History and Geography of the Ancient Americas

What was different about the

history of the American ‘world

zone’?

What challenges did the environment and geography of

the Americas create for the first human migrants?

What were some of the earliest cultures that appeared in the

Americas?

Middle School WorkshopsSession IVCraig Benjamin

W2 WHG Era 2 (p 47) Early Civilizations and Cultures and the Emergence of Pastoral

Peoples, 4000 to 1000 B.C.E./B.C.

Describe and differentiate defining characteristics of early civilization and pastoral societies, where they emerged,

and how they spread

W2.1 Early Civilizations and Early Pastoral Societies

Describe the characteristics of early Western Hemisphere civilizations and pastoral societies.

• Early agrarian civilizations and pastoral societies emerged. Many fundamental institutions, discoveries, inventions, and techniques appeared

• Pastoral societies developed cultures that reflected the geography and resources that enabled them to inhabit the more challenging physical environments such as the tundra and semi-arid regions of North and South America.

Describe the characteristics of early Western Hemisphere civilizations and

pastoral societies (contd)6 – W2.1.1 Explain how the environment favored

hunter gatherer, pastoral, and small scale agricultural ways of life in different parts of the Western Hemisphere.

6 – W2.1.2 Describe how the invention of agriculture led to the emergence of agrarian civilizations

- seasonal harvests- specialized crops- cultivation- and development of villages and towns

Describe the characteristics of early Western Hemisphere civilizations and

pastoral societies (contd)6 – W2.1.3 Use multiple sources of evidence to describe how the

culture of early peoples of North America reflected the geography and natural resources available E.g.

- Inuit of the Arctic- Kwakiutl of the Northwest Coast- Anasazi and Apache of the Southwest6 – W2.1.4 Use evidence to identify defining characteristics of

early civilizations and early pastoral nomads- government- language- religion- social structure- technology- division of labor

First … Big Questions about the place of the Americas in

World History

• How do the histories of the different world zones differ?– How is the history of the American world zone

• Similar to and

• Different from

– The histories of the Australasian and Pacific zones?

– The history of the Afro-Eurasian zone?

• What can these differences and similarities tell us about human history in general?

• Settlement Dates:– Australasia, from c. 60,000 years ago– Americas, from c. 13,000 years ago– Pacific:

• Melanesia from c. 30,000 years ago

• Polynesia from c. 3,000 years ago

Comparing the American, Australasian & Pacific Zones:

Similaritiesand

Differences

The Americas, Australasia &

the Pacific• Historical Evolution:

– Australasian World Zone:• Agriculture only in Papua New Guinea

• No agrarian Civilizations

– Pacific World Zone: • Agriculture in many Pacific communities

• Powerful chiefdoms in some of them (Tonga, Hawaii) by 1,000 years ago

– Americas:• Agriculture from c. 4,000 years ago

• Powerful chiefdoms from c. 3,500 years ago

• Agrarian Civilizations from c. 2,000 years ago

Moorea

Summary:The American world zone was

• Larger• More populous• Evolved larger communities• Evolved more productive technologies than the Australasian and Pacific world zones

How do the Americas compare with the Afro-Eurasian world zone?

The Americas, Australasia & the Pacific

Comparing the American and Afro-Eurasian world zones

4 Major Differences:

1. The Americas are settled later

2. The geographies are different

3. Agriculture appears later in the Americas

4. Agrarian Civilizations appear later

www.rootsweb.com/~akahgp/ Social/beringia.htm

ChimpChimprangerange

Range ofRange ofEarly humansEarly humans

60,000 Ys agoSea-going technologies

40,000 Ys agoNew hunting techniques; adaptations to cold

13,000 Ys agoMany new technologies required

The 1st Difference: Later Settlement

Early Migrations

to the AmericasHumans may have arrived

earlier, but they certainly reached the Americas by 13,000 years ago, traveling either by sea, along the W. Coast, or inland between the great ice sheets

American History

Started Later• Humans arrived with technologies adapted

for the north and north east of Eurasia• The Americas were a new land

– The first Americans had to learn new techniques

– They had to become familiar with new animals and plants

– American animals and plants had to adapt to the presence of humans

The 2nd Difference: Geographical Orientation

N-S axis

E-W axis

Traveling south through the Americas meant adapting to many different environments

The Biologist, Jared Diamond has pointed out that:• Migrating east through Afro-Eurasia was fairly easy

– Climates and environments did not change too much

– So it was easier to adapt familiar technologies

• Migrating south through the Americas was tougher– Climates and environments changed as you moved towards and

away from the equator

– Still, humans migrated all the way in c. 2,000 years (a sign of the increasing adaptability of humans by 13,000 years ago)

– But exchanging technological ideas was tougher

N. America: Climates

E-W Travel

N-S Travel

Traveling N-S you pass through many different climate zones

Traveling E-W you encounter less climatic variety

S. Americas: Climates

E-W Travel

N-S Travel

The 3rd Difference: Agriculture appears later

S.W. Asia

Egypt

W. Africa

PakistanS.E. Asia

S. ChinaN. China

Papua New Guinea

Mississippi valley

Mesoamerica

Andes

Phase 1: 9,000-7,000 BCEPhase 2: 7,000-4,000 BCEPhase 3: after 4,000 BCE

Major American Domesticates?

• How many could you have named?– Tomatoes

– Potatoes

– Chili

– Beans

– Squash

– Quinoa

– Alpaca/llamas

– Guinea pigs

Quinine comes from the bark of the Cinchona tree

Alpaca

Wild Cavy

The Potato, a native of Peru

Turkey, domesticated by the Aztecs

Why does agriculture

appear later in the Americas?Possible answers:• Species were different:-

– Many American plants were harder to domesticate

– Many potential animal domesticates were driven to extinction

• Humans arrived later:-– So they took longer to learn how to use American

plants and animals

– Problems of overpopulation emerged later

Maize was less ‘pre-adapted’ for domestication than wheat

Teosinte, the ancestor of maize, is small, weedy and not too nutritious, but it can survive in the wild

Modern varieties of maize are larger and much more nutritious; but they took a long time to get that way

Extinct N. American megafaunaincluded potential domesticates

Horses evolved in the Americas, but were hunted to extinction there.

Many species of camelids evolved in the Americas,

such as this guanaco. Some survived.

Species of elephants, including mastodon and mammoth, were hunted to extinction.

4th Difference: Agrarian Civilizations arrived later in the Americas

= Zones of Agrarian Civilization

Agrarian Civilizations in the Americas: Chronology

• c. 1500 BCE: – towns, powerful ‘chiefdoms’ amongst Olmec,

Mesoamerica

• 500 BCE: – cities and small states, Mesoamerica (e.g.

Monte Alban)

• 500 CE: – large states (e.g. Teotihuacan, Mayan regions)

• 1500 CE: – large empires (Aztecs, Incas)

Afro-Eurasian & American agrarian civilizations shared much, even though

there was no contact between them

• They were based on agriculture• There was an elaborate division of labor, with

specialist artisans, traders and warriors• They built monumental architecture devoted to

the gods• They engaged in warfare• They had powerful and wealthy leaders• They had large cities• They had taxation and writing

Early Civilizations of Mesoamerica

• c. 1500 BCE: Olmecs

• c. 500 BCE: Small States (e.g. Monte Alban)

• C. 500 CE: Large States (e.g. Teotihuacan, Mayans)

Tenochtitlan

Teotihuacan

OLMEC

Monte Alban

MAYAS

AZTEC EMPIRE Tikal

ChichenItza

The Olmecs • By 1200 BCE, along the southern Gulf Coast of modern-day Mexico, Olmec society was wealthy and organized enough to construct sophisticated drainage systems and royal burial structures at a number of sites

• By 400 BCE Olmec culture had declined, but the cultural developments they facilitated in the region culminated eventually in a Mesoamerican ‘golden age’

• Best known of the successors to the Olmecs were the Mayas, but equally impressive were the achievements of the society that constructed Monte Alban, and Teotihuacan, one of the most remarkable cities in world history

Olmec monumental and religious art, c. 1600 BCE, La Venta, Mexico

Other Small Cultures Flourished in the Oaxaca Valley of Mexico Between 500 BCE and 500 CE

Ruins of Monte Alban, Oaxaca valley

Monte Alban Site

• Monte Albán is a large pre-Columbian archaeological site in the southern Mexican state of Oaxaca

• The site is located on a low mountainous range rising above the plain in the central section of the Valley of Oaxaca where the valley's northern , eastern, and southern branches meet

• Founded around 500 BCE, Monte Albán was the capital of a large-scale expansionist culture that dominated much of the Oaxacan highlands and interacted with other Mesoamerican regional states such as Teotihuacan to the north

Pyramid Temple at Monte Alban

Remains of the main square, Monte Alban

Teotihuacan History

• Teotihuacan is located in high valley of Central Mexico, a region dominated by lakes

• Like river-valley farmers everywhere, early settlers constructed irrigation systems that helped sustain a successful agrarian lifeway

• Over time, principal settlement of the valley grew from a large agricultural village into a major city

• By 500 CE Teotihuacan was 6th largest city on the planet: population of 200,000 people!

Ceremonial gate,Teotihuacan

Teotihuacan Decline

• Residents constructed two colossal pyramids in the heart of the city, the temples of the Sun and Moon

• Government was theocratic, with power balanced between priests and a secular ruling class

• By 600 CE Teotihuacan was experiencing debilitating military pressure from surrounding peoples

• By the 8th C city had been sacked and burned by invaders

Teotihuacan (Temple of the Sun) flourished c. 200-600 CE

At its height, 200,000 people may have lived in Teotihuacan. It traded over a large area of Mesoamerica

Early Mayan History

• In the Yucatan Peninsula and present-day Guatemala, Honduras, Belize and El Salvador, the civilization created by the Mayans flourished at more than a hundred regional centers

• Ancestors of the Mayans may have been migrants who moved into the region from the northwest coast of California sometime in the third millennium BCE

• Early farmers established many successful agrarian villages, some of which evolved into important ceremonial centers, particularly Chichen Itza and Tikal

CeremonialProcession

Regions of Mayan Civilization

Tikal

Chichen Itza

Tikal

• By start of 6th C CE, Tikal had become the leading Mayan center, and from roughly 600 to 800 CE it had a population of 40,000 people

• City dominated a surrounding hinterland that may have included half a million people

• Public architecture of the city was monumental in scale, and included the 154-feet high, steeply-stepped Temple of the Giant Jaguar

Temple of the Giant Jaguar, Tikal, Guatemala, c. 200 CE

Like all monumental architecture, these pyramids almost certainly had deep religious significance

Mayan Government

• Each Mayan center governed by a hereditary priest-king, who was believed to be a descendant of the gods

• Kings had deliberately intimidating names like Smoking Frog, Stormy Sky, and Great Jaguar Paw

• Administration levied taxes upon the hinterlands, supervised local village leaders, and administered justice

• Priest-king and advisors also conducted wars fought between the various competitive Mayan regional centers

Mayan King acknowledges his people who are probably lesser lords in this scene of royal Maya court life

Mayan War

• Large-scale military operations unusual because the armies consisted mainly of nobles who were more focused on capturing their rivals in hand-to-hand combat on the battlefield, than on killing them in large numbers

• Great prestige accrued through the capture of high ranking opponents, who were often forced to endure ritualized torture and public sacrifice

• Small size of the noble armies may have limited their effectiveness, although the warriors fought ferociously enough with obsidian-bladed weapons

Warfare was an important aspect of Mayan civilization

Bonampak frescoes, c. 792 CE. Battle scene above Mayan warriors guard prisoners of war (r)

Chichen Itza

• Not all the Mayan centers engaged in this regular blood-letting, however

• In the 9th C, rulers of Chichen Itza attempted to welcome war captives into their society, rather than destroy or sacrifice them

• Succeeded in delaying the decline that began to afflict most other Mayan centers after 800 CE

• As Mayan cities in the south became increasingly depopulated, cities of the Yucatan and Guatemala highlands like Chichen Itza continued to flourish

The ‘Observatory’ at Chichen Itza in Mayan Yucatan, built c. 1050 CE

Chichen Itza flourished after

other Mayan centers had collapsed

A reconstruction of Mayan monumental architecture –

Chichen Itza

• Eventually southern centers succumbed to the jungles, but in the north Mexicanized ruling elites created a synthetic Mayan-Mexican culture

• The achievements of the Mayans in writing, mathematics and precise calendar calibrations remained impressive long after their demise

Mayan DeclineOvergrown Mayan ruins,Cozumel

Mayan Writing System• The Mayan writing system is considered by archaeologists to be

the most sophisticated system ever developed in Mesoamerica • Maya wrote using 800 individual signs or glyphs, paired in

columns that read together from left to right and top to bottom• Maya glyphs represented words or syllables that could be

combined to form any word or concept in the Mayan language, including numbers, time periods, royal names, titles, dynastic events, and the names of gods, scribes, sculptors, objects, buildings, places, and food

• Hieroglyphic inscriptions were either carved in stone and wood on Maya monuments and architecture, or painted on paper, plaster walls and pottery

Mayan writing, from the Madrid codex, c. 1500

Mayan and Aztec calendars were amongst the most accurate in the world

Aztec Calendar Stone

Mayan Calendar

• Mayas invented a calendar of remarkable accuracy and complexity• Pyramid of Kukulkan at Chichén Itzá used as a calendar:

four stairways, each with 91 steps and a platform at the top, making a total of 365, equivalent to the number of days in a calendar year

• Maya calendar adopted by Aztecs and Toltecs, who used the mechanics of the calendar unaltered but changed the names of the days of the week and the months

• Calendar uses three different dating systems in parallel, the Long Count, the Tzolkin (divine calendar), and the Haab (civil calendar)

• Only the Haab has a direct relationship to the length of the year• Typical Mayan date looks like this: 12.18.16.2.6, 3 Cimi

4 Zotz

12.18.16.2.6 is the Long Count date.

3 Cimi is the Tzolkin date.

4 Zotz is the Haab date.

Pyramid of Kukulkan c. 1050

• So far, we have traced the history of the Americas (or ‘western hemisphere’) from the arrival of the first migrants at least 13,000 years ago, until the impressive achievements of various Mesoamerican peoples to about 1000 years ago

• After the break, in our final session for the day, we will continue the story up until 1500 and the arrival of the Europeans

• See you shortly!

Conclusion