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Harappa / Indus Valley civilization

John Marshall was the first scholar to use the term, „Indus Civilization‟.

The most characteristic feature of the Harappan Civilization was its urbanization.

Besides sheep and goats, dogs, humped cattle buffalo and elephant was certainly domesticated.

The heartland of the Indus Civilization was Harappa-Ghaggar-Mohenjodaro axis.

Capital cities- Harappa, Mohenjodaro.

Port cities- Lothal, Sutkagendor, Allahdino, Balakot, Kuntasi.

Sites of Indus Civilization:

Social features:

First urbanization in India.

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Town planning

Grid pattern

Drainage system

Equality in society

Economic features:

Based on agriculture

Trade/commerce.

Export/import

Weight/measures

Production of cotton

Religious Features:

Mother goddess – Matridevi or Shakti

Sex organ (Yoni) worship.

Pashupati Mahadeva – lord of Animals – Yogic position structiure.

Nature worship.

Animal worship – Unicorn, ox.

Tree worship – Peepal.

Fire worship- Havan Kund.

Cultural features:

Pottery

Use of stamps/seals.

Beads used ornaments.

Sculptures.

Harappa Trade:

The Harappan people traded with the people of Sumer and with the towns lying along the Persian Gulf. Harappan seals and other small objects used by the merchants and traders for stamping their goods have been found in Mesopotamia. The merchandise was shipped from Lothal and incoming goods were received here. Weights and measures which were very accurately graded point to a very high degree of exchange.

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Agriculture:

The Harappans cultivated wheat and barley the two main food crops. Peas and dates were also grown. In addition sesame and mustard were grown and used for oil. However the people cultivated rice as early as 1800 BC in Lothal. The Harappans were the earliest people to grow cotton. Irrigation depended on the irregular flooding of the rivers of Punjab and Sind.

Striking Features:

• Surkotada is the only Indus site where the remains of a horse have actually been found.

• A small pot was discovered at Chanhudaro which was probably an inkpot. Harappan pottery is bright or dark red and is uniformly sturdy and well baked.

• It was chiefly made and consists of both plain and painted ware and plain variety being more common.

• Harappan people used different types of pottery such as galzed, polychrome, incised perforated and knobbed.

• Main types of seals are the square type with a carved animal and inscription and rectangular type with inscription only.

• Terracotta seals found at Mehargarh were the earliest precursors of the Harappan seals.

• Evidence of sea and river transport by ships and boats in several seals and terracotta models have been found apart from the dockyard at Lothal. Representations of ships are found on seals found at Harappa and Mohenjodaro.

• Apart from Lothal in Gujarat, the three Harappan sites on the Makran coast - Sutkagendor, Sotkako and Khairia kot have been generally considered to have been posts in the maritime links with the Gulf and Mesopotamia.

• At Kalibangan the lanes and roads of the city were built in a definite proportion. Lanes were 1.8 mts wide and the roads were 3.6, 5.4 and 7.2 mts wide.

• The Mohenjodaro, the length of the Great Bath was 12 mtrs, breadth was 7mtrs and depth was 2.5 mtrs.

• In the south-west of Mohenjodaro there was a granary which covers 55 x 37 mtrs area. It is surrounded by verandas on four sides. There were 27 blocks of solid blocks of solid bricks in granary. It was divided into 3 parts.

• In Harappa the Granary was outside the Fort. In the Lothal port, there was a dockyard which was 216 mtrs in length and 37 mtrs in breadth.

• Leg bone of elephant was found at Kalibangan.

• Copper rhino, copper chariot and copper elephant found at Daimabad.

• Harappan city with three divisions namely-citadel, middle town and lower town was at Dholavira.

• Ragi was not known to the Indus people.

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VEDIC CULTURE (1500 bc-600bc)

-The Vedic period (or Vedic age) (ca.1750–500 BCE) was the period in Indian history during which the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed.

-The people who evolved this culture called themselves Aryas or Aryans and were probably an invading or immigrant people, whose first arrival in India is dated a little earlier than 1500 B.C.

-The location of the original home of the Aryans still remains a controversial point. Some scholars believe that the Aryans were native to the soil of India and some believe that the Aryans were migrated from outside (Central Asia/Europe/Arctic Region)

-Boghazkai Inscription (Asia Minor, Turkey), which mentions 4 vedic gods Indra, Varuna, Mitra and Nasatyas, proves central Asian theory as their homeland.

- In the Rigveda, the land where the Vedic Aryans lived is called by the name of Sapta-Sindhu or the „land of the seven rivers‟ which included the Indus or Sindhu with its principal tributaries on the west and the river Saraswati on the east.

-Major vedic gods: Indra, varuna, Agni, surya, Pushan, Soma, Maruts, Vayu, Tvastri, Rudra, Dyaus, Aditi,Usha,Prithvi, Ratri, Aranyani.

-Vedic Literature:

This contains several literary productions:

1. Samhitas or Vedas or Apaurasheya

-It‟s a collection of four books which contains hymns, which were sung in praise of Gods.

-There four Vedas are:

a. Rig Veda: It is a collection of hymns for use at sacrifice. It contains 1017 hyms and is divided in 10 mandals.

b. Sama Veda: It is a collection of verses from Rig Veda with exception of 75 hymns. It is known as chants and is sung at the time of soma sacrifices.

c. Yajur Veda: It‟s a book of sacrificial formula. It has two parts, Black Yajur Veda (Prose) and white Yajur veda (Hymns)

d. Atharva Veda: It contains charms and spells to ward of evils and diseases. It is know as book of magical formulae.

2. Brahamans

-Brahama means, „sacrifice‟.

-They are commentaries on Vedas which explains the hymns of Vedas, meaning of sacrifices and the method of performing them.

3. Aranyakas

-They are called the „Forest Books‟ which are the concluding portions of the Brahamanas.

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-It deals with mysticism and philosophy.

4. Upanishads

-They are generally called Vedanta, as they came towards the end of the Vedas.

-It teaches philosophies of Vedas. It deals between the creator and the created.

-There are 108 Upanishadaas.

-Vrihadarayanka is the oldest Upanishada.

5. Vedangas

-They are the limbs of the Vedas.

-Six Vedangas:

a. Kalpa

b. siksha

c. Vyakarans

d. Nirukta

e. Chhanda

f. Jyotish

6. Upavedas

-subsidiary Vedas dealing with secular subjects.

-four Upavedas

a. Ayurveda (Medicine). It is associated with Rig Veda.

b. Dhanurveda (Archery). It is associated with Yajur Veda.

c. Gandharvavedas (Music). It is associated with sama Veda.

d. Shilpveda/Arthaveda (Architecture). It is associated with Atharva Veda.

7. Sutras

-These are legal literatures.

-Griha Sutra deals with domestic and religious duties.

-Dhrama Sutra deals social duties.

8. Dharma Shastras

-These are books on law and judiciary systems of Aryans.

-Important Dhramashastas are: Manu Smrit, Yajnvalkya Smriti, Narad Smriti, Parashara Smriti, Brihaspati Smriti, Katyayana Smriti.

9. Mahakavyas (Epic)

-Two Mahakavyas:

a. The Ramayana

-written by Valmiki

-known as „Adi Kavya‟ (oldest epic in the world)

-divided in 7 kandas

b. The Mahabharat

-written by Ved Vyas.

- Originally known as Jaya Samhita and satasahasri samhita.

-Longest epic in the world.

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-divided in 18 chapters.

-Bhagvad Gita is extyracted from Bihshma Parvan of Mahabharat.

10. Puranas

-There are 18 puranas

-oldest purana is Matsya Purana

Early Vedic Period (1750–1000 BCE)

- The Rig Veda contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the Dasas and Dasyus

- The Rig Veda describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices (akratu) or obey the commandments of gods (avrata).

- Military conflicts between the various tribes of Vedic Aryans are also described in the Rig Veda. Most notable of such conflicts was the battle of ten Kings which took place on the banks of the river Parushni (modern day Ravi).

- The battle was fought between the tribe Bharatas, led by their chief Sudas, against a confederation of ten tribes -Puru, Yadu, Turvasha, Anu, Druhyu, Alina, Bhalanas, Paktha, Siva, Vishanin. This batlle was won by sudas.

- Purukutsa, the chief of Purus, was killed in the battle and the Bharatas and the Purus merged into a new tribe Kuru after the war.

Later Vedic period (1000–500 BCE)

- After the 12th century BCE, as the Rig Veda had taken its final form, the Vedic culture extended into the western Ganges Plain.

- This period saw also the beginning of the social stratification by the use of Varna, the division of Vedic society in Kshatriya, Brahmins, Vaishya and Shudra.

- The development of the varna system, which created a hierarchy of priests, warriors, and free peasants, ultimately led to the excluding of indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure.

- The most famous of new religious sacrifices that arose in this period was the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice).

- The Kuru Kingdom, the earliest Vedic "state", was formed by a "super-tribe" which joined several tribes in a new unit.

- Two key figures in this process of the development of the Kuru state were the king Parikshit and his successor Janamejaya, transforming this realm into the dominant political and cultural power of northern Iron Age India.

- The Kuru kingdom declined after its defeat by the non-Vedic Salva tribe, and the political centre of Vedic culture shifted east, into the Panchala kingdom on the Ganges.

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The Rise of Buddhism And Jainism

Buddhishm

Lord Buddha:

Also known as Sakyamuni or Tathagata.

Born to Suddhodana (Sakya ruler) and Mahamaya in 563 BC on the Vaishakha Poorrnima day at Lumbani (near kapilavastu) in Nepal.

Lost mother 7 days after the birth. Brought up by stepmother Gautami.

Married at 16 to Yoshodhara. Enjoyed the married life for 13 years and blessed with a son named Rahula.

After seeing an old man, a sick man, a corpse and an ascetic, he decided to become a wanderer.

Left his place at 29 (with Channa, the charioteer and his favourite horse, Kanthaka) in search of truth (called „Mahabhinishkramana‟ or The great Renunciation) and wandered for 6 years.

For 6 years he tortured himself until he was nothing but a walking skeleton. But after 6 years, he felt that his fasts and penance had been useless. So he abandoned these things.

Attained „Enlightenment‟ at 35 at Gaya in Magadha (Bihar) under the Pipal tree.

Delivered the first sermon at sarnath where his five disciplines had settled. His first sermon is called „Dharmachakrapravartan. Or “turning of the Wheel of Law”.

Attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar (identical to village Kasia in Deoria district of UP) in 483 BC at the age of 80.

Buddhist councils:

Trick To Learn Places- RVPK

Trick To Learn Kings- AKAK

Council Time Place Chairman King

First 483 BC Rajgriha Mahakashyap Ajatsatru

Second 383BC Vaishali Sarvkami Kalashoka

Third 251BC Patliputra Mogaliputta Tissa Ashoka

Fourth 72AD Kashmir Vasumitra Kanishka

*In fourth council Buddhism separated into Mahayana and Hinayana sects.

Buddhist Literature:

In Pali language.

Buddhist scriptures in Pali are commonly referred to as Tripitakas, ie “Threefold Basket”.

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#Vinaya Pitaka:

Rules of discipline in Buddhist monasteries.

#Sutta Pitaka:

Largest contains collection of Budddha‟s sermons.

Jatakas are the fables about the different births of Buddha.

Mahatama Buddha stressed four noble truths:

There is sorrow.

Reason of sorrow is desire.

Sorrow can be ended by killing desires.

Desire can be controlled by following Eight Fold Path.

Stupas and Viharas:

Stupa: Relics of Buddha, Sanchi Stupa was built by Ashoka in Vidisha (MP).

Viharas: Residential Place of Bodh Bhikshu.

Nalanda vihar in Bihar constructed by Kumar Gupta-I.

Jainism

Founded by Rishabha.

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There were 24 Tirthankaras.

First was Rishabhadev (emblem: bull)

The 23rd

Tirthankar was Parshwanath (emblem: snake)

The 24th Tirthankar was Mahavira (emblem: Lion)

Lord Mahavira:

The 24th

and the last Tirthankar was Vardhman Mahavir (Emblem: Lion). He was born in Kundagram (Distt. Muzaffarpur, Bihar) in 540 BC.

Born to Siddhartha (Head of the Kshatriya Clan) and Trushla (sister of Lichhavi Prince chetak of Vaishali).

Bimbisara was realted to Lord Mahavira.

Married to Yashoda, had daughter named Priyadasena, whose husband Jamali became his first disciple.

At 30, after the death of his parents, he became an ascetic.

In the 13th

year of his ascetism (on the 10th

of Vishakha), outside the town of the Jrimbhikgrama, he attained supreme knowledge (kaivalya).

From now on he was called Jaina or Jinendriya and Mahavira, and his followers were named Jains. He got the title of Arihant, ie, Worthy.

At the age of 72, he attained death at Pawanpuri, in 486 BC.

Jainism Sects:

Shwetambars (Those who wear white cloths) and Digamabars (Those who remain naked).

Jaina Literature:

Jaina Literature was first written in Prakrit and later in Sanskrit.

"Kalpsutra"- Bhadrabahu.

Jaina Council:

Sr No Place Head Result

1. Patliputra Sthulabhadra Jains divided into Shvetambar & Digambar

2. Vallabhi Devardhi Kshmashraman 12 Angas & 12 Upangas were compiled



Magadh Empire Its Dynasties & Alexander Invasion

In the beginning of 6th century BC there was the struggle among the Janpads on the gangentic plane to persuade the wealth of the north i.e. IRON & COPPER that resulted into formation of MAHAJANPAD.

“Shodasha Mahajanpad” - 16 Mahajanpads (mentioned in Buddhist Literature “Anguttara Nikaya”).

4 most powerful were:-

1. Vatsa - Capital:- Kaushambi, Ruler:- Udayan

2. Avanti- Capital:- Ujjain, Ruler:- Pradyot

3. Kosala- Capital:- Ayodhya, Ruler:- Prasanjit

4. Magadh- 1st Capital- Siravasti

2nd Capital- Rajgir

3rd Capital- Patliputra

Rise Of Magadha Empire

The political history of India from 6th century BC onwards is the history of struggle between four states - Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avantis - for supremacy.

Ultimatley the kingdom of Magadha emerged to be the most powerful one and succeeded in founding an empire.

Dynasties of Magadha Empire:

Haryanka Dynasty

Founder- Bimbisar

Last- Udayin

i. Bimbisar

Originally founded in 566 BC by the grand father of Bimbisar named Brihdratha but actually founded by Bimbisara (544-492BC).

Capital- Rajgir.

ii. Ajatshatru (son)

Ajatsatru (492-460 BC): son of Bimbisara, killed his father & seized the throne.

Fuoght 16 year battele with lichhavis and Kosal.

Constructed "Dhatu Chaityas" around capital Patligram. Also constructed Chaityas & Viharas.

Organised 1st Buddhist Council at Rajgir.

iii. Udayin (last)

Udayin (460-444 BC): He founded the new capital at Pataliputra, situated at the confluence of the Ganag & Son.

Shishunag Dynasty

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Founder- Shishunag

Capital- Vaishali

Founded by a minister shishunaga.

Shishunaga was succeeded by Kalashok, in his reign 2nd

Buddhism council held at Vaishali.

Nanda Dynasty

Founder- Mahapadmnanda

Last- Dhananda

i. Mahapadmnanda ("Ekarat")

Uprooted 'Khatriya' from north india, therefore tiltled "Ekarat" and Considered by many as the first non-Kshatriya dynasty.

'Hathigumpa Inscription'- By Kharvel of Kalinga described mahapadm & his conquest over Kalinga.

He was the first to cross Vindhya to capture Deccan.

ii. Dhanananda

Alexander (from Greece) attacked India in their reign in 326 BC. Dhana Nanda was there at that time.

Later defeated by Mauryas.

Persian Invasion

First- Cyrus

Last- Darius-III

Alexander Invasion (327-25 BC)

Was from Macedonia (Greece), Father- Philip.

Reached India through "Khyber Pass" (hindukush mountain) & made bridge on Indus.

First met Taxila king Ambhi.

Battle Of "Hydaspes"(Jhelum) (326 BC)

(won) Alexander Vs Porus (ruled b/w area of Jhelum & Chenab)

Impressed by the courage & heroism of Porus, Alexander reinstated him.

Came upto river 'Beas' & returned back as his army revolted.

Died in 'Babylon' (323 BC).

This Invasion resulted into Unification Of North under Mauryas

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The Mauryan Empire

Founder – Chandragupta Maurya

Last – Brihadrath (killed by Pushyamitra Sungha)

Capital – Patliputra (modern „Patna‟)

Literary source

“Arthashastra” (Sanskrit) – Vishnugupta (Chanakya or Kautilya or „Indian Machiavelli‟)

• Arthashastra was discovered and published – by R. Shama Shastri (1904).

• Carries 15 books, 180 chapters, 3 parts.

• 1st part – King, council and department of government.

• 2nd part – Civil and criminal law.

• 3rd part – diplomacy and war.

“Mudrarakshasa” (Skt) – Vishakhadatta

“Indica” – Megasthenes (Greek, Seleucus ambassador)

“Kathasaritsagar” – Somdev

“Brihadkatha Manjari” – Kshemendra

“Rajtarangini” – Kalhan

(i) Chandragupta Mayurya

• In 305 BC defeated Selucus Niketar (General of Alexander)

• Megasthenese visited his court

• Made "Sudarshan Lake”, according to “Junagarh Rock Inscription”

• Later adopted „Jainism‟ and went south india with „Bhadrabahu‟ & died at „Sravanbelagola‟ (Maysore, Karnataka)

(ii) Bindusar („Amitraghat‟)

• Conquered deccan upto Maysor

• Taranath (Tibet Monk) said that bindu conquered 16 state & „land b/w two sea‟

• Eldest son „Suman‟ viceroy of „Taxila‟ & „Ashok‟ to „Ujjain‟

• Followed „Ajivak Sampraday‟

(iii) Ashoka The Great (272-232 BC)

• Mother – Subhadrandi or Janpad Kalyani, Father - Bindusar, Son – Mahendra, Daughter – Sanghmitra, Guru g – Upgupta (taught Buddhism)

• 1st 8 years ruled like a cruel king

• After Kalinga war embraced Buddhism from Guru g

• Appointed „Dharma Mahamatras‟ to speed up process of Dharma propogation

• Conducted 3rd Buddhist Council at „Patliputra‟

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• His son and daughter went to Ceylon (Srilanka) to propagate Buddhism.

Ashoka Inscription

1st Deciphered by “James Princep” (1837)

• Found in India, Nepal, Pakistan, Afganistan mostly in „Prakrit‟ language & „Brahmi‟ script

• Northwest india, Pakistan – „Kharosthi Script‟

Afganistan – „Amaic‟ (Greek)

• Total 33 inscription out of which 14 Major Rock & 7 Minor Pillar Edict

• Took help from “Ashtadyayi” (Skt Grammar) – „Panini‟

• “Minor Rock Edict” (Maski) – Only edict carries his name & in rest referred as “Devnampriya” & “Priyadasi”

• “Pillar Edict VII” – Explains efforts to propagate dharma

• “Kandhar Edict” – Only Bilingual Edict

• “Ruminidei Edict” – Explains birth of Buddha

• “Rock Edict XIII” – Kalinga War (Longest)

• “Kaushambi Pillar Edict” – Shifted to „Allahabad‟ by „Jahangir‟

• “Sopara & Merrut Pillar Edict” – Shifted to „Delhi‟ by „Firoz Shah Tuglaq‟

After Ashok‟s death in 232 BC

• Eastern part ruled by – Dasarath (Grandson)

• Western part ruled by – Kunal (Son)

Mauryan Economy, Art, Admin

• Coins

Pana – Silver, Masikas – Copper, Kakini – 1/4th of Masika

• Chief guild was „Jeshthaka‟

• „Krishta' – Cultivated Land

„Akrishta‟ – Waste Land

„Vivita‟ – Pasture land for animals

• Five Provinces

North – Taxilla

West – Ujjain

South – Swarnagiri

East – Dosali

Central – Patliputra (under king)

• Officers

Amatyas – IAS officers

Samahart – Chief Tax Collector

Adhyaksha – Chief of Commerce & Industry

Dharmathikarin – CJI of Supreme Court

Gopa – 15 Village incharge

Raksihah – Police

"Lion Capital Of Ashok"

i. A sculpture of four Indian lions standing back to back, on an elaborate base that includes other animals. A graphic representation of it was adopted as the official Emblem of India in 1950.

ii. It was originally placed atop the Aśoka pillar at the important Buddhist site of Sarnath by the Emperor Ashoka, in about 250 BC.



iii. Whenever the emblem is used by state governments or any other government body, the words Satyameva Jayate in Devanagari script has to be used right under the emblem as per the statute, State Emblem of India Act, 2005.

iv. On the Right side of Emblem there is a Horse and on left is Bull. Total animals are 4 i.e. Lion, Horse, Bull and Elephant.

Post Maurya Period and Gupta Period

Post- Mauryan Dynasties (200AD- 300 AD)

Shunga Dynasty

Founder Pushyamitra Sunga Last Devbhuti murdered by Vasudev Kanav

Followers of Brahmanism

Performed Ashvamedh Sacrifice with the help of Patanjali

"Malvikagnimitram" - Kalidas

Protected North against Bacterian Greek

Pushyamitra fought against Kharvel of Kalinga

Kharvel

- 3rd ruler of Cheta Dynasty

- "Hathigumpha Inscription"

- Followed Jainism

Kanav Dynasty

Founded by Vasudev Kanav def by Satvahans

Satvahana Dynasty

Founded by Sheemukh Last - Sri Yajna Satkarni (Eka Brahman)Cap - Paithan

"Nasik & Nanagadh Insciption" describes Satkarni by his mother Gautami Balsari

Land grant system to Brahmins was started by Satavahanas

Issued coins with image of Ship

Issued Max no of Lead Coins

Silver Coins - Karshapanas

Foreign Dynasties

The Indo-Greeks (Bacterians)

Bacterians got independent from Syrian empire, then led by Demetrius who occupied Afganistan & punjab. Appointed commander 'Appolodotus' & 'Menander' from Taxilla

Appolodotus extended upto Ujjain

Menander or 'Milinda having Cap - Sialcot (Pak) extended upto Mathura & tried upto Patliputra but failed as Vasumitra (Gr son of Pushya) opposed

Milind converted to Buddhism by his Guru G - Nagasena

"Milindapanho" - Q/A b/w Milinda & Nagasena

"Garuda Pillar" at Besnagar (Vidisha, MP) - Helidorus (Greek Amb)

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Bacterians were 1st to issue Coins as well as Gold Coins & coins carried portrait of Kings & their Names

"Gandhar School Of Art" developed, also influenced indian Science & Astronomy

The Shakas or Scythians

Founder - Maues Last - Rudrasimha-III def by Chandragupta-II

Entered Ind through Bolan Pass

Vikramaditya defeated Shaka in & retook Ujjain & started celebrating Vikram Samvat (57 BC)

The Kushanas or Yuechis

Founder - Kujul Kadphises

Came from north central Asia near China. Their empire included a good part of central Asia, a portion of Iran, a portion of Afghanistan, Pakistan & almost whole of north India.

Kanishka was their most famous King Cap - Peshawar or Puruspur

He patronized the following persons:

1. Ashwaghosha (wrote „Buddhacharita‟)

2. Nagarjuna

3. Vasumitra (Chairman of 4th

Buddhist council, organised by Kanishka)

4. Charak (a physician, wrote „charak samhita‟)

He started an era in AD 78, which is now known as Saka era and is used by the Govt. Of India.

Fought against Chienese

Follower of Mahayan Buddhism

The Gupta Dynasty (Golden Age)

The first two kings of the dynasty were Srigupta and Ghatotkacha. Last - Vishnugupta

"Devichandraguptam" & "Mudrarakshnam" - Visakadatta

Called golden age because of maximum number of Gold coins

Chandragupta 1 (Maharajadhiraj)

'Meherauli Iron Pillar Inscription' - describes him

Samudragupta (Kaviraj)

'Allahabad Pillar Inscription' by Harisen (in Skt) & 'Ashoka Pillar' at Allahabad describe him

Issued Gold Coins represented himself playing Veena

Follower of vaishsnavism & Buddhist scholar 'Vasubandu'

Samudragupta is called the „Napolean of India‟.

Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya or Sakari)

His court was adorned by celebrated nine gems (Navratnas) including Kalidasa, Amarsimha, Varahmihir, and Dhanvantri.

Chinese pilgrim Fahien visited India at this time.

Gained access to ports of Arabian sea & major export import with Romans

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'Mehrauli Inscription' - describes him

Kumargupta I (Mahendraditya )

Founded Nalanda University (a renowned university of ancient India).

Skandgupta (Devraj)

Saved Ind from Hun invasion

Repaired dam of 'Sudarshan Lake'

After his death, the great days of the Guptas were over.

'Bhitari Stone Inscription' - Ghazipur (UP)

'Eran Inscription' - Sagar (MP) 1st inscription that tells about Sati Pratha

Literature of Gupta Period:

Author Work

Kalidasa Abhigyan shankultalam, Ritusamhara, Meghadutam, Kumarasambhavan, Malavikagnimitram, Vikramaurvashi, Raghuvansham.

Shudraka Mrichhakatikam

Vishakhadatta Mudrarakshasa

Vishnu Sharma Panchtantra, Hitopdesh

Amarsimha Amarkosha

Aryabhatta Aryabhatta, Suryasiddhanta

Varahmihira Brihatsamhita



Post-Gupta Period : Vardhan Dynasty And Kingdom Of Deccan

Post Gupta Period

After the Guptan empire fell apart in the 500s AD, India had a lot of smaller kings ruling a lot of small kingdoms. There were a lot of wars among these small kingdoms, but there was also a lot of great architecture and art during this time. In northern India, King Harsha ruled one of the small kingdoms, but after he died in the 600s AD, his kingdom fell apart into three even smaller ones. During this time, southern India had bigger, more powerful kingdoms than northern India did. The most important southern kingdom was the Chola, which got rich partly by selling pepper and Cinnamon and other spices at their seaports to Arab traders who resold the spices in the Islamic states and to medieval Europe.

Vardhan Dynasty / Pushyabhuti Dynasty

Founded at Thaneswar (Karnal district, Haryana) by Pushyabhuti.

First Important ruler was Prabhakaravardhana, he was succeeded by Rajyavardhan.

Harsha Vardhan (Ad 660- 647)

Beloned to Pushyabhuti family.

Originally belonged to Thaneshwar, but shifted to Kannauj.

Chinese pilgrim, Hieun Tsang visited during his reign & vardhan adopted Mahayan Buddhism.

Harsha used to celebrate a solemn festival at Prayag (Allahabad), at the end of every five years.

Banabhatta, who adorned his court wrote Harshacharita and Kadambari.

Harsha himself wrote there plays, Priyadarshika, Ratnavalli, and Naganada.

Defeated by Pulakesin II, the great Chalukya king, on the banks of Narmada in AD 620.

Organised conference of buddhism.

i. Kannauj Conference - Honored Tsang

ii. Allahabad Conference - gave away all his wealth

Harsha wrote 3 plays

i. Nagnanda

ii. Ratnavali

iii. Priyadarshika

"Nilopitu" - Archive of his period

"Bhaskera Inscription" - Carries his Signature

Kingdom Of Deccan

The Chalukyas

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Cap - Vtapi or Badami (Bijapur, Karnatka)

Founder - Jayasimha & Ramarya

Last - Kirtivarman-II

The Chalukyas were a great power in southern India between 6th

and 8th

century A.D.

Pulakesin I, the first great ruler of this dynasty ascended the throne in 540 A.D. He had sons Kirtivarman and Mangalesa

Pulakesin II, the son of Kirtivarman, was one of the greatest ruler of the Chalukya dynasty. He ruled for almost 34 years. His greatest achievement was his victory in the defensive war against Harshavardhana.

However, Pulakesin was defeated and killed by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman in 642 A.D.

"Aihole Inscription" (Cradle of Indian Temple)- Ravikirti (A Jain Poet of Pulakesin-II)

"Virupaksha Temple" - Pattadakal

Rashtrakutas

Cap - Malkhed

Founder - Dantidurg

Last - Karka-II

Speaks Kannada

"Ellora Kailashnath Temple" built by 'Krishna-I'

"Elephanta Caves" (Mumbai) completed by 'Rashtrakutas'

"Kvirajmarg" (Kannada) - Amoghvarsa-I

"Parsavaudaya" - Jinasena (Guru g of Amoghvarsa)

Hoysalas

Cap - Dwarasamudra (Karnataka)

Founder - Vishnuvardhan

Last - Ballala-IV

Ballala-III def by Malik Kafur

Built temples at Dwarasamudra & Belur

Writers - Nayachandra, Kanti, Raghavank, Nemichandra

Kakatiyas

Cap - Warangal (AP)

Founder - Prola-II

Last - Vinayakdeva

"Kohinoor Diamond" from 'Kollur' (Krishna's bank)

"Thousand Pillar Temple" at Hanumankonda

Yadavas

Cap - Devagiri (Maharashtra)

Founder - Bhillama-V

Last - Harpala

"Devagiri Fort" built by them, Jama Masjid & Char minar was added into it by Delhi Sultans

Gupta 'n' Post- Gupta Dynasties and Their Founders

Dynasty Founder

The Chalukyas of Vatapi Jayasimha

The Gangas of Talakad Konakanivarma

The Guptas of Magadha Shri Gupta



The Kadambas of Varanasi Mayurasharman

The Kingdom of Gaud Shashanka

The Kingdom of Thaneshwar Pushyabhuti

The Later- Guptas of Magadha- Malwa Krishnagupta

The Maitrakas of Vallabhi Bhattarka

The Maukharis of Kannauj Yajnavarman

The Pallavas of Kanchi Simhavarman

The Pandyas of Madurai Kodungon

The Vakatas Vindhyashakti



South Indian Kingdom

CHERAS + CHOLAS + PANDYAS = SANGAM AGE

PALLAVAS

Cap - Kanchi

Founder - Simhavishnu (Avnismha)

Last - Aprajitha def by Aditya-I (chola)

Hieun Tsang visited Kanchipuram

i. Mahendravarman-I (Sankirtanjali)

Jainism follower & lost to Pulakeshin-II

Titles 'Chitrakarpuli' & 'Vichitra Chitta' - due to excellence in building, painting & music

Introduced Rock Cut Temple. Temples at 'Bhairavkona' & 'Ananteshwar'

ii. Narsimhavarman-I

Titles 'Vatapi Kondan' & 'Mamalla' - a great wrestler

Constructed Raths at Mamallapuram & Mandapa

iii. Narsimhavarman-II (Rajsimha)

Build 'Kailashnath Temple' at Kanchi, 'Shore Temple' at Mamallapuram & 'Talagirisvara Temple' at Panamalai

"Dandialankaram" (Skt Gramm) - Dandin (Court Scholar)

- 'Vaikunta Perumal Temple'(Vishnu) at Kanchi - Nandivarman-II

- 'Dravidian' style temple

CHOLAS

Cap - Tanjore

Emblem - Tiger

Founder - Vijayalaya

Last - Rajendra-III

i. Rajaraj-I

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Conquered Ceylon & Maldives & defeated chera, pandyas, chalukyas

Titles 'Mummudi Chola', 'Jayam kondan', 'Shivpadasekara'

Temples- Shiv Temple at Anuradhapuram, Brahdeshwar Temple at Tanjore, Alravatesvara Temple at Darasuram.

ii. Rajendran-I

Conquered whole Ceylon & def bengal ruler Mahipala & founded city 'Gangaikonda Cholapuram'

Conquered Nicobar Islands

Titles- 'Gangaikondan', 'Panditha Cholan', 'Kadram Kondan'

- Chief feature of temple is Vimana

- Bronze Natraj Idol at Nageswara also bronze idol of Arthanareeswar

- Bharatnatyam

-'Gopuram' & 'Garbhagriha' were two important structures

PANDYA

Cap - Madurai

Emblem - Fish

Founder - Kadungon

Famous for Pearl Diving

Trade with Roman, Augustus & Trojan

Famous temple architectures - Gpuram, Prakaras, Vimanas, Garbgrahas & Gateways

Temple - Sithannavasal Cave Temple

Paintings - Lotus, Bathing Elephant, Playing Fish

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Medieval India And Islamic Invasion

For a period that has come to be so strongly associated with the Islamic influence and rule in India, Medieval Indian history went for almost three whole centuries under the so-called indigenous rulers, that included the Chalukyas, the Pallavas, the Pandyas, the Rashtrakutas, the Muslims rulers and finally the Mughal Empire. The most important dynasty to emerge in the middle of the 9th century was that of the Cholas.

The Medieval India consists -

1. Kingdom of Deccan

2. Kingdom of South

3. Kingdom of North

4. Mugal Rule

Kingdom Of North

The North India was earlier ruled by around 36 Rajput clans but the major were -

The Pratihara (Gurjara)

Cap - Kanauj (UP)

Founder - Nagabhatta-I

Last - Rajyapala

The greatest ruler of the Pratihara dynasty was Mihir Bhoja(Adivarah). He recovered Kanauj (Kanyakubja) by 836, and it remained the capital of the Pratiharas for almost a century. He built the city Bhojpal (Bhopal). Raja Bhoja and other valiant Gujara kings faced and defeated many attacks of the Arabs from west.

In 1018, Kannauj then ruled by a Rajyapala Pratihar was sacked by Mahmud of Ghazni. The empire broke into independent Rajput states.

Palas

Cap - Muddagiri or Munger (Bihar)

Founder - Gopala

Last - Govindapala

"Vikramshila Univ" - Founder by 'Dharmapala' (Buddhist)

Renovated "Nalanda Univ"

Sen dynasty succeeded Palas

The Senas

After the decline of the Palas, the Sena dynasty established its rule in Bengal.

The founder of the dynasty was Samantasena. The greatest ruler of the dynasty was Vijaysena.

The last ruler of this dynasty was Lakshamanasena under whose reign the Muslims invaded Bengal, and the empire fell.

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Tomars

Founded Delhi in 736 AD

Mahipal Tomar was most powerful

Chauhans of Delhi & Ajmer

Captured Ujjain from Parmaras of Malwa & Delhi from Tomars

Most powerful ruler was Prithviraj Chauhan

1st Battle Of Tarain (Haryana) - (won) Prithvi Vs Mhd Ghori - 1191

2nd Battle Of Tarain - Prithvi Vs Mhd Ghori (won) - 1192

Chandellas

Cap - Mahoba (UP)

Founder - Yashovarman

Last - Paramal

"Kandariya Mahadeva Temple" - at Khujaraho

They were Indian Royal Rajputs found in Central India

Guhilas or Sisodiyas

Cap - Chittor (Raj)

Founder - Bapa Rawal

Ala-Ud-Din Khilji Def Rana Ratan Singh

Singh's wife Padmini performed 'Jauhar' (mass suicide of women)

Rana Sanga & Maharana Pratap were rulers of 'Mewar'

Rana Kumbha Def Mhd Khilji & constructed "Vijay Stambha" (Chittor)

Paramaras

Cap - Dhara (MP)

Most powerful ruler was 'Raja Bhoj'

Constructed lake near Bhopal & Skt college at Dhara

Ala-Ud-Din khilji def him

Rajput Literature

"Raajtarangini" - Kalhan

"Gita Govindam" - Jayadev (court poet of Laxman sen)

"Kathasaritsagar" - Somdeva

"Prithviraj Raso" - Chand Bardai (Poet of Prithviraj Chauhan)

"Siddhanta Shiromani" (Astrology) - Bhaskara Charya

"Karpuramanjari" & "Bal Ramayan" - Rajshekhar (Court poet of Mahendrapal & Mahipal)

Art & Architecture

'Mural' & 'Miniature' paintings were famous

Khajuraho, Lingraj (Bhuvneshwar), Sun Temple, Dilwara Temple

Tripartite Struggle (to overcome Kannauj)



The struggle included

1. Pratihar from Central India

2. Pala from Bengal

3. Rashtrakutas from Deccan

This struggle made them weak & later Turks overthrown them.

Islamic Invasion

The initial entry of Islam into South Asia came in the first century after the death of the Prophet Muhammad. Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent mainly took place from the 12th to the 16th centuries, though earlier Muslim conquests made limited inroads into modern Afghanistan and Pakistan as early as the time of the Rajput Kingdom in the 8th century. With the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, Islam spread across large parts of the subcontinent.

First Muslim Invasion (712 AD)

Mohammad Bin Qasim invaded India in 712 AD.

Sent by Al-Hajaj (governor of Iraq) to conquer Sindh.

Battle of Rewar - (won) Qasim Vs Dahir (ruler of Sindh)

Qasim captured Multan & called it "City Of Gold".

Was sent to Mesopotamia Jail by Caliph Sulaiman

First Turk Invasion (998-1030 AD)

Mhd Ghaznavi led 17 expeditions between 1000 and 1027 says "The History Of India" - by Sir Henry Elliot.

His Scholars - 'Firdausi' & 'Alberuni'.

"Kitab-Ul- Hind" or "Tahqiq-i-Hind" - Al-Beruni

"Shahnama" - Firdausi

He plundered Thaneshwar, Mathura, Kannauj and Somanth.

The plunder of Somnath temple (dedicated to Shiva) in 1025, situated on the sea coast of Kathiwar, was famous.

Second Turk Invasion (1175-1206 AD)

Mohammad Ghori entered India through 'Gomal Pass' and laid the foundation of Muslim dominion in India.

His real name was 'Muizuddin Mhd Bin Sam'.

Commander - Qutb-Ud-Din Aibak & Mhd-Bin-Baktiyar Khilji

Baktiyar Khilji destroyed Vikramshila & Nalanda University.

Ist battle of Tarain (1191) - (won) Prithviraj Vs Ghori

IInd battle of Tarain (1192) - Prithviraj Vs Ghori (won)

Battle of Chandawar (1194) - Jaichandra of Kannauj Vs Ghori (won)

Captured Delhi and Ajmer and thus laid foundation of Muslim Rule in India.

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Died in 1206, gave Qutab-ud-Din Aibak the charge of Sultanate.



The Delhi Sultanate

The Slave or Mamaluk Dynasty

Qutubuddin Aibak (AD 1206- 1210)

„Lakh Baksh‟

Lahore and later Delhi were his capitals.

Laid foundation of Qutab Minar after the name of famous Sufi saint, Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.

He also built the first mosque in India, Quwatul-Islam (Delhi) and Adhai Din ka Jhopra at ajmer. .

Died of a horse fall at Lahore, while playing Chaugan (similar to Polo).

Patronized 'Hassan Nizami' & 'Fakhre Mudir'

Iltutmish (AD 1210-1236)

He was son-in-law and slave of Aibak.

He formed Turkan-i-Chahalgani or Chalisa (a group of 40 powerful Turkish nobles to suppress other noble people).

Introduced 'Iqtadari System' & head of Iqta called 'Muqti'

Completed the construction of Qutub Minar

Refused to give shelter to Jalal-ud-din shah of Khwarizm & saved delhi from 'Changiez Khan'

Divided his empire into IQTAS, an assignment of land in lieu of salary, which he distribured to his officers.

He introduced the silver tanka and the copper jital , 2 basic coins of the Sultanate.

"Tabaqat-i-Nasiri" - Minhaj-us-Siraj (court poet)

Died due to illness in his palace

Raziya Sultan (AD 1236-1240)

She was daughter of Iltutmish & the first and the last Muslim woman ruler of medieval India.

Defeated & murdered Firoz Shah

Married to Altunia of bhatinda

At Kaithal (Haryana) they were murdered

Balban (AD 1266-1286)

Niyabat-i-Khudai or Zil-i-Ilahi

He was declared Sultan as the representative of god on earth. He impressed upon the people that king was the deputy of God (niyabat-i-khudai) and the shadow of God (zil-i-ilahi).

Introduced-

Sijda - Lie down on foot to show respect

Paibos - Kissing feet of monarch

Nauroj - New year of persian

Diwan-i-Arz - military department

Removed Chahalgni & introduced Spy system

Court Poet - Amir Khusaro (Parrot of India) & Amir Hasan

Fan of Baba Farid

Died in sorrow when his son Mahmud killed in war against Mangols

Kayumar (son) & Kaiquabad (gr son) were incompetent & were killed by balban's commander jalal-ud-din Khilji

The Khalji Dynasty

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Jalaluddin Firoz Khilji (AD 1290-1316)

'Mujahid-fi-Sabillah' (fighter in path of god)

He was the first ruler to put forward the view that since a large majority of people in India are Hindus, the state in India could not be total Islam state.

Very peaceful & kind ruler

Appointed Ala-ud-din as governor of Kara

His nature was not liked by all so Ala-ud-din killed him

Alauddin Khalji (AD 1296-1316)

2nd Alexander (Sikandar-i-Sani)

First Turkish Sultan of Delhi who separated religion from politics, He proclaimed, “kingship knows no kinship”.

His real name was 'Ali Gurshap'

First sultan to invade South India i.e. his general Malik Kafur invaded south

Sarnath Temple again demolished by him

Hindus were Forced to pay tax (Jizya)

First Sultan to have permanent army – paid soldiers in cash, imported horse, detailed description of each soldier was kept.

Both Amir Khusro and Mir Hasan Dehlvi enjoyed his patronage.

Introduced 4 ordinance to prevent rebellion

1st - Free grants of land

2nd - Recognition of Spy System

3rd - Prohibition on wine

4th - No Social Gathering

Diwan-i-Riyasat - Minister of Market Dept

Shahana-i-Mandi - Market Dept

Famous Works - 'Alai Darwaza', 'Fort of Siri', 'Palace of Thousand Pillars'(Hazar Situn)

Son Mubarak Khan (Pagal King) murdered Malik Kafur & known as 'Qutubuddin Mubarak Shah'

Mubarak appointed Khusaro Khan as 'Malik Naib' (PM)

Khusaro Khan killed Mubarak & titled as 'Nasiruddin Khusarav Shah' (Last) was killed by Ghiyasuddin Tuglaq

AMIR KHUSRAU Works

He was regarded as 'Father of Quawwali', introduced Gazal style song, originator of Khayal & Tarana style of music & was also known as "Parrot of India"

- "Khazain-ul-Fatah" or "Tarikh-i-Alai" (expedition of Ala-ud-din)

- "Tuglaqnama" (history of Ghiyasuddin)

- "Khamshah"

- "Miftahul Futuh"

- "Nuh Sipihr" (Nine Skies)

The Tughlaq dynasty

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (AD 1320-1325)

Ghazi Malik (orignal)

Too keen interest in the construction of canals, formulated a famine policy, postal system, police, Judiciary.

Built the fortified city of Tughlaqbad and made it his capital.

Died when pavilion fell upon him which had set up by Mhd Bin Tuglaq

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (AD 1325- 1351)

Juna Khan (orignal), Jahanpanah

Experi-Mental King

Regarded as the most controversial figure in Indian History, because some his ambitious projects:



1. Transfer of capital to Devagiri (Daulatabad) in 1327.

2. Intorduction of token currency

3. Raised the Tax of Doab region (area b/w two rivers)

Introduced Max no of coins & known as "Prince of Moneyers"

"Diwan-i-Kohi" - Agriculture Dept

During his last days due to rebellion the whole of South India became independent states- The empire of Vijayanagar, The Bahmani Kingdom and Sultanate of Madura, were formed.

Famous Traveller, Ibn-Batuta visited during his period. He wrote the book, „Rohela‟.

Firoz shah Tuglaq(AD 1351-1388)

He founded cities tripple F H J i.e. Fatehabad, Ferozpur, Firozabad, Hissar, Jaunpur

He made iqtadary system hereditary.

Declared Delhi as 'Sunni Islamic State'

Cancelled 'Taquavi' (agricultural loans) & started collecting

Kharaj - 1/10th produce of land

Khams - 1/5th of Warbooty

Jizya - Poll tax

Zakat - On Muslims for religious works

Done lot of works on irrigation canal, dams, wells, bridges

Employed Employment exchange, Marriage Bureau

"Diwan-i-Khairat" - Charity Bureau

"Dar-ul-Shafa" - Charitable Hospital

"Diwan-i-Bandagan" - Slave Dept

Destroyed 'Jagannath Temple' at puri

"Futahat-i-Firozshahi" - Autobiography

"Fatwah-i-Jahandari" & "Tarikh-i-Firozshahi" - Ziauddin Barani (court poet)

1st to decode script of Ashoka Pillar

He imposed Jajiyah on Brahmins for the first time.

# In AD 1398 Timur the lame, who was a Great Mongol (samarqand)leader of Central Asia ordered general massacre in Delhi and robbed people mercilessly. At that time, Nasiruddin Mehmud (a Tughlaq king) was the ruler.

The Sayyid Dynasty

Khizr Khan (Riyat-i-Ala) founded the dynasty.

Khizr Khan‟s 3 successors- Mubarak Shah (1421-33), Muhammad Shah (1434-44) & Alauddin alam Shah (1443-51) were incapable leaders.

The Lodi Dynasty

Bahlol Lodi (AD 1451-1489)

Khan-i-Khanan

The first afghan dynasty of India.

Revived Sultanate to quite an extent.

Annexed Jaunpur

Sikander Lodi (AD 1489-1517)

Nizam Khan (orignal), Sikandar Shah

In 1504, he founded the city of Agra and made it his capital.

Introduced "Gaz-i-Sikandari" - Measurement unit

Demolished Jwalamukhi temple at nagarkot

Enjoyed 'Shahnai' music



Ibrahim Lodi (AD 1517-1526)

"Battle of Khatoli"(1518) - defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar

Intolerant & cruel ruler

Treated Dilwar khan lodi son of Daulat khan very cruely, therefore to take revenge daulat khan lodi invited Babur of Kabul to invade india

"1st Battle of Panipat" (1526) - end of delhi sultanate - Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi

Ministers of Sultan

"Wazir" - PM & FM

"Diwan-i-Rilasat" - Foreign Affairs Min

"Sadar-us-Suddar" - Islamic Law Min

"Diwan-i-Insha" - Correspondence Min

"Diwan-i-Ariz" - Defence or War Min

"Qazi-ul-Quzar" - Min of Justice

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The Mughal Empire And Rise of The Marathas

The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the founder Babur's victory over Ibrahim Lodi in the first Battle of Panipat (1526). It reached its peak extent under Aurangzeb, and declined rapidly after his death (in 1707) under a series of ineffective rulers. The empire's collapse followed heavy losses inflicted by the smaller army of the Maratha Empire in the Deccan Wars (1680–1707) which encouraged the Nawabs of Bengal, Bhopal, Oudh,Carnatic, Rampur, and the Nizam of Hyderabad to declare their independence from the Mughals. Following the Third Anglo-Maratha war in 1818, the Mughal emperor became a pensioner of the Raj, and the empire, its power now limited to Delhi, lingered on until 1857, when it was effectively dissolved after the fall of Delhi during the Indian Rebellion that same year.

Mughal Family Line

Babur (AD 1526-1530)

Padshah or Zahir-ud-din Mhd

Born in 1483 AD at Farghana (central asia) descendent from Timur (father's side) as well as Chengiz khan (mother's side) & become king at 11.

Battle won -

1st Battle of Panipat (1526) Vs Ibraham Lodi

Battle of Khanwa (1528) Vs Rana Sanga

Battle of Chanderi (1528) Vs Medini Rai

Battle of Ghaghra (1529) Vs Afgan & Bengal army (or Mhd Lodi)

"Tuzuk-i-Baburi" or "Baburnama" (Turkish) - Autobiography

" " " " " " " " " " " " " '' " " " " (English) - Madam Bebridge

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" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " (Turkish to Persian) - Abdul Rahim Khane-i-Khanan

Died in 1530 buried at Agra & after 9 years reburied at Kabul (Tomb)

Humayun (AD 1530-1540, 1555-56)

Born in 1508 at Kabul

Battle of Devrah - 1531

Battle of Chausa (1539) - Def by Sher Shah Suri

Battle of Kannauj (Bilgram) (1540) - Def by Sher Shah Suri - made humayun to leave Ind & went to Persia where 'Shah Tahmasp' welcomed him.

Married to Hamida Banu Begum & 'Akbar born at Amarkot (1542)

"Humayun Tomb" (delhi) - by Hamida Begum

"Humayunnama" - Gulbadan Begum (Sis)

Built 'Dinpanah' (delhi) - 2nd Capital

After exile of 15 years recaptured Dehi & Agra in 1555

Battle of Sarhind - 1955

Fell from stairs of library (Sher Mandal) in 1556

"He tumbled trough life & tumbled out of it" - Lane Poole

The Afghan Interlude

Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545)

Farid (orignal), Sher Khan

Def Humayun in Battle of Chausa (1539) & conquered Delhi & Agra in Battle of Kannauj (1540) against Humayun.

4 imp ministers of Sher Shah -

i. Diwan-i-Wazarat - Income & expenditure

ii. Diwan-i-Ariz - Recrutment

iii. Diwan-i-Rasalat - Ambassadors & Envoys

iv. Diwan-i-Insha - Royal Proclamations

Issued 'Patta', 'Qabuliyat', 'Ryotwari System'

Known as 'Fore runner of Akbar'

Introduced 'Dagh System' or 'Branding of Horse'

Built 'Grand Trunk Road' from Calcutta to Peshawar

Also known as 'Father Of Modern Currency' - issued coin called 'Rupia' & his name in 'Devnagri'

Tomb at 'Sasaram' (Bihar), Built 'Purana Qila' (Delhi)

"Padmavat" - Malik Mhd Jayasi

Died by Gun powder explosion while conquering Kalinjar (1545)

The Mughal empire (contd.)

Akbar (1556-1605)

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Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar was the son of Humayun and Hamida Bano Begum. He ws born at Amarkot in 1542. Mahan Anaga (Foster Mother)

Coronated when he was just 14 years old.

Bairam Khan (Guardian) represented him in the Second battle of Panipat in 1556 against Hemu Vikramaditya. Hemu was defeated.

Between 1556-1560, Akbar ruled under Bairam Khan‟s regency.

Won Gujarat in 1572. It was in order to commemorate his victory of Gujarat that Akbar got the Buland darwaza constructed at Fatehpur sikri.

Fought Battle of Haldighati with mewar forces on 18 june, 1576.

His Land Revenue system was known as Todat Mal Bandobast or Zabti System.

Nine gems of Akbar court were BAT BAT MDH

B - Birbal (Admin)

A - Abul Fzal & Abul Faizi (Scholar)

T - Tansen (Musician)

B - Bhagwandas (Mansabdar)

A - Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana (Hindi Poet)

T - Todarmal (Fin Min)

M - Man Singh (Mansabdar)

D - Mullah do Pyaza

H - Hakim Hukam

"Ain-i-Akbari" & "Akbar Nama" - Abul Fazal

"Ramayan" & "Mahabharat" Skt to Persian - Abul Faizi

Issued 'Infallibility Decree' or "Mazharnama" - which made him religious head & also King

Formed new religion "Din-i-Ilahi" - Birbal was only hindu to follow

Introduced "Mansabdari System" - recruitment of Army Personnel

"Ralph Fitch" - 1st englishman to visit court, Father Anthony Monserate also visited

Built "Ibabat Khana" (worship house), Fatehpur Sikri, Akbari Mahal, Jahangiri Mahal, Lahore Fort, Panch Mahal, Jodha bai Palace, Allahabad Fort

Official Lang - Persian

Last Campaign - Khandesh

Died 1605 (50 yr rule) at Sikhandara

Jahangir (1605-1627)

Salim or Sheikho Baba

Captain Hawkins (1608-11) and Sir Thomas Roe (1615-1619) visited his court.

Paintings reached its zenith during his reign.

The title of Nur Jahan was conferred on Mehr-un-Nisa, wife of Jahangir

The fifth sikh guru, Guru Arjun dev was hanged on Jahangir‟s order.

Only Mugal whose tomb outside India

Established "zanjir-i-Adal" (Chain of Justice) at Agra fort

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"Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri" (Persian) - Autobiography

Built Akbar Tomb at Sikhandara, Itmad-ud-daula at Agra, Great Mosque at Lahore, Shalimar Garden at Srinagar.

Sons Khusrau & Khurram (Shahjahan) revolted

Died in Srinagar & burried at Lahore

Shah Jahan (1628-1658)

His childhood name was Khurram.

Able general and administrator.

His reign is considered the „Golden age‟ of the Mughal Empire.

Last years of his life were very painful.

Built Taj Mahal (In memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal) Chief Engg was 'Ustad Isa' and Jama Masjid, Red Fort. Therefore called "Prince of Builders" & "Engineer King"

Built 'Shahjanabad' as capital, Rang Mahal, Moti Mahal, Diwan-i-Kham, Diwan-i-Khas (Paradise on earth)

Had "Kohinoor Diamond" & "Peacock Throne" (took away by persian invader Nadir Shah in 1739)

4 Sons- Dara Shikoh, Shah Shuja, Aurangzeb & Murada, 2 daughters - Jhan Ara, Roshan Ara

Died in 1666 in Agra Fort Jail, that time Aurangzeb was viceroy of Deccan who imprisoned his father.

Bernier & Tavernier (France), Manucci (Italy) travelled.

Auranzeb Alamgir (1658-1707)

Zinda Fakir or Darvesh

He caused serious rifts in the Mughal-Rajput alliance by his policy of annexation of Marwar in 1639 after the death of Raja Jaswant Singh.

Reimposed Jizya, took away all hindu from state service, forbade inscription of 'Kalma' on coin, ended Nauroj, destroyed 'Vishwanath Temple', ended 'Jharokha Darshan', forbade music in court.

In 1675, he ordered the arrest and execution of ninth sikh guru, Guru Teg Bahadur. 10th Guru Guru Govind Singh formed military called "Khalsa" which was later continued by 'Banda Bairagi'

Built Biwi ka Makbara.

Sent Shaista Khan to suppress Marathas(Shivaji) but Shivaji def him at Poona.

Again sent Jai Singh & peace maintained by "Treaty of Purandar" (1666) but by conspiracy Shivaji imprisoned but he escaped from Agra

Decline Cause - "Deccan Ulcer" spend too much time at deccan & made lot of enemies.

Died in 1707 at Ahmadnagar & buried at Daulatabad

Foreign invasion by Nadir Shah & Ahmed Shah Abdali & later by Britishers fully removed Mugal Empire.

Later Mughals

Bahadur shah (1707-1712)

Muazzam (Real)

Assumed the title of Sha Alam I also known as Sha-i-Bekhabar.

Granted Sardeshmukhi to marathas & released Shahu

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Jahndar Shah (1712-1713)

He became King with the help of Julfiqar Khan (Persian Noble). He was defeated by his nephew.

Gave raja jai singh title of 'Mirza Raja Sawai'

Farukhsiyar

He ascended the throne with the help of Abdullah Khan(wazir) & Hussain Khan(Mir Bakshi) also called King Makers

Mohammad Shah

He was pleasure loving king and was nick named , „Rangeela‟.

Shah Alam II

Shah Alam joined Mir Kasim of Bengal and Shiraj-ud-Daulah of awadha in the Battle of Buxor against the Britishers in 1764.

He defeated Maratha in 3rd

Battle of Panipat.

Bahadur Shah

Last Mughal Emperor, he was the leader of Revolt of 1857.

Marathas

Shivaji

Marathas rose to prominence under Shivaji.

Father-Shahji Bhonsale and Mother-Jijabai.

Ashtpradhan lived in his court.

Sambhaji

Son of Shivaji

He was killed by Auragzeb‟s army.

His son Sahu was in detention of Aurangzeb.

Rajaram

Sambhaji was succeeded by his brother Rajaram.

After him, his widow Taraabhai put her infant Son, Shivaji II on throne,

Sahu

After Aurangzeb‟s death, he was released.

His release led to Maratha Civil War between Sahu and Tarabai.

During his reign, Peshwa‟s domination started. First Peshwa was Balaji Vishwanath.

Last Peshwa was Baji Rao II. He signed subsidiary alliance in 1802 with Lord Wellesly.

Sikh Gurus and Their Important Works

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Sikh Guru Important Work

Guru Nanak Founder of Sikhism, Born in Nankanasahib Talwandi (Pak)

Guru Angad Invented Gurumukhi Script

Guru Amardas

Guru Ramdas Akbar gave him land for establishment of Amritsar.

Guru Arjun Dev Completed construction of Amritsar, Compiled Adi Granth.

Guru Hargovind Constructed Akal Takht

Guru Gobind Singh Converted Sikh into fighter caste



Modern India: The Advent Europeans

During the late 16th and the 17th Centuries, the European trading companies in India competed with each other ferociously. By the last quarter of the 18th Century the English had outdone all others and established themselves as the dominant power in India. The British administered India for a period of about two centuries and brought about revolutionary changes in the social, political and the economic life of the country.

The Advent of Europeans

Portuguese

Vasco Da Gama Meets Zamorin of Calicut

Vasco da Gama reaches Calicut on May 17, 1498. via "Cape of Good Hope"

At that time Calicut was ruled by a King named Zamorin.

The first Governer of portugese in India was Francisco Almeida - "Blue water Policy"

In 1661, the King of Portugal gave Bombay to Charles II of England as dowry when he married the former‟s sister.

2nd Governor(1509) - Albuquerque (Real Founder)

Captured Goa from ruler of Bijapur & made it his capital & also captured Malacca & Ceylon (Sri Lanka)

Made fort of Calicut, died in 1515

Dutch

Formation of the Company in March, 1602, by a charter of Dutch parliament the Dutch East India Company.

Main centre was 'Pulicat' & later 'Nagapattinam'

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Called East Asia as "Spice Island'

The Dutch replaced the Potuguese as the most dominant power in European trade with east, including India.

'Amboyna Massacre' - Many Eng merchants killed by Dutch, Therefore Enemity b/w End & Dutch

The Dutch conceded to English after their defeat in the battle of Bedera in 1759.

English

The English East India Company was set up in 1600.

In 1608 King James I sent Capt William Hawkins to the court of Jahangir to get permission for Surat factory but rejected

In 1611, the Company built its first factory in the south in Masulipatnam.

In 1613 Jahangir issued a Farman to eastablish factory at Surat

In 1615 Thomas Roe got permission for Agra & Ahemdabad

"Fort St.George"(1644) Madras - by Franchis Day & founded city 'Madras'

Charles II got Bombay as dowry from Potuegese

In 1699 Aurengzeb gave permission to eastablish factory at Calcutta & 'Fort William' constructed

Danish

Trade Centre - Tranquebar, Serampore (Bengal)

French

The French East India Company was formed by Colbert under state patronage in 1664.

They established their first factory at Surat in 1668 and at Masulipatnam in 1669.

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The 18th Century And The Rise of European Powers In India

In the beginning of 18th century among the Europeans two were emerged as super power, those were Britain & French. The English and the French were competing with each other to establish their supremacy in India. Both of them used the political turmoil prevalent in India as a result of the decline of the Mughal Empire in their favour and indulged in internal politics.

Poilicy of Britain

1. Elimination of France

2. Control over Bengal

The Anglo-French rivalry in India was manifest in the Carnatic region and in Bengal.

The downfall of the Mughal Empire led to the independence of Deccan under Nizam-ul-Mulk. The Carnatic region also formed part of the Nizam‟s dominion.

In 1740, the Austrian War of Succession broke out in Europe. In that war England and France were in the opposite camps. They came into conflict in India also.

4 Anglo French or Carnatic War (1746-63)

Ist (1746-48) - Britain won

The French governor of Pondicherry, Dupleix opened attack on the English in 1746

Battle of Adyar (1746) - The Nawab of Arcot, Anwar-ud-din sent an army to aid the British and take the French out of Madras.

"Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle" (1748) - to end the Austrian Succession War

2nd (1749-54) - Britain won

Dupleix, Muzafar Jang & Chanda Sahib defeated Anwar Uddin & killed him in the battle of Ambur (1749)

British Commander Robert Clive (hero of Arcot) captured Arcot, meanwhile Dupleix was replaced by Godeheu as governor

"Treaty of Pondicherry" (1754) - war came to end

3rd (1758-63)

Seven years war in europe led to the 3rd Carnatic war

"Battle of Wandiwash (Pondicherry)" (1760) - complete white wash of French, British General Sir Eyre Coote defeated Count de Lally commander of the French troops

"Treaty of Paris" (1763) - French agreed to confine its activities in Pondicherry, Karaikkal, Mahe and Yenam.

Establishment of British Power in Bengal

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Nawab of Bengal

i. Siraj-ud-Daulah

Renamed Calcutta as 'Alinagar'

Captured English factory at Kasimbazar & End took refuge at 'Fulta'

Robert Clive & Watson recaptured Calcutta

Robert Clive started Dual System

Black Hole Tragedy

200-300 Britishers were kept in a dark room having capacity of 50 & they all died.

Policy of Treachery - by Britishers

They bribed Mir Jafar (army gen of siraj), Amichand (rich merchant), Manik Chand (officer in charge), Jagat Seth (biggest banker), Khadim Khan(commander) to defeat Siraj

Result

"Battle of Plassey" (near Calcutta) (23rd June,1757) - foundation of btitish rule in India

"Treaty of Alinagar" (1757) - Siraj gave all his rights to Britishers

ii. Mir Jafar

Britishers rewarded him with governor's post

Allowed 'dastaks' (free duty passes)

they promised Jafar to give money but they didn't

iii. Mir Quasim (Jafar's Son in law)

Revolted the misuse of dastaks, def by britishers & he fled to Awadh

Result

"Battle of Buxar" (1764) - Eng military superiority was established

Mir Quasim

Shah Alam-II (Mugal) Vs British Gen Munro

Suja-ud-Daula (nawab of Awadh)

First time Mugal emperor defeated

Robert Clive appointed as Governor of Bengal in 1765

"Treaty of Allahabad" (1765) - Mugal emperor granted Diwani (civil rights) & Nizamat (criminal rights) to Britishers

Dual government was ended by Warren Hasting & Calcutta became capital of Bengal in 1772

4 Anglo-Mysore Wars (1767-1799)

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1st (1767-69)

Britishers Defeated by Nizam & Haider Ali (Maysore Sultan)

"Treaty of Madras" (1769)

2nd (1780-84) - Warren Hasting

Causes -

o (a) Britishers not following the treaty,

o (b) They captured Mahe ie. within Haider's territory

Haider formed grand alliance with Nizam of Hydrabad & Marathas in 1779

Eyre Coote Defeated Haider Ali at Proto Novo

Haider died of Cancer & his death was kept secret till his son Tipu assumed power

"Treaty of Manglore" (1784) - b/w Tipu & British

3rd (1789-1792) - Cornwallis

Causes -

o (a) Tipu Sultan strengthened his position. This created worries to the British, the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas.

o (b) Tipu made attempts to seek the help of France and Turkey.

o (c) In 1789, the British concluded a tripartite alliance with the Nizam and the Marathas against Tipu

Cornwallis with the help of Nizam & Marathas Defeated Tipu Sultan.

"Treaty of Srirangapattinam" (1792) - Banglore captured by Cornwallis

4th (1799) - Wellesley

Tipu's(Padsha) capital was 'Srirangapattinam' where he establised 'Freedom Tree' & become member of 'Jcobian Club'

Defeated by Wellesley & died in 1799

3 Anglo Maratha Wars (1775-1818)

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1st (1775-82) - Warren Hasting

Raghunath Rao Def Hasting, "Treaty of Purander" (1776) signed

"Treaty of Salbai" (1782) signed between Warren Hastings and Mahadaji Scindia.

"Treaty of Bassein" (1802) signed

2nd (1803-05)

British Def Marathas, "Treaty of Deogaon" (1803) signed between Bhonsle and Wellesley.

3rd Maratha War (1817-19)

Hasting Def Marathas, "Treaty of Nagpur" (1817)

2 Anglo Sikh Wars (1845-49)

1st (1845-46) - Harding

Defeated sikhs, "Treaty of Lahore" (1846)

2nd (1848-49) - Dalhousie

Defeated Sikhs, annexed Punjab

John Lowrence become st Chief Commander of Punjab

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Governor Generals of Bengal And India, and Their Important Works

Governor Generals of Bengal and Their Important works

Robert Clive

(1957-60) and (1765 -67)

First Governor General of Bengal.

He started dual system in Bengal in 1765.

Warren Hastings

(1772-1785)

Brought the Dual- govt of Bengal to an end by the Regulating Act, 1773.

Ended Dual System in 1772, Calcutta became capital in the same year

Abolished system of Dastak (free duty passes).

Introduced uniform system of Pre-Paid Postage System

Great patron of oriental learning, founded the Asiatic society of Bengal with William jones in 1784.

Known for Expansionist Policy

Wars - Rohilla War(1774), Ist Anglo-Maratha, 2nd Anglo-Maysore

Impeached by the Pitts Act 1784

Lord Cornwallis

(1786-1793)

Known for two P's ie. Police Reforms, Permanent Settlement (Zamidaari Sys)

First person to codify laws. "Cornwallis Code"

The civil service was brought into existence.

War - 3rd Maysore War with Tipu

Lord Wellesley Adopted the policy of Subsidiary alliance. Hydrabad was first state under this alliance

Called himself 'Bengal Tiger'

Wars - 4th Anglo-Maysore, 2nd Maratha

“He turned the East India Company from a trading corporation into an imperial power”

Governor Generals of India and Their Important Works

Lord William Bentinck

(1828-1835)

Carried out the social reforms like Prohibition of Sati (1829) and suppression of thugs (1830).

Made English the medium of higher education in the country (after recommendation of Macaulay)

Laid foundation of Calcutta Medical College.

Suppressed female infanticide and child sacrifice.

Charter Act of 1833 was passed; made him the First Governor General of India.

Lord Dalhousie

(1848-1854)

Opened first Indian railway line in 1853 (Bombay to Thane).

Laid out the telegraph services in 1853 (Calcutta to Agra).

Introduced the Doctrine of Lapse and captured Satara (1848), Jaipur and

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Sambhalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853) and Nagpur (1854).

Annexed lower Burma

In 1852, „Wood‟s Dispatch‟ was passed. For the comprehensive scheme of education at primary, secondary and collegiate levels.

created a separate Public Works Department (PWD)

laid the foundations of the engineering service in India.

Lord Canning

(1856-1862)

The Last Governor and First Viceroy of India.

Mutiny took place in his time.

On Nov 1858, the rule passed on to the crown from East India company.

The universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were established in 1857.

Lord Lytton

(1876-1880)

Organised the Grand „Delhi Durbar‟ in 1877 to decorate queen Victoria with the title of Kaiser-i-Hind.

Passed Vernacular Press act & Arms Act both in (1878)

Introduced Uniform Salt Tax

Wars - 2nd Afgan War

Lord Rippon

(1880-1884)

Repealed Vernacular Act Press Act (1878)

Introduced Factory Act (1881)

Passed the local self government Act & Hunter Commission(for expansion of elementary education) (1882)

Passed Ilbert Bill (1883) which enabled Indian district magistrates to try European criminals.

Lord Dufferin

(1884-1888)

Indian National Congress was formed during his tenure.

Lord Curzon

(1899-1905)

Brought Calcutta Corporation Act (1899)

Instituted Universities Commission & Police Commission (under Andrew Frazer) both in (1902)

Passed Ancient Monument Act (1904)

Partitioned Bengal (october 16,1905) into two provinces.

Lord Hardings

(1910-1916)

Partition of Bengal was cancelled (1911); Capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi (1911).

Lord Chelmsford

(1916-1921)

The government of India act in 1919 (Monatgue-chelmsford reforms) was passed.

Rowlatt Act 1919; Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13,1919)

Non-Cooperation Movement.

Lord Irwin

(1926-1931)

Simon Commission visited India in 1928.

Dandi march (Mar 12,1930).

Civil Disobedience Movement (1930).

First round table conference held in England, 1930.

Gandhi – Irwin Pact (March 5, 1931) was signed and Civil Disobedience Movement was withdrawn.

Lord Willingdon

(1931-1936)

Communal Awards (aug 16, 1932)

Poona Pact was signed.

Government of India Act (1935) was paased.

Lord Linlithgow

(1936-1944)

Cripps Mission in 1942

Quit India Movement in 1942

Lord Wavell

(1944-1947)

Cabinet Mission Plan.



Lord Mountbatten

(March 1947- Aug 1947)

Last Viceroy of British India and The first Governor General of Free India.

Indian Independence act passed by the British parliament on july 4, 1947, by which India became independent on August 15, 1947

Retired in june 1948 and was succeeded by C. Rajagopalchari (The first and last Indian Governor General Of Free India).

Brief of Several Policies

Subsidiary Alliance

Any Indian ruler who entered into the subsidiary alliance with the British had to maintain a contingent of British troops in his territory.

The Indian state was called „the protected state‟ and the British hereinafter were referred to as „the paramount power‟.

It was the duty of the British to safeguard that state from external aggression and to help its ruler maintain internal peace.

Defects of the Subsidiary System

The immediate effect of the establishment of subsidiary forces was the introduction of anarchy because of the unemployment of thousands of soldiers sent away by the Indian princes.

Introduction of English Education

The introduction of English Education was a significant event of Lord William Bentinck‟s administration. He appointed a committee headed by Lord Macaulay to make recommendations for the promotion of education.

Doctrine of Lapse

The Doctrine of Lapse was an annexation policy purportedly devised by Lord Dalhousie.

According to the Doctrine, any princely state or territory under the direct influence (paramountcy) of the British East India Company (the dominant imperial power in the subcontinent), as a vassal state under the British Subsidiary System, would automatically be annexed if the ruler was either "manifestly incompetent or died without a direct heir".

Revenue Administration

The Permanent Settlement

Planned by - John Shore

Lord Cornwallis most conspicuous administrative measure was the Permanent Land Revenue Settlement of Bengal, which

was extended to the provinces of Bihar and Orissa.

Zamindars as owner of the land. They keep 1/11th of revenue with them & gave 10/11th to britishers

Ryotwari Settlement

Introduced by - Sir Thomas Munro in Madras Presidency

Approved by - Lord Hasting

In this system there is direct settlment with the Farmers

Mahalwari Settlement

In 1833, the Mahalwari settlement was introduced in the Punjab, the Central Provinces and parts of North Western Provinces.

Under this system the basic unit of revenue settlement was the village or the Mahal

Mahalwari system eliminated middlemen between the government and the village community

Vernacular Press Act and the Arms Act (1878)

Vernacular Press Act empowered a Magistrate to secure an undertaking from the editor, publisher and printer of a vernacular

newspaper that nothing would be published against the English Government.

Arms Act prevented the Indians to keep arms without appropriate license. Its violation would be a criminal offence.



Local Self-Government (1882)

Ripon helped the growth of local bodies like the Municipal Committees in towns and the local boards in taluks and villages.

The local bodies were given executive powers with financial resources of their own.

Hunter Commission (1882)

Commission recommended for the expansion and improvement of the elementary education of the masses.

The Commission suggested two channels for the secondary education-one was literary education leading up to the Entrance Examination of the university and the other preparing the students for a vocational career.

First Factory Act (1881)

Lord Ripon introduced the Factory Act of 1881 to improve the service condition of the factory workers in India.

The Act banned the appointment of children below the age of seven in factories. It reduced the working hours for children.

Ilbert Bill Agitation (1884)

According to the system of law, a European could be tried only by a European Judge or a European Magistrate.

C.P. Ilbert, Law Member, introduced a bill in 1883 to abolish this discrimination in judiciary.



The Revolt of 1857 And Social & Cultural Uprisings

The revolt of 1857

Causes of the Revolt

Political Causes

The Doctrine of Lapse, particularly its practical application by Lord Dalhousie, produced grave discontent and alarm among

the native princes, who were directly affected.

Economic Causes

The British damaged the Indian trade and manufacture by imposing a high tariff in Britain against Indian goods, and by encouraging all means the import of British goods to India.

A 'new plantation system' introduced in the year 1833 resulted in incalculable misery for the Indian peasants. The hard hit

were the peasants on the indigo plantations in Bengal and Bihar.

Social Causes

The Englishmen showed an arrogant attitude towards the Indians. Indiscriminate assaults on Indians by Englishmen became quite common.

Military causes

The Indian sepoys in the British Indian army nursed a sense of strong resentment at their low salary and poor prospects of promotion

The Vellore mutiny of 1806, a precursor to the 1857 Great Revolt.

The Beginning of the Revolt

The new Enfield rifle had been introduced for the first time in the Indian army.

The grease was composed of fat taken from beef and pig.

Outbreak:

On March 29, 1857 at Barrackpore (W.B.), Mangal Pandey (a Sepoy) refused to use the greased cartridges and single-

handedly attacked and killed his officer. Mangal Pandey was hanged (in 19th and 34

th Native infantry).

Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah II was proclaimed the Emperor of India.

Mangal Pandey refused to use the greased cartridges and single-handedly attacked and killed his officer. Mangal Pandey was hanged.

At Meerut in May 1857, 85 sepoys of the 3rd Cavalry regiment were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment for refusing to use the greased catridges.

Therefore, on 10 May the sepoys broke out in open rebellion, shot their officers, released their fellow sepoys and headed towards Delhi.

Commanding Officer Merrut - General Hewitt

officer in charge of Delhi - Lieutenant Willtashby

Participants

Delhi - Bahadur Shah II, real control - General Bakht Khan

Kanpur - Nana Saheb(Dhondu Pant)Lieutenant - Tantia Tope & Azimullah, commander - Sir Hugh Wheeler, recaptured by Sir Colin Campbell

Lucknow - Begum Hazrat Mahal, chief commissioner - Henry Lawrence(killed in a bomb blast), recaptured by Sir Colin Campbell

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Jhansi - Rani Lakshmi Bai joined by Tantia Tope, Sir Hugh Rose defeated Tantia Tope

Faizabad - Maulavi Ahmadullah

Bareilly - Khan Bahadur Khan

Jagdishpur(Bihar) - Kunwar Singh

'Begum Hazrat Mahal' & 'Khan Bahadur Khan' escaped to Nepal during the Revolt

Causes for the Failure

Revolt failed to embrace the whole of India

moneylenders, merchants and modern educated Indians were actually against the Revolt

lack of interest shown by the intellectuals

Significance and Effects

shaken the very foundations of British rule in India

brought together the disgruntled sections of society to rise against the British rule

1857 Revolt was the Hindu-Muslim unity

it brought about fundamental changes in the character of Indian administration

the Governor-General received the new title of Viceroy (i.e. Lord Canning)

Books

"The Indian War Of Independence" - V.D. Savarkar

"First Indian War Of Independence" - Karl Marx

"Causes Of Indian Revolt" - Sayed Ahmed Khan

"Sepoy Mutiny & Rebellion of 1857" - RC Mazumdar

"Civil Rebellion In Indian Mutinities" - SB Chowdhary

"Rebellion, 1857: A Symposium" - PC Joshi

"1857" - SN Sen

Opinions

"Ist War of Indian Independence" - V.D. Savarkar

"A national Revolt" - Disraeli

"Neither Ist nor national nor war" - RC Majumdar

Social and cultural uprising

Brahmo Samaj

Founded - Raja Ram Mohan Roy at Calcutta in 1828.

Aim - "to purify hinduism & to preach Monotheism"

Considered as 'First Modern Man' of India

Established "Atmiya Sabha" in 1815 later it changed to Brahmo Samaj in 1828

Combined teaching of Bible, Upnishads & koran

founded the Hindu College (now Presidency College, Calcutta) along with David Hare in 1817

Opposed Sati Pratha, Casteism and advocated widow remarriage.

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started the first Bengali weekly 'Samvad Kaumudi' and edited a Persian weekly 'Mirat-ul-akhbar'

In 1886, Brahmo samaj divided into Brahmo Samaj of India headed by Keshav Chandra sen and Adi Brahmo samaj by Devendra Nath Tagore.

Arya Samaj

Founder - Swami Dayanand Saraswathi at Bombay in 1875

motto was “Back to the Vedas” & "India for the Indians"

He was against idol worship, child marriage and caste started the Suddhi movement to bring back those Hindus who had converted to other religions to its fold.system based on birth.

wrote the book 'Satyartha Prakash'

first Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV) School was founded in 1886 at Lahore

Ramakrishna Mission

Founder - Swami Vivekananda (Narendranath Dutta) at Belur in Howrah in 1897

became the most famous disciple of Shri Ramkrishna Paramahamsa

participated at the Parliament of Religions held in Chicago (USA) in September 1893

Irish woman Margret Nobel (Known as sister Nivedita) popularized it.

Theosophical Society

Founder - Madam H.P. Blavatsky (Russia) & Henry Steel Olcott (US) at New York (US) in 1875

arrived in India and established their headquarters at Adyar in Madras in 1882

In 1893, Mrs. Annie Besant arrived in India and took over the leadership of the Society

Mrs. Annie Besant founded the Central Hindu School along with Madan Mohan Malaviya at Benaras which later developed into the Banaras Hindu University

Prarthana Samaj

Founder - Dr. Atmaram Pandurang at Bombay in 1867

Justice M.G. Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar joined it in 1870

Justice Ranade promoted the Deccan Education Society

Young Bengal Movement

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founder - Henry Vivian Derozio

His followers were known as the Derozians

attacked old traditions and decadent customs

advocated women‟s rights and their education

Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

helped J.D. Bethune to establish the Bethune School

founded the Metropolitan Institution in Calcutta

protested against child marriage and favoured widow remarriage which was legalised by the Widow Remarriage Act (1856)

It was due to his great support for the spread of education that he was given the title of Vidyasagar

Satyashodak Samaj

Founder - Jyotiba Phule in 1873

He waged a life-long struggle against upper caste domination and Brahmanical supremacy

Jyotiba Phule and his wife established the first girls school at Poona in 1851

Muslim Reform Movements

The first effort was in 1863 when the Muhammad Literary Society was set up in Calcutta

Aligarh Movement

Founder - Sir Syed Ahmad Khan

started the Mohammadan Educational Conference (1866) - as a general forum for spreading liberal ideas among the

Muslims

founded a modern school at Aligarh (1875) - to promote English education, later grown into the Mohammadan Anglo Oriental College and then into the Aligarh Muslim University

The Deoband School

objectives:-

(i) to propagate among the Muslims the pure teachings of the Koran and the Hadis

(ii) to keep alive the spirit of jihad aganist the foreign rulers.

Sikh Reform Movement

Baba Dayal Das founded the Nirankari Movement

The 'Namdhari Movement' was founded by Baba Ram Singh

Khalsa College at Amritsar in 1892

Parsi Reform Movement

'Parsi Religious Reform Association' was founded at Bombay by Furdunji Naoroji and S.S. Bengalee in 1851

Naoroji published a monthly journal 'Jagat Mithra'

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Indian Independence & Important National Activities

Moderate Nationalism (1885-1905)

Persons involved during this period

Moderate Leaders

i. Surendranath Banerjee

was called the 'Indian Bruke', opposed partion of Bengal,

he had formed 'Indian Assosiation' (1876), 'Indian National Conference' (1883) which merged with INC in 1886.

ii. G Subramanya Aiyar

founded 'Madras Mahajana Sabha', 'The Hindu', 'Swadesamitran'.

iii. Dadabhai Naoroji

known as 'Grand Old Man Of India' also regarded as India's unofficial ambassador in England.

He was the first Indian to become a member of the British house of Commons.

Wrote "Poverty & Unbritish Rule in India" explained "Drain Theory"

iv. Gopal Krishna Gokhale

was regarded as 'Political Guru' of Gandhi, founded 'Servants of India Society'

The Moderates had succeeded in getting the expansion of the legislative councils by the Indian Councils Act of 1892.

· Formation Of Indian National Congress (1885)

1. Formed by AO Hume in 1885

2. First session was in Bombay under WC Banerjee in 1885

3. Attended by 72 delegates

· Partition of Bengal (1905)

1. By Lord Curzon on october 16, 1905, through a royal proclamation, reducing the old province of Bengal in size by creating East Bengal and Assam out of rest Bengal.

2. The objective was to set u communal unrest between Hindu and Muslims.

3. On the same day of partition pepole of bengal observed "Day of Mourning"

Extremist Nationalism (1905-16)

Objective :- "To attain SWARAJ or complete independence"

Extremist Leader

i. Bal Gangadhar Tilak

real founder of anti-british rule in India

popularly known as 'Lokmanya'

weeklies 'Maharatta' & 'Kesari'

in 1908 deported to 'Mandalay' (Burma) for 6 years

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setup "Home Rule League" in 1916 at Poona

said "Swaraj is my birth right & i will have it"

ii. Lala Lajpat Rai

known as 'Lion of Punjab'

founded "Indian Home Rule League" in 1916 in the US

deported to Mandalay

died while protesting 'Simon Commission' on Nov 17, 1928

iii. Bipin Chandra Pal

moderate turned extremist

played important role in swadeshi movement & preached natiionalism by powerful speeches & writings

iv. Aurobinda Ghosh

participated in swadeshi movement

settled in Pondicherry after released from jail

concentrated on 'Spiritual Activities'

· Swadeshi Movement(1905)

1. Had its origin in the anti-partition movement of Bengal.

2. Lal, Bak, Pal and Aurbindo Ghosh played important role.

3. Bonfires of foriegn trade goods were made at various places across the India,

· Muslim league (1906)

1. Setup in 30th December, 1906 under the leadership of aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah of dhaka and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk.

2. It was a communal and conservative ploiyical organization which supported the partition of Bengal, opposed the Swadeshi Movement, demanded special safegaurds to its community and a separate electorate for Muslims

. Calcutta Session of INC (1906)

1. Headed by Dadabhai Naoroji

2. Adopted the resolutions of Boycott & Swadeshi

· Surat Session of INC (1907)

1. The INC split into two groups – The Extremists (Led by Lal, Bal, Pal) and The Moderates (GK Gokhale), at the Surat session.

· Home Rule Movement (1916)

1. Started by BG Tilak (April 1916) at Poona and Annie Besant and S. Subramania Iyer At Adyar, near Madras (September, 1916).

2. Objective was Self- government for India in the British Empire.

· Lucknow Pact(1916)

1. Signed between Congress and Muslim League, Congress accepted the separate electorates and both jointly demanded a representative government and dominion status of the country.

. August Decleration (1917)

1. On 20 August 1917, Montague, the Secretary of State in England, made a declaration in the Parliament of England on British Government‟s policy towards future political reforms in India.

2. He promised the gradual development of self-governing institutions in India. This August Declaration led to the end of the Home Rule Movement.

Indian National Movement or Gandhian Era (1917-47)



Advent Of Gandhi

i. MohanDas Karamchand Gandhi was born at Porbandar in Gujarat on 2 October 1869, studied law in England.

ii. returned to India in 1891 & In April 1893 he went to South Africa and involved himself in the struggle against apartheid (Racial discrimination against the Blacks) for twenty years.

iii. Finally, he came to India in 1915.

iv. Mahatma Gandhi began his experiments with Satyagraha against the oppressive European indigo planters at Champaran in Bihar in 1917.

v. In 1918 he launched another Satyagraha at Kheda in Gujarat with Sardar Patel in support of the peasants who were not able to pay the land tax due to failure of crops.

vi. In 1918 Gandhi undertook a fast unto death for the cause of Ahmedabad Mill Workers

. Rowlatt Act (1919)

1. In 1917, a committee was set up under the presidentship of Sir Sydney Rowlatt to look into the militant Nationalist activities.

2. As per this Act, any person could be arrested on the basis of suspicion. No appeal or petition could be filed against such arrests.

3. This Act was called the Black Act and it was widely opposed.

· Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April, 1919)

1. General O‟Dyer fired at people who assembled in the jallianwala Bagh for an unprecedented support to the Rowlatt Satyagraha.

· Khilafat Movement (1920)

1. The chief cause of the Khilafat Movement was the defeat of Turkey in the First World War. The harsh terms of the Treaty of Sevres (1920) was felt by the Muslims as a great insult to them.

2. The whole movement was based on the Muslim belief that the Caliph (the Sultan of Turkey) was the religious head of the Muslims all over the world.

3. Two brothers, Mohd Ali and Shaukat Ali started this movement.

4. A Khilafat Committee had been formed and on 19th October 1919, the whole country had observed the Khilafat day.

5. On 23 November, a joint conference of the Hindus and the Muslims had also been held under the chairmanship of Mahatma Gandhi.

6. Subsequently, the Khilafat Movement merged with the Non-Cooperation Movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi in 1920.

· Non- Coopertaion Movement (1920-22)

1. It was first mass-based political movement under Ghandhi ji.\

2. It was approved by the Indian National Congress at the Nagpur session in December, 1920.

3. Leaders and influential persons also followed him by surrendering their honorary posts and

titles. Students came out of the government educational institutions.

4. National schools such as the Kashi Vidyapeeth, the Bihar Vidyapeeth and the Jamia Millia Islamia were set up.

· Chaura Chauri Incident (5th Feb, 1922)

1. A mob of people at Chaura Chauri (Gorakhpur, UP) set to fire police station & burnt 22 people.

2. This compelled gandhi ji to withdraw the Non-cooperation Movement on 11th Feb. Mahatma Gandhi was arrested on 10 March 1922.

· Swaraj Party (1923)

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1. The suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement led to a split within Congress in the Gaya session of the Congress in December 1922.

2. Motilal Nehru, CR Das and NC kelkar formed swaraj Party on Jan 1, 1923.

3. The Swarajists wanted to contest the council elections and wreck the government from within. Elections to Legislative Councils were held in November 1923. In this, the Swaraj Party gained impressive successes.

· Simon Commission (1927)

1. Constituted under John Simon to review the political situation in India and to introduce further reforms & all its seven members were Englishmen

2. Indian Leaders opposed the commission, as there were no India in it.

3. Lala Lajapt Rai was injured badly during the protest due to Lathi charge at Lahore and died.

4. Report published in May 1930, stated that the constitutional experiment with Dyarchy was unsuccessful and in its place the report recommended the establishment of autonomous government.

5. Simon Commission‟s Report became the basis for enacting the Government of India Act of 1935.

. Nehru Report (1928)

1. The Secretary of State, Lord Birkenhead, challenged the Indians to produce a Constitution that would be acceptable to all.

2. A committee consisting of eight was constituted to draw up a blueprint for the future Constitution of India. It was headed by Motilal Nehru. The Report favoured:-

· Dominion Status as the next immediate step.

· Full responsible government at the centre.

· Autonomy to the provinces.

· Clear cut division of power between the centre and the provinces.

· A bicameral legislature at the centre.

3. Mohammad Ali Jinnah regarded it as detrimental to the interests of the Muslims. Jinnah convened an All India Conference of the Muslims where he drew up a list of Fourteen Points as Muslim League demand.

· Lahore Session (1929)

1. On December 19, 1929, undet the Presidentship of JL Nehru, The INC, at Lahore Session, declared Poorna Swaraj (Complete

Independence) as its ultimate goal.

2. On december 31, 1929, the newly adopted tri-color was unfurled and January 26, 1930 was fixed as the First independence Day, which was to be celebrated every year.

3. Bardoli Movement (1928) was a movement against the payment of land tax, led by Vallabh Bhai Patel. He got the name „Sardar‟ from here.

· Dandi march (1930)

1. Along with 79 folowers, Gandhi ji started his march from Sabarmati Ashram on March 12. 1930 for the small village Dandi to break the salt law,.

2. He picked a handful of salt and launched the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34).

. Ist Round Table Conference (1930)

1. The British government adopted the strategy of talking to different political parties by convening the Round Table Conferences.

2. The first Round Table Conference was held in November 1930 at London and it was boycotted it by the Congress.

· Gandhi Irwin Pact (8th March, 1931)

1. As per this pact, Mahatma Gandhi agreed to suspend the Civil-Disobedience Movement and participate in the Second-Round Table Conference.

. 2nd Round Table Conference (Sept, 1931)

1. Conference was held at London. Mahatma Gandhi participated in the Conference but returned to India disappointed as no agreement could be reached on the demand of complete independence and on the communal question.

· The Communal award (1932)

1. Announced by PM Ramsay McDonald on August 16.

2. According to this award, the depressed classes were considered as a separate community and as such provisions were made for separate electorates for them.



3. Mahatma Gandhi protested against the Communal Award and went on a fast unto death in the Yeravada jail on 20 September 1932.

· Poona Pact (1932)

1. Finally, an agreement was reached between Dr Ambedkar and Gandhi. This agreement came to be called as the Poona Pact.

2. Accordingly, 148 seats in different Provincial Legislatures were reserved for the Depressed

Classes in place of 71 as provided in the Communal Award.

. 3rd Round Table Conference (1932)

1. The Congress once more did not take part in it. Nonetheless, in March 1933, the British Government issued a White Paper, which became the basis for the enactment of the Government of India Act, 1935.

. Deliverance Day (12 dec, 1939)

1. On 1 September 1939 the Second World War broke out. The British Government without consulting the people of India involved the country in the war.

2. The Congress vehemently opposed it and as a mark of protest the Congress Ministries in the Provinces resigned. opposed it and as a mark of protest the Congress Ministries in the Provinces resigned.

· Demand for Pakistan (1940)

1. Chaudhary Rehmat Ali gave the term Pakistan in 1933.

2. Muslim League first passed the proposal of separate Pakistan in its Lahore session in 1940 (Called Jinnah‟s Two- Nation Theory)

. August Offer (8th March, 1940)

1. During the course of the Second World War in order to secure the cooperation of the Indians, the British Government made an announcement on 8 August 1940, which came to be known as the „August Offer‟.

2. The August Offer envisaged that after the War a representative body of Indians would be set up to frame the new Constitution.

3. Gandhi was not satisfied with is offer and decided to launch Individual Satyagraha(1940)

4. Acharya Vinoba Bhave was the first to offer Satyagraha and he was sentenced to three months imprisonment. Jawaharlal Nehru was the second Satyagrahi and imprisoned for four months.

. Cripps Mission (1942)

1. Viceroy, Lord Linlithgow expanded his Executive Council by including five more Indians into it in July 1941.

2. The British Government in its continued effort to secure Indian cooperation sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India on 23 March 1942. This is known as Cripps Mission.

3. The main recommendations of Cripps were:-

o The promise of Dominion Status to India,

o Protection of minorities

o Setting up of a Constituent Assembly in which there would be representatives from the Princely States along with those of the British Provinces,

o There would be provision for any Province of British India not prepared to accept this Constitution, either to retain its present constitutional position or frame a constitution of its own.

4. Gandhi called Cripp‟s proposals as a “Post-dated Cheque”.

· The Quit India Movement (1942-44)

1. The resolution was passed on august 8, 1942, at Bombay. Gandhiji gave the slogan „Do or die‟.

2. The failure of the Cripps Mission and the fear of an impending Japanese invasion of India led Mahatma Gandhi to begin his campaign for the British to quit India.

3. On 8th and 9th August 1942 Mahatma Gandhi was kept in prison at Poona. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Abul Kalam Azad, and other leaders were imprisoned in the Ahmednagar Fort.

· The Indian National Army

1. The idea of the INA to liberate India was originally thought by Rasbehari Bose.

2. SC Bose secretly escaped from India in Jan, 1941, and reached Berlin. In july 1943, Subhas Chandra Bose reached Singapore and gave the rousing war cry of „Dilli Chalo‟.

3. He was made the President of Indian Independence League and soon became the supreme commander of the Indian National Army. He gave the country the slogan of "Jai Hind".



4. Two INA headquarters were Rangoon and Singapore.

5. The Indian National Army marched towards Imphal after registering its victory over Kohima. After Japan‟s surrender in 1945, the INA failed in its efforts. Under such circumstances, Subhas went to Taiwan. Then on his way to Tokyo he died on 18 August 1945 in a plane crash.

6. The trial of the soldiers of INA was held at Red Fort in Delhi. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai and Tej Bahadur Sapru fought the case on behalf of the soldiers.

· The Cabinet Mission (1946)

1. After the Second World War, Lord Atlee became the Prime Minister of England. On 15 March, 1946 Lord Atlee made a historic announcement in which the right to self-determination and the framing of a Constitution for India were conceded.

2. Cabinet Mission visited India compromising of Lord Pethick Lawrence as Chairman, Sir Stafford Cripps and AV Alexander.

3. Both Congress and Muslime League accepted their proposals.

4. Consequently, elections were held in July 1946 for the formation of a Constituent Assembly. The Congress secured 205 out of 214 General seats. The Muslim League got 73 out of 78 Muslim seats. An Interim Government was formed under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru on 2 September 1946.

· Mounbatten Plan (1947)

1. On 20 February l947, Prime Minister Atlee announced in the House of Commons the definite intention of the British Government to transfer power to responsible Indian hands by a date not later than June 1948.

2. On june 3, 1947. Lord Mountbatten put forth the plan of partition of India. The Congress and the Muslim League ultimately approved the Mountbatten Plan.

3. August 15, 1947, was the date fixed for handing over power the power to India And Pakistan.

· Partition and Independence (1947)

1. All political parties accepted the Mountbatten plan. According to this plan India was divided into two parts; India and Pakistan on 14 august, 1947.

2. India became an independent state on 15 the august, 1947. The Radcliff Boundary Commission drew the boundary line separating India and Pakistan.

3. Lord Mountbatten was made the first Governor General of Independent India, whereas Mohammad Ali Jinnah became the first Governor General of Pakistan.

4. Due to the remarkable work of sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, the first home minister, by august 15 1947, all the states, with afew exceptions like Kashmir, Hyderabad and Junagrah had signed the Instrument of Accession.

5. The most tragic incident occurred on 30 January 1948, when Mahatma Gandhi - the father of the nation on his way to a prayer meeting was assassinated by Nathuram Godse.

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ALL ABOUT THE FATHER OF NATION ( MAHATMA GANDHI)

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, called Mahatma, is the Father of the Nation.

He was born on October 2, 1869 at Porbandar in Gujarat as, the son of Karamchand and Putilibai.

Gandhiji proceeded to England in 1888 and returned to India as a Barrister-at-law in 1891.There he was subjected to colour discrimination and he organized Natal Indian Congress. He started the journal „Indian Opinion‟ and built Phoenix Colony and Tolstoy Farm here.

He experimented the weapon Satyagraha for the first time in South Africa in 1906. So South Aftica is often called his political laboratory.

The period between 1893 and 1914, he engaged in a struggle against the racist authorities of South Africa. It was then that he evolved the teaching of Satyagraha based on truth and non-violence.

He returned to India in 1915, leaving South Africa for ever.

Gandhiji built his ashram on the banks of Sabarmati in Gujarat on January 29, 1916.

Gandhiji‟s first Satyagraha in India was for the rights of indigo workers in Champaran (Bihar) in 1917.

Gandhiji‟s first fast was in 1918 in connection with the strike of mill workers in Ahmedabad.

Gandhiji had organised in February 1919 a Satyagraha Committee, the members of which were to take a pledge to refuse to obey the laws of Rowlatt Act.

The Bills were enacted on March 18, 1919. The Rowlatt Satyagraha was a failure but this projected

Gandhiji as "an all India leader of immense potential".

The Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy on April 13, 1919 had a great impact on Mahatma Gandhi. He returned the "Kaiser-i-Hind" medal given to him.

On November 23, 1919, Gandhiji was elected president of the All India Khilafat Conference, which met at Delhi.

First Non-Co-operation Movement was launched on 1st August 1920. The Non-Co-operation Movement spread to rural areas between 1921 and 1922.

Non-Co-operation Movement came to an end on February 12, 1922 in response to the violence at Chauri Chaura.

Gandhiji came back to active politics and attended the Calcutta session of the Congress in December 1928.

The Civil Disobedience Movement was started by Gandhiji on 12th March 1930.

Gandhiji along with 78 companions which included Sarojini Naidu, marched nearly 375 km from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi and broke the law by making salt from sea water.

The Congress boycotted the First Round Table Conference which was held in London on November 12, 1930.

Gandhiji attended the Second Round Table Conference held in London on September 7, 1931 as the sole representative of

Congress.

"A half naked fakir from India" – Winston Churchill‟s comment about Gandhiji when he went to attend the Second Round Table Conference in London in 1931.

Gandhiji was the editor of the English weekly "Young India" and the Gujarati weekly "Navajivan". Later he started the weekly "Harijan" on January 8th, 1933 and this was observed as "Temple Entry Day".

Gandhiji retired from Congress in October 1934. One of the great dreams of Gandhiji was the establishment of "Grama Swaraj". He said, "India lives in villages". He started Sewagram Ashram on 30 April 1936.

The Congress started "Individual Civil Disobedience" in October 1940 and the Mahatma Gandhi.

Meanwhile Gandhiji was again arrested and on May 6, 1944, Mahatma Gandhi made earnest efforts for communal harmony with Jinnah. But the talks failed.

In 1945, a Conference was held at Simla, under Lord Wavell, the then Viceroy. Jinnah argued that only the League should nominate Muslims to the Council. The Congress refused to accept and Simla Conference broke down.

In the elections to the Central and provincial Legislatures held in 1945-46, Congress won the General seats. New Constituent Assembly started to function from December 9, 1946. Dr. Babu Rajendra Prasad was elected the chairman of the Assembly on January 1947.

The British parliament passed the Indian Independence Act based on the Mountbatten plan in July 18, 1947.



Important Indian Monuments And Their Builders

Name Place Built by

Ajanta - Ellora Caves Aurangabad (Mah.) Gupta rulers

Aram Bagh Agra (UP) Babur

Agra Fort Agra (UP) Akbar

Akbar's Mausoleum Sikandra (UP) Akbar

Itmod - ud - daula Fort Agra (UP) Noorjahan

Anand Bhawan Allahabad (UP) Motilal Nehru

Bada Imambara Lucknow (UP) Asaf-ud-daula

Bharatpur Fort Bharatpur (Raj.) Raja Surajmal Singh

Bibi Ka Maqbara Aurangabad (Mah.) Aurongzeb

Char - Minor Hyderabad (AP) Quli Qutub Shah

Charar - e - Sharif Jammu & Kashmir Zainul Abedin

Chhota Imambara Lucknow (UP) Muhammad Ali Shah

Dargah Ajmer Sharif Ajmer (Raj.) Sultan Shyasuddin

Dilwara's Jain Temple Mount Abu (Raj.) Siddharaja

Deewan - e - Khas Agra Fort (UP) Shahjahan

Adhai Din Ka Jhopra Ajmer (Raj.) Qutubuddin Aibak

Elephanfa's cave Mumbai (Mah.) Rashtrakuta rulers

Fatehpur Sikri Agra (UP) Akbar

Ferozshah Kotla Delhi Ferozshah Tughlaq

Golghar Patna (Bih.) British Government

Gateway of India Mumbai (Mah.) British Government

Hauz Khas Delhi Alauddin Khilji

Hawa Mahal Jaipur (Raj.) Maharaja Pratap Singh

Humayun's Tomb Delhi Hymayun's wife

Jama Masjid Agra (UP) Shahjahan

Jama Masjid Delhi Shahjahan

Jagannath Temple Puri (Ori.) Anantvarmun Ganga

Jantar - Mantar Delhi Sawai Jai Singh

Jaigarh Fort Jaipur (Raj.) Sawai Jai Singh

Jim Corbett Park Nainital (Uttar.) Sir Malcom Hqilley

Jodhpur Fort Jodhpur (Raj.) Rao Jodhoji

Kanheri's Fort Mumbai (Mah.) Buddhists

Khirki Masjid Delhi Ghyasuddin Tughlaq

Lai Bagh Bangalore (Kar.) Hyder Ali

Lakshmi Narayan Temple Delhi Birla Family

Makka Masjid Hyderabad (AP) Quli Qutub Shah

Moti Masjid Agra Fort (UP) Shahjahan

Moti Masjid Delhi Fort Aurangzeb

Nahargarh Fort Jaipur (Raj.) Sawai Jai Singh

Nishat Garden Srinagar (J & K) Asaf Ali



Parana Qila Delhi Shershah Suri

Pathar Ki Masjid Patna (Bih.) Pervez Shah

President House Delhi British Government

Qutub Minor Delhi Qutubuddin Aibak

Red Fort Delhi Shahjahan

Safdar Jung Tomb Delhi Shuja-ud-daula

Sabarmati Ashram Ahmadabad (Guj.) Mahatma Gandhi

Shantiniketan West Bengal Rabindra Nath Tagore

Shish Mahal Agra (UP) Shahjahan

Shalimar Garden Srinagar (J & K) Jahangir

Shershah's Tomb Sasaram (Bih.) Shershah's son

Saint George Fort Chennai (TN) East India Company

Sati Burj Mathura (UP) Raja Bhagwan Das

Sun Temple Konark (Ori.) Narsimhadeva

Swarna Mandir (Golden Temple) Amritsar (Pun.) Guru Ramdas

Taj Mahal Agra (UP) Shahjahan

Vellure Math Kolkata (WB) Swami Vivekanand

Victoria Memorial Kolkata (WB) British Government

Vishnupad Temple Gaya (Bih.) Rani Ahiliabai

Viiaya Stambha Chittorgarh (Raj.) Maharana Kumbha

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