteaching,exhorling,andreproaching.ThusEpictetuscomparesthephilosopher'slecturehalltoaphysician'sofficeorahospital.31ThoughEpictetusdidnotproposeself-destruc-tionasamodeoftherapyindeed,heopposedityetsomeofthesephilosophies,particularlyStoicism,acceptedandevenrecommendedsuicide,butonlyundercertainconditions,asanescape from evil. AccordingloDiogenesl.aerlius,writingofZeno,(hefounderofStoicism,'thewise manwill forreasonable causemake his ownexit{exagdge) fromlifeonhiscountry'sbehalf,orforthesakeofhisfriends,orifhesufferintolerablepain,mutilation,orincurabledisease'.Similarly,MarcusAureliusapprovedofsuicideif carriedoutonarationalbasis,butnottoputonashowortosimplyexpressirrationalideas.Ashe expressedhisposition:'Howadmirableisthesoulwhichisreadyandre-solved,ifitmustthismomentbe releasedfromthebody,tobeeitherextinguishedorscatteredortopersist.Thisresolve(oomustarisefromaspecificdecision,notoutofsheeroppositionliketheChristians, but afterreflectionand with dignity, andso as to convince others, wilhout histrionic display.33Nevertheless,theStoicsdidhavewhatamountedtoacultofsuicide,basedinpartnodoubtonatraditionapparentlysetbytheirfounderandhisfirstdisciples.Zeno(331-261BC) is reportedto have tripped, fallen, andbrokenhis toe. Thereuponhe struckthe groundwithhisfist, feelingthathewasbeingcalledhome,anddiedon the spotby holding his breath.Cleanthes(331-232BC)issaidtohavecommittedsuicidebystarvinghimselftodeath.Toalesserdegreethis was also true of the Cynics, forthe latter alsohadatraditiongoingbacktoDiogenes.HispupilMenippusaccumulatedalargefortunebutwhenhewasrobbedofhiswealth,hangedhimselfindespair.34EpicurusandtheEpicureansopposedsuicide,asdidtheNeoplatonistsofthelateEmpire.Ingeneral,however,suicidewastolerated,evenextolled,intheImperialperiod,untilitbecamealmostasocialdisease.35ThissituationdidnotchangeuntilChristianviewsbegantoinfluencesocial andlegal attitudes.TheearliestmeasuresagainstsuicideamongtheGreeksandtheRomanswerebasedonreligiousoronpolitical-ethicalgrounds.AtAthens,forexample,itwascustomarytochopoffthehandofasuicide;ifpossiblethatwithwhichhehadtakenhislife.InRome,asuicidebyhangingwasrefusedanhonourableburialaccordingtopontificallawbythePontifexmaximus.ThispracticewascontinuedintotheImperialperiod,andwasavestigeofearlier272 Rosenreligiousviews.Suicide per sc wasneverapenaloffenceinRome,andeventuallytherewere,practicallyspeaking,nopenalties.SuicidewaspunishableinItalyforonlythreeclassesofpersons:thoseaccusedofcrime,soldiers,andslaves.Inthesecases,itisclearthatdeterrentsanctionsweremotivatedbypracticalandeconomiccauses.36Casesofsuicidebymentallydisorderedpersonswerewellknowninantiquity.Theself-destructionof Cleomenes, king of Sparta(endofthe6thcenturyBC),isdescribedatlengthbyHerodotus.Onemayalsonotethe commentsinthefragmentaryHippocraticworkPeripar-thenion (onthediseasesofmaidens)regardingthementalsymptomsincludingsuicidalten-denciestowhichyounggirlsareproneiftheyhavemenstrualtroubles.Thesesymptoms,par-ticularlythesuicidalbehaviour,havebeeninter-pretedasanexampleofpsychopathiccollectivebehaviour.In thisconnection,onemaynotethestoryofthemaidensofMiletuswhosuddenlywithoutanyapparentreasonconceivedadesiretodie,andthereuponmanyhangedthemselves.Todealwiththesituation,theMilesianspassedalawthatallmaidenswhohangedthemselvesshouldbe carriedtothe gravenakedalongwiththe rope by which they had destroyed themselves.Deterredbytheshameofadisgracefulburial,theyoungwomenstoppedseekingavoluntarydeath and the epidemic ceased.37CaeliusAurelianusobservesthatvictimsofmadness have oftenkilled themselves by jumpingoutofwindows.Aretaeusobservedthatviolentmadmeninjureor kill themselves, andsometimestheirkeepers.Finally,onemaynotethestate-mentby Paul of Aegina thatinsane patientswhoareviolentshouldbesecuredsothattheymaynotinjurethemselvesorthosewhoapproachthem.ByandlargephysiciansintheRomanEmpiredealtwithpsychopathologybylimitingthemselvestowhatweredefinedasmedicalproblems.AsCaeliusAurelianusputit,theywereconcernedwithmadnesscharacterizedby'animpairmentofreasonresultingfrombodilydiseaseorindisposition'.38Itislikelythatsomesuicidesorattemptedsuicidesweretheresultofpathologicaldepressionsforexample, the casesofParmeniscusintheHippocraticEpidemics,VII,89, orofHadrianafterthedeathofAeliusVerus,butprevalentsocialattitudesandtheemotionalclimateledtothedefinitionand con-siderationofsuchcasesasmoralratherthanmedicalproblems.3"SUICIDEANDSOCIETYINTi l l :MIDDLEACil-SAntagonismtosuicideanditseventualcon-demnationintheRomanEmpirehadseveralsources.Onewaseconomic.TheChristianChurchcontinuedRomanlegislationagainstsuicidebyslaves.AttheCouncilofAriesinAD452measureswerepasseddirectedagainstsuicidesbyservants{famuli).Furthermore,asChristianityspreadit founditself opposingotherreligionsandphilosophiesthattoleratedandevenrecommendedsuicide.AmongthesewasManichaeism,whose adherentsfreelyresortedtovoluntarydeath.As aresultthe Churchdeclaredsuicidetantamounttomurder.ThispositionwasstrengthenedbytheincreasinglyimportantpositionofChristianity,firstas atoleratedfaithandthenasthestatereligion.Inthesecircum-stances,voluntarymartyrdomwasdiscouragedbyChurchleaders,andoppositiontosuicidehardened.However,it was notactuallyuntiltheCouncilofBragainAD 563thatsuicideasanact was condemnedby the Church. ThispositionwasconfirmedbytheCouncilsofAuxerre(AD578)andAntisidor(AD590),andremainedthecanonlawuntilAD1284whentheSynodofNimesrefusedburialinconsecratedgroundtosuicides.An exceptionseems tohave beenmadefortheinsane,if oneis to judgefromthe Penitentials ofEgbert,ArchbishopofYork,whichappearedinthe middle of the 8th century.40Indeed,through-outthemediaevalperiodthereisacontinuingrecognitionthatmentalandemotionaldisordermayleadtosuicide.Suchstatesandtheirconsequencesarefrequentlyrelatedtotheconcepts of melancholyor acedia,spiritualsloth.DavidofAugsburg,aFranciscan,wholivedaboutthemiddleofthe13thcentury,dis-tinguishedthreetypesofacedia,ofwhichthefirstis relevant here.'The first', he said, 'is a certain bitterness of the mindwhichcannotbepleasedbyanythingcheerfulorwholesome. It feeds upon disgust and loathes humanintercourse. This is what the Apostle calls the sorrowoftheworldthatworkethdeath.ItinclinestoHistoryin the studyof suicide 273despair,diffidence,andsuspicions,andsometimesdrivesitsvictimtosuicidewhenheisoppressedbyunreasonablegrief.Suchsorrowarisessometimesfrompreviousimpatience,sometimesfromthefactthatone'sdesireforsome objecthasbeendelayedorfrustrated,andsometimesfromtheabundanceofmelancholichumors,inwhichcaseitbehoovesthephysicianratherthanthepriesttoprescribearemedy.'11CaesariusofHeisterbach(c.1180-1240/50?)providesanumberof storieswhichillustratethetemptationtoendone'slifeasaresultofmelancholyandacedia.*2Inone caseanunwas'sodrivenmadbythemagicartsofamiserablebrother'thatshethrewherselfintoawell.AnotherinstanceinvolvedanunofadvancedyearswhowastroubledbymelancholyleadingtoreligiousdoubtssothatshedespairedandjumpedintotheMoselleRiver.However,shewassavedandtakenbacktothecloisterwhereshewascloselyguardedtopreventanyfurtherattempts.Stillotheraccountsinvolveayounggirlwhohadborneanillegitimatechild,andbeingabandonedbyherlover,despairedandhangedherself;aswellasayoungmanwho,havinggambledawayhisclothes,fellintomelancholyanddespair,wenthomeandhangedhimself.Thetwo views ofmelancholyas a vice leadingto the sin of suicide, frequentlyat thepromptingsofthedevil,orasamentalandemotionaldis-orderduetoahumoralexcessandimbalance,explaininlargepartthevaryingsocialattitudesandpracticeswithrespecttosuicideduringtheMiddleAges.Custombasedonfolkbeliefs,ecclesiasticalviews,andmedicaltheoriespre-cededlegalauthorityin dealingwithsuicide as acrime.HenrydeBracton,thelegalauthorityofhis timeinEngland,writingin themiddleofthe13thcentury,didnotconsidersuicideafelony,whichitbecamebythemiddleofthefollowingcentury.Indeed, discussing suicide by the insane,heexemptedsuchactsfromanycriminalcon-siderations.43Ontheotherhand,accordingtoBracton,anordinarysuicideforfeitedhisgoods,whileonewhokilledhimselftoavoidafelonyconvictionforfeitedbothgoodsandlands.ThislawofforfeitureremainedinforceinEnglandintothe19thcentury,butwasnotinfrequentlycircum-ventedthroughtheclaimofinsanity.Onthecontinent,theSachsenspiegel, datingfromthebeginningofthe13thcentury,theSchwaben-spiegel,fromtheendofthe13thcentury,andtheFreisingmunicipallawcodedidnotpunishsuicide. TheCarolina,theCriminalConstitutionof CharlesV, in1551 confiscatedthe propertyofthosewhocommittedsuicidewhileunderaccusationof afelony.44More severe was the punishmentvisitedon thecorpseofthe suicide. The cadaverwassubjectedtovariousindignitiesanddegradations.AcommonpracticeinEnglandwastoburythesuicideatacross-roadbynightwithastakedriventhroughthe heart.Indeed, as late as 1811,asuicidewasburiedinthismanneratthecornerofCommercialRoadandCannonStreetRoadinEastLondon,45andthepracticewasnot actuallystoppeduntil1823. This customhadareligiousandmagicalbackgroundofgreatantiquity.As reportedby Tacitusandconfirmedby numerousbog burials, the practice ofpinningdownthe body antedatesChristianityamong theGermanicpeoplesofEurope.46Itwasintendedtomake certainthatthe spiritof the deadwouldnotreturntohauntorharmtheliving.SuicidewasequatedwithmurderinvariouspartsofEurope,andthecorpsewastreatedaccordingly.InFranceandEnglandthebodywas dragged throughthe streets, headdownwardonahurdle,andthenhangedonagallows.Burialinconsecratedgroundwasfrequentlydeniedthesuicide,andinPrussiathelawstipulatedin the early18th centurythata suicidebe buriedunder the gallows.47Thethreepenaltiesconfiscationofproperty,degradationofthecorpse,andrefusalofburialinconsecratedgroundreflectprevailingatti-tudestowardsuicideduringtheMiddleAgesandintothe18thcentury.Thedegreetowhichthesepenaltieswereappliedvariedfromtimetotimeandplacetoplace.Ingeneralthepenaltiesagainstthebodyofasuicidetendedtolapsebythelatterpartofthe17thcentury,andeventhesanctionofconfiscationtendedtobehandledmoreleniently.Importantfactorsinsuchcaseswerethesocialrankofthesuicideandhisfamily,aswellasthecircumstancesofthesuicidal act.Somecausesofsuicidewereconsideredmorejustifiedthanothers.Self-destructionbecauseofprotractedphysicalillness, mental andemotional274 Rosendisorder,melancholyorsimilarconditionsdidnotsubjectthe suicide to anypenaltiesinPrussiaintheearly18thcentury.Ontheotherhand,impoverishment,indebtedness,dishonour,des-pair, or vexationwere notregardedas asufficientjustificationof suicide. This differentiationis alsoevidentinthecaseofKateJoyce,acousinofSamuelPepys,whosehusbandinJanuary1668attemptedsuicideby drowning,was rescued,butdiedsoonthereafter,probablyofexposureandpneumonia.Eventhoughthecoroner'sjurypermittedaregularburial,havingarrivedataverdictof deathfromafever,the widowwasfora while threatenedwith confiscationof the estate,becauseitwassuspectedthatherhusband'saciionwasoccasionedbyfinancialdifficulties.48PERSISTENCEOFOLDERATTITUDESThis differentiationtendstoreflectnewattitudestowardsuicidewhichbegantoemergetenta-tivelyduringtheRenaissanceandfinallycameoutintothe openin theI8ihcentury.Butbeforeturningtotheseaspects,itisimportanttonotethatolderattitudesstillpersistedoutsidetheframeworkof Christendom.Suicide in a hopelessmilitarysituationisexemplifiedbyHaki,aNorwegianberserk(c. AD 850). According totheHeimskringla,HakiabductedRagnhild,thedaughter of lord Sigurd Hart, whom he ambushedandkilled.In thisbattle, however,Sigurdcutoffone of Haki'sarms. The followingyear,HalfdantheBlack,anotherVikingleader,hadhismenrescueRagnhild,burnHaki'shall,androbhimofhisvaluables.WhenHakigavechasetheyescaped,andtheformer'shornofglory,bride,armandallhopeof revenge' in despairfelluponhis swordanddied.49Wheninthe17thcenturytheForbiddenCityinPekingfelltoattackingrebels,thelastMingEmperorinscribedafarewellmessageonhisyellowrobeandstrangledhimselfwithhisgirdle.ThisactaswellasthesuicideoftheEmpressandofnumerousministersandothercourtfunctionairesisreminiscentoftheself-destructionof variousrulers andotherleaders ofantiquity.50Forms of religious suicide also occurredduringtheMiddleAges.OnekindwaspractisedbymembersofthehereticaldualistsectknownastheCathars.Thiswastheendura,wherebymembersofthesectwhensickorunderotherconditionsrefusedallfoodanddeliberatelycommittedsuicidebyself-starvation.Theobjec-tiveofthispracticewastoensurethattheindividualwenttoheavenin a slateofguiltless-ness.Sometimesthesuicidewasperformedbyopeningtheveinsorevenbypoison.51TheMiddleAgesalsoprovideanumberofinstanceswhereJewspreferredsuicidetoforcedconversion,torture,rape,andmassacre.InthiswayJewishcommunitieswerewipedoutatMainzin1096, atYorkin1190, andatVerdunin1320.TheCossackrevoltunderBogdanChmielnickiinthemiddleofthe17thcenturyledtoasimilardestructionofJewishcommuni-tiesinPolandandtheUkraine,as,forexample,atNemirovinI648.52TheseandothersuicidesbyJewsinsimilarcircumstancesremindoneofthecircumstancesdescribedbyJosephusandareinthesametradition.AlthoughtheJewishpositionwasbasicallyopposedtosuicide,therewereextenuatingandjustifiablemotivationsforsuicidalbehaviour,amongthemtheprospectoftorture,refusaltosubmittoforcedapostasy,preservationofone'schastity,goodofcountry,honour,andatonement.NEWVIEWSONSUICIDEOrthodoxmediaevalChristianityconsignedthesouls of those who wantonly destroyedtheir livesto an eternity of hell whose terrors were expectedtodeterpotentialsuicides.Dantefoundthesoulsofsuicidesencasedinthorny,witheredtrees onwhichthe Harpiesfed,inflictingwoundsfromwhich issued cries of lamentation and pain.53Nordoesthereseemtobearecognitionofextenuatingcircumstances.TheonesuicidetowhomDanterefersspecificallyandtowhomhetalked was Pier delle Vigne (1190-1249), for a longtime chief counsellor of theEmperorFriedrichIIHohenstaufen.In1247 he was accusedoftreach-erybyconspiringagainsthislord,imprisoned,andblinded.IndespairandtoavoidfurthertorturedelleVignetookhisownlife.HowdifferentistheattitudeofMadamedeSevigne,writing in1671 ofVatel, the maitre d'hotel of thePrincedeConde,whokilledhimselfforshamewhenadinnerandentertainmentpreparedforLouis XIVseemedtohave turnedouta fiasco.54Vatel's story is toldwithouthorror or theologicalHistoryin the sliuly of .suicide 275odium.Indeed,CondecommentsthaiVatelactedout of asenseofhonour,andMadamedcSevigneaddsthathewashighlypraisedlor hiscourageandresolutioneventhoughthepraisewasmingledsomewhatwithreproaches.Clearly,Fromthe13thcenturytothe17thcenturysocialattitudestosuicidehadbeenchanging.Whetherornotperiodsof socialcrisisanddisorganizationleadtoanincreaseinsuicidemay be debated.However,abeliefin theincreasedprevalenceofsuicideappearstohavebeenwidespreadinthe16th and17thcenturies,andisreflectedbothinareneweddiscussionofsuicideaswellasintheappearanceofmorefavourableoratleastlesshostileviewsonsuicidalbehaviour.Erasmus,inhis colloquyFunus(TheFuneral,1526),explainingwhy Godmeantdeathto be anagony,remarksthathe didthis'lestmenfarandwidecommitsuicide.Andsince,even today, we see so many do violence to themselves,whatdo you supposewouldhappenif deathweren'thorrible?Wheneveraservantorevenayoung songotathrashing,wheneverawifefelloutwithherhusband,whenevera man losthis money,orsome-thing else occurredthatupsethim, off they'drush tonoose, sword, river, cliff,poison.'55YetinhisPraiseofFollyErasmuscommendsthosewho voluntarilykilledthemselvesto get ridofamiserableandtroublesomeworld,consider-ingthemwiserthanthosewho areunwillingtodieandwanttolivelonger.56Thequestionofsuicidealsocropsupin theEssaisofMontaigne.Tothissubjecthedevotedalongchapterinwhichwithapparentapprovalhepresentstheviewsoftheancientsextollingvoluntarydeath.Thus,Montaigneremarkedthatdeathis'notaremedyforone maladyonly,but for allills.Itis a very secure haven,never to be fearedand oftentobe sought.It is all one whetherman endshis lifeorenduresit; whetherhe endsit beforeit has run itscourseorwhetherhe waitsforit to end; nomatterwhencetheendcomesitisalwayshisown;nomatterwherethethreadsnaps,it'sthe endof theroad.'Nonetheless,despitehisevidentsympathyfortheviewsoftheancients,suchasSeneca,Montaignecomestoamoremoderatepracticalposition.'Theopinionwhichdisdainsourlife",hesays,'isridiculous.Afterall,thislifeisours,itisall wehave.. . . To hate and to despise oneselfis a sicknesspeculiartoman andisnotobservedinanyothercreature.. . .Whatsituationsthencantrulyjustifytheact ofkillingoneself?. . .Afterall, sincetherearesomanysuddenchangesinhumanaffairs,it isdifficultto judgeat whatpointwe are reallywithouthope.. . .Ihaveseenahundredharessavethem-selves,eveninthegreyhounds'jaws.'Aliquiscarnifici suo superstes fuit.'[Someman has outlivedhis executioner.]Finally,Montaigneconcludesthatonlyun-supportablepain or a worse deathare acceptablejustificationsforsuicide.57TheattitudesofErasmusandMontaigneareessentiallythoseofChristianhumanism,acompromisebetweenChristianityandthetenetsof classicalphilosophy,particularlywithRomanStoicism.Furthermore,inviewofthereligiousandmoralattitudesthatclusteredaroundthejudgmentofsuicide,itisnotsurprisingthatanumberofthosewhoaddressedthemselvestothisproblemwere clergymen.JohnDonne,poetandlaterdeanofSt.Paul's,wroteBiathanatos,thefirstdefenceofsuicideinEnglish.Writtenin1608, it was firstcirculatedinmanuscript,andwasonlypublishedposthumouslyin1644.Donneproposedtodemonstratethatsuicideisnot incompatible with the laws of God, of reason,andofnature.Moreover,inherentinthecon-ditionanddignityofbeingamanis therighttoend one's life. As Donne expressed it, 'methinks Ihavethekeysofmyprisoninmineownhand,andnoremedypresentsitselfsosoonetomyheart,asmineownsword'.58RobertBurton'sencyclopaedicAnatomyofMelancholy (1621) is relevantbecause the author,aminister,emphasizedtherelationbetweenmelancholyandsuicide,andinthisconnectionofferedhisviewsonself-destruction.AccordingtoBurtontheprognosisofmelancholyisbleak,for'aftermany tedious dayes at last, either by drowning,hanging orsome suchfearfullend,theyprecipitate,ormakeawaywiththemselves.. . .'Tisa commoncalamity,afatalendtothisdisease,theyare276 George Rosencondemned to a violent death, by a jury of Physicians,furiouslydisposed,carriedheadlongbytheirtyrannizingwils,inforcedbymiseries,andthereremainsnomoretosuchpersons,ifthatheavenlyPhysician, by his assisting grace andmercy alone donotprevent. . .buttobetheirownbutchersandexecute themselves.'69Butif suchmenareinessencedoomedtodieby theirown hands, howis theirbehaviourtobejudged?Inthispoint,Burton'spositionissimilartothatofMontaigne.First,citing ahostofancientauthoritiesandexamples,heclearlyindicatesthatsuicidehasbeenapprovedandevenrecommendedbymanywiseandeminentpersons.However,in ordernotto go too faroutonalimb,Burtonsuddenlymakesavolte-faceandproclaimsthat'thesearefalseandPaganpositions,prophaneStoicalParadoxes,wickedexamples,itbootsnotwhatHeathenPhilo-sophers determine in this kind, they are impious,abominable,anduponawrongground'.Despite this condemnation, however, Burton wasnotadogmaticadherentoftheorthodoxChristianpositionon suicide. Eternaldamnationisnotnecessarilythepunishmentforeverysuicide,fortheremaybemitigatingcircum-stances. He says'thatinsome cases,thosehardcensuresofsuchasofferviolencetotheirownpersons,orinsomedesperate fit to others, which sometimesthey do, bystabbing, fishing, etc. are tobe mitigated, as in suchas are mad, beside themselves forthe time, orfoundto have been long melancholy, and that in extremity,theyknownotwhattheydo,deprivedofreason,judgment,all,asinashipthatisvoidofaPilot,mustneedsimpingeuponthenextrockorsands,and suffershipwrack'.Therefore,Burtonconcludes,'whatshallbecomeoftheirSouls,Godalonecantell. . . .We oughtnotto be so rash andrigorous inourcensures,assomeare;charitywilljudgeandhope the best; God be merciful unto us all.'80Thesame problemhadbeen discussedseveralyearsearlierbyJohannesNeser,aProtestantministeratRothenburgo.d.Tauber.Havingbeen arousedby a rash of suicides in the area, hediscoveredthattherewerealargenumberofpersons,troubledbymelancholy,doubts,anddespair,whoharbouredthoughtsofsuicideandwere inclinedtoputtheminto effect.Toreassureandtoconsolesuchindividuals,NeserpreachedthreesermonswhichwerepublishedinI6I3.01Basedonthe77thandthe88thpsalms,thefirsttwosermonsdealtwithmelancholy,depression,seriousinnerconflicts,andtemptations;thethirdconsideredtheproblemofdespairandthestateofsalvationof thosewhokilledthemselvesasaconsequence.Neserconsideredthepublica-tionof his sermons as a preventivemeasure.'Suchconsolationisofthegreatesturgencyatpresent',he said, 'because in the presentstate of theworldSatanpoursoutallhiscrueltyandferocity(since he knows he has little time) andtries throughallkindsofdevioustemptationstomaketroubledpeopleevenmoremelancholyandeventodrivethemtodespair.'62Afterconsideringmelancholyanddepressedindividualsandwhatcanbedonetohelpthemthroughprayer,consolation,andthelike,Neserturnstothosewhocommitsuicidewhilein suchstates.BasedontheteachingsofLutherandothertheologians,hesaysthatthosewhocommitsuicidewhensaneandwithpremedita-tionaredamned.Ontheotherhand,itoftenhappensthatpeople lose theirreasonbecause ofintensevexations,severeaffectionsofthehead,orotherpainfulchronicsicknesses.Insuchastateofmadnesstheymaybedriventoutterblasphemyandeventokillthemselves.Suchindividualsarenotdamnedbecausetheyarementallyderangedanddonotknowwhattheydo.Finally, hereferstosuicides whereitisnotpossibletoestablishtheoccurrenceofmentaldisorder,as incasesofgout,bladderstone,andgravel,wheresevere,acutepainmaycausetemporarymentalderangement.Insuchcases,Neserconcludes,theissueofsalvationmustbelefttoGodsincethecircumstancesareun-clear.63MotivessimilartothoseofNeseralsoim-pelledJohnSym(15817-1637),anEnglishcountryclergyman,tocombatsuicide.Worriedbyanapparentincreaseinsuicideobservedduringhisministry,Symdecidedtocounteractthistrendbymakingmorewidelyavailablehisexperienceincounsellingpotentialsuicide.Histreatise,publishedin1637,expressesthisHistoryinthe studyof suicide 277purposeclearlyinitstitle:LifesPreservativeagainstSelf-killing.MDiscussingsuicideinrela-tiontomentalandemotionaldisorder,hecon-cludedthatmanysuicides were sickinmindandcouldnot be heldresponsible for theirbehaviour.Consequently,notallsuicideswereinastateofdamnation.However,hedividessuicideintodirectandindirectforms,condemningvarioustypes involving intemperance, gluttony, duelling,andfoolhardiness.Of the last,Symremarksthatitissuicidal'whenself-conceitedwilfullfool-hardymenwill fight againsttheirenemies, upondesperatedisadvantages;andimminentperilofdeath'.Hisrealinterest,however,isinthepreventionofsuicide, andhe describesfourpre-monitoryanddiagnosticsigns,unusualsolitari-ness ;neglectofthenecessarydutiesofaman'scalling;changeinmanifestbehaviour,in-cluding'gastlylookes,wildefrightsandflaights,nestlingandrestlessebehaviour,amindelessnessandclosedumpishnesse, both in company and in good imploy-ments;adistractedcountenanceandcarriage;speakingandtalkingto,andwiththemselves,intheirsolitaryplacesanddumps;reasoningandresolving withthemselvesaboutthatfact,andtheirmotives to it, in a perplexeddisturbedmanner, withthelike;andspeechesandactionsthreateningorpredicting some action referable to suicide.'66Thesesignsindicatetheneedforpreventiveaction,andSymprescribesspecificpracticalmeasurestobetakenbythosewhoaremelan-choly,depressed,andthelike.Suchindividualsshouldavoidsolitude,darkness,goingoverbridgesorneartheedgeofsteepplaces,andbecarefulin using weapons such as knives.InconnectionwithSym'scommentonthewillingnessofmentorisktheirlivesinbattlealmostasifthey wishedto die, attentionshouldbe called to a perceptive contributionby Paracel-sustothepsychopathologyofreligioussec-tarianismandfanaticism.66Paracelsusisoftheopinionthatthewillingnessofadherentsofvariousreligioussectsinthe16thcenturytodiefortheirfaithcouldbe consideredas an indirectformof suicide arising frommental illness due tomelancholy.Viewsofsuicideasarisingfrommentaldis-orderwerereinforcedbythepublicationofcasehistories. HughRyder (fl.1664-1693), surgeon toJamesII,tellsof'AYoungWomanwhohadbeen at aMeeting-house. . .in a greatdiscontentwenthome, andfellinto such despair, thatbeingmelancholybyherselfinherchamber,withaKnifecutherThroat.. ..'ThewoundwasnotmortalandunderRyder'scaresherecovered.AnothercaseisthatofGeorgeTrosse(1631-1713), aclergyman,whohadapsychoticbreak-downinthemiddleofthe17thcentury.Hisautobiographypublishedafterhis deathcontainsavividaccountofhisexperiences.Amonghissymptoms were suicidal impulses.'Many and constant, forsome Time', he says, 'weremy Temptations to destroy myself. Sometimes I wassollicitedtodashmy Headagainstthe Edge oftheBoardnearwhichIsate;atothertimesIwastempted to dash outmy Brains againstthe Walls, asI walk.'67Thoughamoretolerantviewofsuicidewasdevelopingduringthe16thand17thcenturies,official,legal,andecclesiasticalattitudesre-mainedconservativeuntilwellintothe18thcentury.Suicideremainedacrime intheeyes ofthelaw,eventhoughopinionintheeducatedandupperstrataofsocietywasdivergingin-creasinglyfromthemediaevalpositionofabsolutecondemnation.Thus,theFrenchCriminalOrdinanceofAugust1670stillrequiredthatthebodyofasuicidebedraggedthroughthe streets and then thrownintoa sewerorontothetowndump.Despitethelaw,how-ever,caseswereoftenoverlookedandpenaltieswerenotapplied.InToulouse,forexample,thepunishmentofdraggingthecorpsewas imposedin1742 andagainin1768, butit is worthnotingthatthesuicidesoccurredinjailandthatthevictims were either convictedof or indictedforacriminaloffence.Indeed,becauseofspectatorreactionagainstthepractice the penaltywas notimposedafter1768.Nevertheless,thethreatofthisgrislypunishmentwasapparentlystillrealenoughin1762 tohavebeenanelementintheorigin of the celebratedCalas affairmadefamousby Voltaire, in which a Protestantfamilytriedtohidetheirson'ssuicideandwereaccusedofmurdering him.68YetneitherthreatsnorimpositionofDracon-ianpenaltieshadmucheffectonchangingatti-tudes.Inaletterwrittenin1722,Elizabeth278 George RosenCharlotte,ofthePalatinate,sister-in-lawofLouisXIV,noted'ItisnowveryfashionableatParistokilloneself.NorapparentlywasthismodishpracticerestrictedtoFrance,forseveralyearsearlierin1718shehadwritten,'SoourGermansbegintoimitateEnglishways,buttheywoulddowellnottodosobycommittingsuicide'.69WiththiscommentElizabethChar-lottetouchesontwocharacteristicaspectsofsuicidein the18th centurynamely,thereputedpropensityof theEnglishforcommittingsuicideatthe slightestprovocation,andtherelationshipofthisphenomenontoenvironmental,par-ticularly climatic, factors.FROMSINTOENVIRONMENTThenotionwhichbecamewidespreadinthe18thcenturythatEnglandwasalandofmelan-cholyandsuicidehaditsrootsintheprecedingcentury.70NativesandforeignersgenerallyacceptedtheallegationthatgloominesswasacharacteristicoftheinhabitantsoftheBritishIsles,particularlytheEnglish.Thismelancholywasmorethanjustamood;itwasadisease,amaladyofmindandbodywhichdirectlyaffectedtheimaginationandwasliabletoendinself-destruction.Thiscondition,alsoknownasthespleenortheEnglishmalady,waslinkedaetiologicallywiththephysicalandsocialenvironment.SirWilliamTemple,inhisObservationsupontheUnitedProvincesof1673, notedthatstrangersamongtheDutch'areapttocomplainofthespleen,butthoseofthecountryseldomornever:whichItaketo'proceedfromtheirbeingeverbusy,oreasilysatisfied.Forthisseemstobethediseaseofpeoplethatareidle,orthinkthemselvesbutillentertainedandattributeevery fit ofdullhumour,orimagination,to aformaldisease, whichtheyhave foundthis name for;where-assuchfitsareincidenttoallmen,atonetimeorother,fromthefumesofindigestion,fromthecommonalterationsofsomeinsensibledegreeinhealthandvigour;orfromsomechangesorap-proachesofchangeinwindsandweather,whichaffectthefinerspiritsofthebrain,beforetheygrowsensibletootherparts;andareapttoaltertheshapes,orcolours,ofwhatisrepresentedtousbyourimaginations,whilstwearesoaffected.. ..Butsuchasareidle,orknownotfromwhencethesechangesarise,andtroubletheirheadswithnotionsorschemesofgeneralhappinessorunhappinessinlife,uponeverysuchlit,beingreflexionsontheconditionoftheirbodies,theirsouls,ortheirfortunes;and(asallthingsarethenrepresentedintheworstcolours)theyfallintomelancholyappre-hensionsof one orother,andsometimesofthemall:Thesemakedeepimpressionontheirminds, andarenoteasilywornoutbythenaturalreturnsofgoodhumour,especiallyiftheyareofteninterruptedbythecontrary;ashappensinsomeparticularcon-stitutions,andmoregenerallyinuncertainclimates,especiallyifimprovedby accidentsofill health, orillfortune.'71Notionsofenvironmentalinfluencecanbetracedbacktoantiquitywithrootsinmedicineandgeography,bothevidentintheHippocraticcorpus,specificallyinAirs,Waters,Places.12TransmittedthroughtheMiddle Ages invariousways,suchideasbegantoassumeanincreasingsignificanceinmany fields ofthoughtandprac-tice duringthe16th and17th centuries.In1566,JeanBodinlinkedtheclassicaltheoryofthehumourswithclimaticandcelestialfactors,endeavouringtoexplainthefecundityofdifferentpeoples,thedistributionandformsofinsanityinEurope,theincidenceofvariousdiseases includingleprosy,anda varietyofotherphenomenainvolvingthementalandphysicalcharacteristicsofpeoples.73Suchideasenjoyedwidecurrencyamongphysicians,politicaltheorists,philosophers,poets,andothersinthe17thcentury,andultimatelyledtothepoliticalandsocialtheoriesofMontesquieu,Hume,andmanyothers.74Focusingonquestionsofnationalcharacterandculturaldifferenceswithinthiscontext,anumberofwritersdiscussedthecausalroleofenvironmentalfactors,suchas air, diet, tempera-ture,insocialandmedicalproblems.These dis-cussions became increasingly frequentin the18thcenturyandafewexamplesmustsuffice.TheAbbeduBosattributeddifferencesinhumanbehaviour,moodandtemperamenttophysicalcauseswhichproduceclimaticvariations,thusimplementingthequalitiesoftheairmanbreathes,andinturnaffectinghumanactions.DuBosnotedseasonalvariationsofcrimeandsuicide.ThusheattributedhighcrimeratesinRomeduringthesummermonthstoex-cessiveheat;ontheotherhand,thetendencyofHistoryinthe studyof suicide 279suicidesinParistooccurmorefrequentlyatthebeginningorattheendofwinterisexplainedbytheactionofthenorth-eastwindontheinhabitants.75The same theme was developedfroma medicalviewpointbyJohnArbuthnot,aScottishphysician,inAnEssayconcerningtheEffectsofAironHumanBodies(1731).Exploringtherelationshipoftheatmospheretodiseasesoccurring seasonally in the Hippocratic tradition,he emphasizedthat'theAiroperatessensiblyinformingtheConstitutionsofMankind,theSpecialitiesofFeatures,Complexion,Temper,and consequently the manners of mankindwhicharefoundtovarymuchindifferentCountriesandClimates'.78The utilityof suchideas inopposingsanctionsagainstsuicideandinurgingalessprejudiced,more tolerantview of such acts is nowherebetterexpressedthaninthewritingsofMontesquieu.OneofhisLett resPersanes(1721),writtenbyUsbekfromParis tohis friendIbbeninSmyrna,ridiculesthebarbarousandunjustEuropeanlaws on suicide anddefendsits practice.'Lifehas been given tome as a gift,'he says, 'I cantherefore return it when this is no longer the case....When I am overwhelmed by pain, poverty and scorn,whydoesonewanttopreventme fromputtinganendtomytroubles,andtodepriveme cruellyof aremedy which is in my hands.'"Moreover,influencedbyearlierandcontem-porary authors, among them Hippocrates, Bodin,andArbuthnot,Montesquieuusedthe theoryofclimaticinfluenceincombinationwithculturalfactorstoexplaintheoccurrenceofsuicideamongdifferentpeoples.ContrastingsuicideamongtheEnglishandtheRomans,Montes-quieu,intheEspritdesLois(1748),assertedthattheformerkillthemselveswithoutanyostensiblereason,seeminglyin theverymidstofhappiness,whileforthelattersuicidewasaconsequenceofeducation,closelyrelatedtotheircustomsandwayofthinking.Infact,suicideamongtheEnglishistheresultofamaladyarisingultimatelyfromtheeffectsofthelocalclimateonthebodyandmind,andshouldthereforenotbepunishable,justasthecon-sequencesofmadnessarenotpunished.78Montesquieu's views reflectthe trends of opinionaboutsuicide thathadbeen developingup tohislime,andpresagethedirectionsthatsocietalconcernwithsuicidewouldtakeinthe18thand19th centuries, indeedup to thepresent.FirstwastheoppositiontothetraditionalChristianattitude to suicide as sinfulandmorallyobnoxious.TheleadersoftheEnlightenmentVoltaire, d'Holbach,Rousseau,Hume,BeccariaandtheiralliescondemnedtheconventionalharshtreatmentofsuicidesandassaultedtheChristianinterpretationthroughtheexerciseofempiricalobservationandcriticalreason,thuslayingthefoundationforasecularapproachtothe problem of suicide.79Secondwasthepreoccupationofwritersonsuicide with national character in relation to self-destruction,especiallytheallegedEnglishpro-pensityforsuchacts,andtheclaimthatsuicidewasontheincrease.Thosewhopursuedthisline of interesttendedtofocusonenvironmentalfactors.IllustrativearethecommentsofGeorgeCheyne,theBritishphysician,onthecircum-stances whichledtothe appearanceofhis work,The English Malady,in1733.'ThetitleIhave chosenforthistreatise,'hesays,'isareproachuniversallythrownonthisislandbyforeigners,andallourneighboursonthecontinent,bywhomnervousdistempers,spleen,vapoursandlownessofspiritsareinderision,calledtheEnglishMalady.AndI wishtherewere notso goodgroundsforthisreflection.Themoistureofourair,thevariablenessofourweather(fromoursituationamidsttheocean),theranknessandfertilityofoursoil,therichnessandheavinessofourfood,thewealthandabundanceoftheinhabitants(fromtheiruniversaltrade), the inactivityandsedentaryoccupa-tionsofthebettersort(amongwhomthisevilmostlyrages)andthehumouroflivingingreat,populousandconsequentlyunhealthytowns,havebroughtforthaclassandsetupdistempers,withatrociousandfrightfulsymptoms,scarceknowntoourancestors, andneverrisingtosuchfatalheights,norafflictingsuchnumbersinanyotherknownnation.Thesenervousdisordersbeingcomputedtomakealmostonethirdofthecomplaintsofthepeople of conditioninEngland.'Nevertheless,hewouldhavehadthisworkpublishedposthumouslyhadhenotbeenurgedbyhisfriendsbecauseof'the late frequencyanddaily encrease ofwantonand280 George Rosenuncommonself-murderers,producedmostlyby thisdistemper. . .to try what a little more just and solidphilosophy, join'dtoa methodof cure, andpropermedicinescoulddo,toputa stop tosouniversalalunacy and madness.'80Relatedtothistrendandoverlappingwithitwastheviewofsuicideasaconsequenceofmentalandemotionaldisorder.Thisthirdtendencytoconsiderself-destructionasamedi-calproblemis already evidentinCheyne'sbook,andbecomesincreasinglyprominentinthe19thcentury.Aspartofthisapproach,effortsweremadetodifferentiateconditionsleadingtosuicidefromotherdisorders,togivemoreattentiontotheproblemsoftheindividualpatient,andtocollectandusestatisticsforresearchonsuicide.IndicativeofsuchattitudesarethecommentsofWilliamBattieinATreatise on Madness (1758):'WhatevermaybethecauseofAnxiety,itchieflydiscoversitselfbythatagonisingimpatienceoberv-ableinsomemenofblackNovemberdays,ofeasterly winds, of heat, cold, damps, etc. Which realmiseryoftheirsissometimesderidedbydullermortals as a whimsicalaffectation.Andofthe samenaturearetheperpetualtempestsoflove,hatred,andotherturbulentpassionsprovokedbynothingoratmostby very trifles.Inwhich state ofhabitualdiseases many drag onin their wretchedlives; whilstothers, unequal to evils of which they see no remedybutdeath,rashlyresolvetoendthematanyrate.Which very frequent cases of suicide though generallyascribedtolunacyby the verdictof agood-naturedjury, exceptwhere the deceasedhathnotleftassets,arenomoreentitledtothebenefitofpassingforpardonable acts of madness than he who deliberatelyhas killed the manhe hateddeserves to be acquittedas notknowing whathe did.'81SuicidewasregardedassowidelyprevalentinEnglandbythemiddleofthe18thcenturythatmanybelievedtheproblemconstitutedanationalemergency.Whetherthereactuallywasasuicideepidemic,orwhetherpublicopinionwas simplystimulatedandarousedbythePress,andbyvariousspokesmenforreligious,philo-sophical,political,medical,andotherviewsarequestions that cannotbe answered. To determinehow farpublic concern was justifiedis impossiblebecausevalidstatisticalinformationisnotavailable.Fromtimetotimenewspapersandperiodicalspublishednumericalinformationonsuicide,andsome effortsweremadetoassemblestatisticsonabroadercomparativebasis.Nevertheless,thekeeping ofreliablerecordsonsuicidedidnotbeginuntilthe19thcentury.Itseems likely that any apparentincrease may havebeenduetothegreaterfrequencywithwhichnoticewastakenofsuicides,particularlyinthecaseofprominentpersons,orinunusualcir-cumstances.Whateverthecasemayhavebeenthereisnodoubtthatby the early19thcenturysuicidewasbeingconsideredlessinmoralandtheologicaltermsandincreasinglyasasocialandmedicalproblem.Indeed,bythebeginningofthe20thcentury,eventhoughdisapprovingofsuicide,popularopinionhadgenerallycometoviewsuchactsasdeviationsfromnormality.ThisattitudeiswellpresentedbyanepisodeinJoyce'sUlysses. Onthewaytoafuneral,fourmen talk about attemptedsuicide anddeath.'Butthe worst of all',Mr. Power said, 'is the manwho takes his own life.'MartinCunninghamdrewouthiswatchbriskly,coughed, and put it back.'Thegreatestdisgracetohave inthe family',Mr.Power added.'Temporaryinsanity, of course', Martin Cunning-ham said decisively. 'We must take a charitable viewof it.''Theysayamanwhodoesitisacoward',Mr.Dedalus said.'Itisnotforustojudge',MartinCunninghamsaid.82Bythe20thcentury,intheconventionalwis-domofthemiddleclass,suicidewasmoresig-nificantsociallyasadisgraceratherthanasasin,andcouldconvenientlybeglossedoverbyattributingittomentalaberration.AsByronindicates, this hadoriginallybeen anupper-classpositionandprerogative.IntheprefacetoCantosVI-VIIIofDonJuan,commentingonthe suicide of Viscount Castlereagh, he says:'Ofthemannerofhisdeathlittleneedbesaid,except thatif a poor radical, such as Waddington orWatson,hadcuthisthroat,hewouldhavebeenburiedin a cross-road, with the usual appurtenancesofthestakeandmallet.Buttheministerwasanelegantlunaticasentimentalsuicidehemerelycut the "carotidartery", (blessing on their learning!)Maloryinthe studyof suicide 281andlo!Ihcpageant,andtheAbbey!and"thesyllablesofdolouryelledforth"bythenews-papers. . . .'Thus,in the courseof the19th century,thelabelofmadnessbecameasociallyacceptablemeansof avoiding the implications and consequencesofsuicide even though insanity itself hadunpleasantassociations.Reinforcingthisviewwasthecircumstancethatduringthisperiodsuicideemergedasasubjectformedicalandsocialinvestigation.Thequestion'issuicideontheincrease?',whichhadalreadybeenraisedinthe18thcentury,becameevenmoreprominentasdataonsuicidewerecollectedinthe19thcentury.83ThisquestionwasconsideredimportantbecausethiswasalsotheperiodoftheearlyIndustrialRevolutionwithitsattendantevidencesofsocialmaladjust-ment.Theallegedincreaseintheincidenceofsuicidewasviewedasanotheraspectofthissituation.Moreover,bylinkingsuicidewithmentaldisorder,theproblemwasbroughtintothelargerdiscussionoftherelationbetweencivilizationandmadness,andtheroleofsocialstressesinthecausationofsuchconditions.Physicians,socialreformers,statisticiansen-deavouredtouncoverthecausesoftheallegedrisingtideofself-destruction.ThemajorityofthemoreimportantstudiesappearedinFrance.ThisisnotsurprisinginviewofFrenchleader-shipinpublichealthandsocialtheoryduringthe first half of the19thcentury.84Suicidewasinvestigatedasasocialproblemtogetherwithpoverty,crime,alcoholism,il-legitimacy,anddisease,withinthecontextchieflyoftheurbancommunity.Basedonavailablemortalitytables,Lachaisein1822studiedthequestionofsuicideinParis.85Concerningthestatisticaldata,hepointedoutthatthereportedcases probablyunderstatedtheactualdimensionsoftheproblem:first,becauserelativesinsomecasestrytoavoidafamilydisgracebyhavingthedeathattributedtosomeothercausesuchasinsanity;second,becausereportedsuicidestakenoaccountofalargenumberofattemptedsuicidesthatfailforoneoranotherreason.Furthermore,Lachaiseclaimedthatsuicidewasmorefrequentinthelabouringclass{la classe des proletaires), forthemostpartbecauseofpoverty.Theclaimsthatsuicidewasanurbanpheno-menon, occurringin large cities, especiallyParis,andthatsuicidewasrelatedtopovertyandforthisreasonoccurredmorefrequentlyamongthelabouringpoorwererepeatedbynumerouswritersonthesubject,particularlyinthe1840sand1850s.86Theseinvestigationscannotbeexaminedindetail,butcertainaspectsmustbementioned.Onthewhole they arecharacterizedbyanincreasinguseofstatisticalinformation,anendeavourtostudysuicideasasocialphenomenon,andatrendtolinktheseaspectswhereverpossiblewithdataderivedfrompathologicalanatomyandclinicalobservation.Althoughthesedevelopmentsweremostpromi-nent in France in the first half of the19th century,amoreorlesssimilarpatterncanbediscernedinGreatBritain,theGermanlanguageareaofcentralEurope,andtheUnitedStates.Withinthisgeneralframework,twomajorapproachestoanunderstandingofsuicidedevelopedwhich may be designatedas statistical-sociologicalandmedico-psychiatric.Theformerwasrootedintheenvironmentalideasofthe18thcentury.However,asnumericaldataandstatisticalanalysis became more readilyavailablefromthe1820sonward,thoseconcernedwithsuicidebegantoemploythemvigorously.Effortswere made to relate the kinds, occurrence,anddistributionofsuicidetosuchfactorsasclimate,urban-ruralresidence,age, sex,maritalstatus,socio-economicclass,occupation,in-temperance,anddisease.Certaindefectswerecommontoalltheseinvestigations;thepopula-tionsampleswithwhichtheydealtweretoosmallornotrepresentative,andoftenthepopulationsatriskwerenotknownornotindicated.Investigatorswerenotunawareoftheseproblems.J.L.Casper(1796-1864),aPrussianphysician,whoin1825 wasthefirsttousestatisticsas theprincipalmeansforresearchonsuicide, was awareof the inadequaciesofthedataavailabletohim.Emphasizingtheneedtouse a varietyof sources (police records, mortalitytabulations,publicannouncements),healsopointedouthis inclusionin thestudyofattemp-tedsuicidestotheextentthattheycouldbedetermined.87Assuchstudiesaccumulated,itbecameapparentthatcertainfactorswereofminorsig-nificance,ifnotcompletelyirrelevant.Indeed,itwasrealizedthatthesuicidalactresultedfrom282 Rosentheinteractionofanumberofcausalfactors,operatingdirectlyorindirectlyonanindividual.J.P. Falret,who in1822 publishedthe first studyofsuicide tomakeuse of statisticaldata,thoughonlyonasmallscale,classifiedcausalfactorsleadingtosuicideunderfourheadings:(1)predisposingheredity,temperament,climate(thelastoflittlesignificance);(2)accidentaldirect passions, domestic troubles andthe like;(3)accidentalindirectbodilypain,illness;(4)generalcivilization,civildisorders,religiousfanaticism.88Essentially,theproblemfor19th-centuryinvestigatorsofsuicidewastherelevantsig-nificancetobeassignedtosuchfactorsinthecausationofsuicide, andthe waysinwhichtheywererelatedintheiractionontheindividual.Some consideredsuicide to be a formof insanity.Thisviewwasbynomeansnew.In1783,LeopoldAuenbrugger,knowntoposterityasthediscovererofpercussion,publishedaslimvolumeonsuicide as a diseasein its ownright.89Inithe definedsuicideas the consequenceofanemotionaldisorderwhichbringsonmelancholyandeventuallyleadstoself-destruction.Hedescribed the emotional disorder as a 'quiet rage',buthisviewsonthenatureofthisstatewererootedintheolderideasofthepassions.90Somewhatoveradecadelater,E.G.Elvertpublishedtheresultofhis necropsiesonsuicidesinthecourseofwhichhehadattemptedtodiscoverchangesinthebodywhichmighthaveaffectedthe mind.91Bytheearly19thcentury,however,theviewwas emergingevermoreclearlythattherewas adefiniteconnectionbetweenfindingsobtainedthroughclinicalobservationandanatomicallesionsobservedatnecropsy.ThefusionoftheclinicalandanatomicalapproachestotheinvestigationofdiseaseandtheirsystematicapplicationwasthemajorcontributionoftheParis school of clinicalpathologistsfrom1800 to1850. In these terms, if suicide were regarded as aformofinsanity,itseemedreasonabletoseekthecauseofthenervoussystem-.In1818,thephrenologist-physician,J.C. Spurzheim, charac-terizedsuicide as a formof insanityproducedbydiseaseofthebody,whichrevealeditselfinchroniccasesbythickeningoftheskull.92Falret(seeabove)consideredsuicidetobeaspecialformofinsanitywhichhecalled'lamclancolic- suicide",adiseaseinwhichIhcbrainisalmostalwaysoriginallyaffected.Thistypeofresearchwas continuedthroughthe19thcentury andinto the presentcentury.93Notallinvestigatorsofsuicide,however,heldtosuchviews.Esquirol(1838)heldthatsuicidewas almost always a symptomof insanity but thatit was notadisease per se9A. In his opinion climatewas ofno significancein endeavouringtounder-standthepathogenesisofsuicide.Norwashe atallsanguineaboutthepossibilitiesofpatho-logicalanatomysheddinglightonsuicidalbehaviour.HespecificallydeniedSpurzheim'sclaim.Esquiroldidemphasizehereditaryfactorsandtheneedtoconsidertheindividualdis-position. This emphasis was strengthened by talkswith individuals who had attemptedsuicide.MoreextensivestudiesalongthislinewerecarriedoutbyBrierre deBoismont,probablythemostimportantcontributortotheproblemofsuicideinthemiddleofthe19thcentury.Inhistreatise,DuSuicideetdela foliesuicide,pub-lished in1856, he made extensive use of statistics,buthealsousedinformationobtainedbyquestioning265individualswhoeitherhadplannedorattemptedtocommitsuicide.Onthebasisofadetailedanalysis,BrierredeBoismontdeniedthatallsuicidesareduetoinsanity,eventhoughalargenumberarecausedbymentalillness. Among themore importantcauses whichhelistsareinsanity,alcoholism,illness,familytroubles,loveproblems,andpoverty.Otherfindingsbringhimclosetoasociologicalexplanationofsuicide.Amongthesuicidesstudied,hefoundahigherproportionofun-marriedpersons,ofoldpeople,andofmen.More generally,he saw suicideas aconsequenceofchangesinsocietyleadingtosocialdis-organization and to alienation for many people.95SimilarviewswereexpressedbyE.Lisleinawork also publishedin 1856.96BrierredeBoismont,Lisle,andotherin-vestigatorswerepointingtotheconclusionwhichDurkheimwastostateattheendofthecentury,in1897:suicidewillnotbewidelyprevalentinasocietywhichiswellintegratedpolitically, economically, andsocially.97HISTORYANDSUICIDEAsinitiallystated,thispapercannotbeahistoryofsuicide;thatstillremainstobewritten.ItsHistoryinthe studyoj suicide 283purposeisratherlt>indicatebyexamplewhathistoricalanalysismightcontributetothestudyof suicide.Aboveall,historycanprovideperspective. Ahistoricalapproachmakesitpossibletoseesuicideindifferenttemporalcontexts, andtotrytounderstandwhatmeaningithas forpeopleofvaryingbackgroundsandexperiences.More-over,byexaminingsuicidenotsimplyasamedicalorapsychologicalphenomenon,butrather as an elementin a process of social changeovertime,itis possibletostudyitinrelationtovariousfacetsofapopulationorasociety.Whysuicidehasbecomeaproblem,oraltereditsnatureasaproblematdifferentperiodsandinvarioussocieties,hasbeensketchedabove.Atthe same time, the relationof changingsocialconditions,valuesystems,institutions,andideologiestotheoccurrenceofsuicidemaysuggestwaysoflookingatourpresentproblem.Inshort,historicalanalysisisatool.Theexamplesdiscussedinthispaperalsoindicatewherefurtherinvestigationmaybecarriedon,anditismyhopethatthechallengewillbeaccepted.NOTESANDREFERENCES'1Samuelxxxi, 4-5.2IISamuelxvii,23;1Kingsxvi,18.3Judgesxvi,23-31.Matthew xxvii,5.5Josephus,withanEnglishtranslation(LoebClassicalLibrary)byH.St.J.Thackeray.9vols.,1926-1965.Vol.2,1927,pp.681-683.Heinemann:London;Putnam:NewYork.ForthepossibleoriginofthispracticeseeDeuteronomyxxi,2223,fortheburialatsunsetofahangedcriminal.Mosephus,op.cit.,1926.Vol.I,p.381.Philo.LegatioadGaium,edited,withanintroduction,translation,andcommentarybyE.M.Smallwood,1961,pp.162,192,215,233,249,266,329.Brill:Leiden.'YigaelYadin.Masada:Herod'sFortressandtheZealots'LastStand.TranslatedbyM.Pearlman,1966.RandomHouse:NewYork.Josephus,op.cit.,Vol.3,1928,pp.595-617.'Greenstone,J.H.Martyrdom(restrictionof),JewishEncyclopedia,VIII."DiodorusofSicily,withanEnglishtranslation(LoebClassicalLibrary)byC.H.Oldfather.12vols.,1933-1967.Vol.4,1946,pp.413-415.Heinemann:London.'"Lucan.TheCivilWar,withanEnglishtranslation(LoebClassicalLibrary)byJ.D.Duff.1928,pp.205-217.HarvardUniversityPress:Cambridge,Mass.Heine-mann:London."Plutarch.Lives,withanEnglishtranslation(LoebClassicalLibrary)byB.Perrin.11vols.,1914-1926.Vol.4,1916,pp.222-245.Heinemann:London;Putnam:NewYork.Tacitus.Histories:Annals.4vols.,1925-1937.Histories,withanEnglishtranslation(LoebClassicalLibrary)byC.H.Moore.Vol.I,1925,pp.236-241.HarvardUniversityI'rcss:Cambridge,Mass;Heinemann:London.^Plutarch.Lives,pp.242-243.l:!Athenaeus.Deipnosophists,withanEnglishtranslation(LoebClassicalLibrary)byC.B.Gulick.7vols.,1927-1941.Vol.3,1929, p.123. 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