historical studies in physical education and sport our times and our attitudes, our games and our...

Historical Studies in Physical Education and Historical Studies in Physical Education and SportSport

Our times and our attitudes, our games and our sports are Our times and our attitudes, our games and our sports are shaped by the past.shaped by the past.

The Development of The Development of Popular RecreationPopular Recreation in the U.K in the U.K

Popular recreation focuses on the pre-industrial sports and pastimesPopular recreation focuses on the pre-industrial sports and pastimes

particularly of the lower class. Pre industrial (before 1800) popular particularly of the lower class. Pre industrial (before 1800) popular recreation reflected the society life and time in which it existed.recreation reflected the society life and time in which it existed.

Recreational activities were colourful and lively and supported by a Recreational activities were colourful and lively and supported by a strict class system.strict class system.

• Real tennis – AristocracyReal tennis – Aristocracy

• Mob football – PeasantsMob football – Peasants

• Cock fighting – Mix of the aboveCock fighting – Mix of the above

Popular Recreation Popular Recreation continuedcontinued………….………….

• The 1800’s ‘drinking house’ was central to village life; the focus The 1800’s ‘drinking house’ was central to village life; the focus for leisure activities (barbaric or not) for the community. Examples for leisure activities (barbaric or not) for the community. Examples of activities include:of activities include:

- Badger baitingBadger baiting - Billiards- Billiards - Skittles- Skittles- Dog fightingDog fighting - Quoits- Quoits- Prize fighting Prize fighting - Bowls- Bowls

The landlord was the promoter of ‘sports’, responsibilities included:The landlord was the promoter of ‘sports’, responsibilities included:- Arranging the matchesArranging the matches- Providing prize moneyProviding prize money- Book keepingBook keeping

For example: For example: Hambledon Cricket ClubHambledon Cricket ClubBat and Ball InnBat and Ball InnHampshireHampshire

Popular RecreationPopular RecreationMore examples…………More examples…………Country Pursuits (field sports)Country Pursuits (field sports)

- HuntingHunting

- Coursing (chasing hares by trained dogs for wager)Coursing (chasing hares by trained dogs for wager)

- ShootingShooting

Hunting grew from the search for food and developed into a status Hunting grew from the search for food and developed into a status symbol for landowners. Game Laws ensured the sole right to kill symbol for landowners. Game Laws ensured the sole right to kill game only to the upper class (causing lasting hostility in rural game only to the upper class (causing lasting hostility in rural areas). areas).

Militaristic Combat activitiesMilitaristic Combat activities

- Archery- Archery

- Sparring (early from of boxing)- Sparring (early from of boxing)

- FencingFencing

Grew from the need to defend and attack. The functional role of the Grew from the need to defend and attack. The functional role of the activities (listed above) was removed with the availability of guns activities (listed above) was removed with the availability of guns did these skills develop into recreational and competitive sports in did these skills develop into recreational and competitive sports in their own right.their own right.

Characteristics and Cultural Factors of Popular Characteristics and Cultural Factors of Popular RecreationRecreation

The unsophisticated (even uncivilised) sports and pastimes of The unsophisticated (even uncivilised) sports and pastimes of common people were occasional rather than regular: common people were occasional rather than regular:

WHY?WHY?

Peasants had little free time for sports and pastimesPeasants had little free time for sports and pastimes

Some sports developed from the occupation of participants e.g. Some sports developed from the occupation of participants e.g. competitive rowing, which grew from work of ferrymen taking competitive rowing, which grew from work of ferrymen taking

passengers across the River Thames. passengers across the River Thames.

Key Feature of most Popular Recreation was wagering or betting o Key Feature of most Popular Recreation was wagering or betting o the outcomethe outcome

Characteristics of Popular RecreationCharacteristics of Popular Recreation(and cultural factors that influenced their (and cultural factors that influenced their

development)development)

Natural/simple: Lack of technology, purpose built facilities and money Natural/simple: Lack of technology, purpose built facilities and money for the masses.for the masses.

Local: Limited transport and communicationsLocal: Limited transport and communications

Simple unwritten rules: Illiteracy, no national governing bodies, only Simple unwritten rules: Illiteracy, no national governing bodies, only played locallyplayed locally

Cruel/violent: Reflecting the harshness of eighteenth-century rural Cruel/violent: Reflecting the harshness of eighteenth-century rural lifelife

Occasional: Free time for recreation Occasional: Free time for recreation

Courtly/popular: Pre-industrial Britain was predominantly a two-class Courtly/popular: Pre-industrial Britain was predominantly a two-class societysociety

Rural: Before the Industrial Revolution, Britain was agricultural and Rural: Before the Industrial Revolution, Britain was agricultural and ruralrural

Occupational: Work often became the basis of playOccupational: Work often became the basis of play

Wagering: A chance to go from rags to richesWagering: A chance to go from rags to riches

The Development of Sports FestivalsThe Development of Sports Festivals

IntroductionIntroduction

• Sports Festivals are examples of community activities Sports Festivals are examples of community activities developed over the yearsdeveloped over the years

• Wide range of popular sports & games prior to modern Wide range of popular sports & games prior to modern sports were the foundation for today’s rationalised athleticssports were the foundation for today’s rationalised athletics

• Examples – Hiring Fairs and Village WakesExamples – Hiring Fairs and Village Wakes

• Wakes originated from the time of paganism and were a Wakes originated from the time of paganism and were a great social occasiongreat social occasion

• Fairs were opportunities for men to test their strength and Fairs were opportunities for men to test their strength and virility and included all kinds of excess e.g. drinking, blood virility and included all kinds of excess e.g. drinking, blood sports and promiscuitysports and promiscuity


PedestrianismPedestrianism

• Obvious forerunner to AthleticsObvious forerunner to Athletics• Seen as enhancement for gentlemen’s social statusSeen as enhancement for gentlemen’s social status• Some races attracting purses of up to 1000 guineas for Some races attracting purses of up to 1000 guineas for

athletes of all backgroundsathletes of all backgrounds• Pioneered by Scottish landowner, Robert Barclay AllardicePioneered by Scottish landowner, Robert Barclay Allardice• 1809 – Crowd of c.10,000 for 1000 miles walk in 1000 1809 – Crowd of c.10,000 for 1000 miles walk in 1000

consecutive hoursconsecutive hours• Gambling became central to PedestrianismGambling became central to Pedestrianism• People in poverty could wager their way to survivalPeople in poverty could wager their way to survival• Trickery included – Professional athletes using false names Trickery included – Professional athletes using false names

and race fixingand race fixing


Task:Task:

What traditional festivals exist in What traditional festivals exist in your area today and what do your area today and what do they involve?they involve?

Popular Recreation - BathingPopular Recreation - Bathing

As well as natural playground, rivers provided:As well as natural playground, rivers provided:- A ready supply of foodA ready supply of food- A means of transportA means of transport- Place to washPlace to washWith work, play and the river so inter-related, learning to swim With work, play and the river so inter-related, learning to swim

for safety also become a necessity.for safety also become a necessity.

Link: bathing, recreation, survival and healthLink: bathing, recreation, survival and health

The English aristocracy of the Middle Ages considered the The English aristocracy of the Middle Ages considered the ability to swim as part of their chivalric code.ability to swim as part of their chivalric code.

Chivalric code = gentlemanly behaviour associated with the Chivalric code = gentlemanly behaviour associated with the nobility or aristocracy. nobility or aristocracy.

Popular Recreation - Bathing Popular Recreation - Bathing continued…….continued…….

Aristocrats would sometimes sponsor outstanding lower class Aristocrats would sometimes sponsor outstanding lower class swimmers to represent them in wager races (link; popular swimmers to represent them in wager races (link; popular recreation characteristic – wagering).recreation characteristic – wagering).

Key EventKey Event

Charles II established a series of fashionable swimming Charles II established a series of fashionable swimming contests on the Thames and the 1contests on the Thames and the 1stst open air swimming bath open air swimming bath was built in London 1784.was built in London 1784.

Popular Recreation - RowingPopular Recreation - Rowing

Rowing: Functional activity for warfare, fishing and travel Rowing: Functional activity for warfare, fishing and travel

In the days when there were few bridges across the River In the days when there were few bridges across the River Thames ferrymen were in demand. The wealthy employed Thames ferrymen were in demand. The wealthy employed watermen.watermen.

Watermen: men who earned their living on or about boats.Watermen: men who earned their living on or about boats.

Key Qu: To what extent does early rowing fit with the Key Qu: To what extent does early rowing fit with the characteristics of popular recreation?characteristics of popular recreation?

It was neither cruel nor violent, did not lack rules and was not It was neither cruel nor violent, did not lack rules and was not unorganised. However, it was of local importance and it is unorganised. However, it was of local importance and it is perhaps the best example of an occupation that became a perhaps the best example of an occupation that became a recreation.recreation.

Games in Popular Recreation - CricketGames in Popular Recreation - Cricket

Social classes played together reflecting the feudal/class Social classes played together reflecting the feudal/class structure of the village.structure of the village.

Patrons (similar to modern day sponsor or agent) employed Patrons (similar to modern day sponsor or agent) employed estate workers as gardeners and gamekeepers primarily estate workers as gardeners and gamekeepers primarily for their cricketing talents. Early clubs emerged from for their cricketing talents. Early clubs emerged from these rural village sides.these rural village sides.

There are three main aspects of the story of early cricketThere are three main aspects of the story of early cricket

1.1. The Bat and Ball InnThe Bat and Ball Inn

A pub in Hambledon, nicknamed ‘the cradle’ of cricket as it A pub in Hambledon, nicknamed ‘the cradle’ of cricket as it was where the game was encouraged and developed was where the game was encouraged and developed from 1750. Large crowds of up to 2,000 spectators from 1750. Large crowds of up to 2,000 spectators watched and wagered on the outcome of matches.watched and wagered on the outcome of matches.

Games in Popular Recreation – Cricket Games in Popular Recreation – Cricket continued…………continued…………

2. Martlebone Cricket Club2. Martlebone Cricket Club

Gentlemen who developed the laws of cricket in 1774 formed Gentlemen who developed the laws of cricket in 1774 formed the While Conduit Club, which became Marylebone Cricket the While Conduit Club, which became Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) in 1788. The rise of MCC forced the decline of Club (MCC) in 1788. The rise of MCC forced the decline of Hambledon. Players were now employed by MCC as Hambledon. Players were now employed by MCC as coaches and players. MCC became the main club in coaches and players. MCC became the main club in England and took on the role of the governing body.England and took on the role of the governing body.

3. The William Clarke XI (professional touring side, attracting 3. The William Clarke XI (professional touring side, attracting huge crowds taking on teams of 22 opponents)huge crowds taking on teams of 22 opponents)

William Clarke developed cricket from a fragmented localised William Clarke developed cricket from a fragmented localised sport to a national success. sport to a national success.

Games in Popular Recreation – Cricket Games in Popular Recreation – Cricket continued…………….continued…………….

Cricket was a popular recreation because: it attracted Cricket was a popular recreation because: it attracted widespread wagering played by both ale and female widespread wagering played by both ale and female predominantly rural associated with feasts and festival predominantly rural associated with feasts and festival days. Rules could be locally adapted.days. Rules could be locally adapted.

On the other hand:On the other hand:

- It was predominantly non-violentIt was predominantly non-violent

- It had an early rule structureIt had an early rule structure

- National touring sides from 1840’sNational touring sides from 1840’s

* Task: you should assess the extent to when early cricket fits * Task: you should assess the extent to when early cricket fits the accepted model of popular recreation.the accepted model of popular recreation.

Games in Popular Recreation - Real TennisGames in Popular Recreation - Real Tennis

Real (or royal tennis) originated in France became popular in Britain Real (or royal tennis) originated in France became popular in Britain in the 1400’s.in the 1400’s.

An exclusive game for kings, nobles and merchants who played on An exclusive game for kings, nobles and merchants who played on purpose built highly sophisticated courts (varied in size and purpose built highly sophisticated courts (varied in size and shape). The game had complex rules and required high levels of shape). The game had complex rules and required high levels of skill. Those not eligible to play real tennis would copy their social skill. Those not eligible to play real tennis would copy their social superiors and play their own versions (tennis, fives, racquets) superiors and play their own versions (tennis, fives, racquets) against church or pub walls.against church or pub walls.

RacquetsRacquets

Originated in Fleet Prison, London and ended up being played by Originated in Fleet Prison, London and ended up being played by upper-class public school and university students. Prison inmates upper-class public school and university students. Prison inmates were not hardened criminals but debtors and often gentlemen of were not hardened criminals but debtors and often gentlemen of high social standings so they were allowed to exercise in the high social standings so they were allowed to exercise in the prison yard.prison yard.

Games in Popular Recreation – Mob FootballGames in Popular Recreation – Mob FootballMob Football e.g. Ashbourne GameMob Football e.g. Ashbourne Game

A variety of games involving kicking and throwing a ball were A variety of games involving kicking and throwing a ball were regular features of English pre-industrial society. Mob football regular features of English pre-industrial society. Mob football recognised as little more than massive brawls involving brute recognised as little more than massive brawls involving brute

force between hoards of young men.force between hoards of young men.

Throughout history kings, government and local authorities have Throughout history kings, government and local authorities have frowned on mob games because they caused:frowned on mob games because they caused:

- Damage to propertyDamage to property- Injury to young men/making them unfit for army trainingInjury to young men/making them unfit for army training- Disrespect for to SabbathDisrespect for to Sabbath- Social unrest (riots) Social unrest (riots)

Shove Tuesday became a traditional day for mob games, seen as Shove Tuesday became a traditional day for mob games, seen as an opportunity for fun and excitement before the seriousness of an opportunity for fun and excitement before the seriousness of

Lent.Lent.Task: If you were watching an ancient Shrove Tuesday game of Task: If you were watching an ancient Shrove Tuesday game of

mob football, what characteristics of the game would you expect mob football, what characteristics of the game would you expect to see?to see?

Mob Football Mob Football Continued………….Continued………….

Mob Games can be recognised by their lack of:Mob Games can be recognised by their lack of:

- Set rules Set rules Set PitchSet Pitch Specific boundariesSpecific boundaries

- Set positionSet position Ref/UmpireRef/Umpire RegularityRegularity

- Skilfulness (lack of skill mainly displays of force + violence)Skilfulness (lack of skill mainly displays of force + violence)

Task: How did mob football reflect pre-industrial Britain?Task: How did mob football reflect pre-industrial Britain?

1919thth Century Public School Developments of Century Public School Developments of AthleticismAthleticism

Public Schools – controlled by a group of trustees and not Public Schools – controlled by a group of trustees and not privately ownedprivately owned

Characteristics of 19Characteristics of 19thth Century Public Schools Century Public Schools

• Boarding – Time available increasingly spent on gamesBoarding – Time available increasingly spent on games• Expanding – As numbers increased, houses were formedExpanding – As numbers increased, houses were formed• Non-local – Regional games adopted and adapted by Non-local – Regional games adopted and adapted by

individual schoolsindividual schools• Spartan – Harsh treatment and living conditions prepared Spartan – Harsh treatment and living conditions prepared

boys for rigorous competitionboys for rigorous competition• Controlled by Trustees – Influential people investing in and Controlled by Trustees – Influential people investing in and

promoting the school towards sporting successpromoting the school towards sporting success


• Endowed – Well endowed schools in receipt of money or Endowed – Well endowed schools in receipt of money or property for improved facilities and coaching professionalsproperty for improved facilities and coaching professionals

• Fee-paying – Influential pupils contributing towards facilities Fee-paying – Influential pupils contributing towards facilities developmentdevelopment

• Gentry – Influential families bringing money and influenceGentry – Influential families bringing money and influence• Boys – Great energy and enthusiasm channelled into gamesBoys – Great energy and enthusiasm channelled into games


Task:Task:

Make the comparisons between Make the comparisons between the characteristics of Boys the characteristics of Boys Boarding Schools in the modern Boarding Schools in the modern institution?institution?

Technical and Social DevelopmentsTechnical and Social DevelopmentsStage 1 – Bullying and Brutality 1790-1828Stage 1 – Bullying and Brutality 1790-1828

At this time: English society contrasted the high culture At this time: English society contrasted the high culture (regency period) with the low culture (blood sports and bare (regency period) with the low culture (blood sports and bare knuckle fighting). Both ends of the spectrum were mirrored knuckle fighting). Both ends of the spectrum were mirrored in the public schools. A time of ‘boy culture’ phases of in the public schools. A time of ‘boy culture’ phases of chaos if things didn’t go their way.chaos if things didn’t go their way.

All recreational activities were organised by the boys for pure All recreational activities were organised by the boys for pure enjoyment and to relieve the boredom of academic work. enjoyment and to relieve the boredom of academic work. However with increasing numbers of upper-class boys However with increasing numbers of upper-class boys enrolling from a variety of different preparatory schools, enrolling from a variety of different preparatory schools, bringing with them customs and recreations from all over bringing with them customs and recreations from all over the country.the country.

These different customs and traditions mixed and moulded These different customs and traditions mixed and moulded into schoolboy games and future traditions. Games ad into schoolboy games and future traditions. Games ad sports was seen as a medium for social control, instilling sports was seen as a medium for social control, instilling order, stability and good behaviour through sportsmanship. order, stability and good behaviour through sportsmanship. However, this was not always the case, there was no However, this was not always the case, there was no master involvement outside the classroom.master involvement outside the classroom.

Technical and Social DevelopmentsTechnical and Social DevelopmentsStage 1 – Bullying and Brutality 1790-1828Stage 1 – Bullying and Brutality 1790-1828

continued………….continued………….This era was one of ‘institutionalised’ poplar recreation and This era was one of ‘institutionalised’ poplar recreation and

activities ranging from childlike to barbaric. Hoops and activities ranging from childlike to barbaric. Hoops and marbles took place alongside bare knuckle fights and mob marbles took place alongside bare knuckle fights and mob football. Eton and Charterhouse were birthplaces of unique football. Eton and Charterhouse were birthplaces of unique and ferocious mob football games.and ferocious mob football games.

Cricket, the rural game already organised and played by both Cricket, the rural game already organised and played by both classes in society was immediately adopted by the schools classes in society was immediately adopted by the schools because of it’s inclusion ethic.because of it’s inclusion ethic.

Technical and Social DevelopmentsTechnical and Social DevelopmentsStage Two (1828 – 1842)Stage Two (1828 – 1842)

Dr Thomas Arnold and social controlDr Thomas Arnold and social control

A Time of change, both in society (reform and social control) A Time of change, both in society (reform and social control) and at large and in the English public schools. and at large and in the English public schools.

- Parliament and criminal laws were changing (e.g banning - Parliament and criminal laws were changing (e.g banning cruelty to animals)cruelty to animals)

- Transport and communication improving- Transport and communication improving

- With life and society becoming more orderly, the freedom With life and society becoming more orderly, the freedom and wild escapades of Stage 1 became more and more out and wild escapades of Stage 1 became more and more out of place.of place.

Dr Thomas ArnoldDr Thomas Arnold (Head of Rugby School from 1828 – 1842)(Head of Rugby School from 1828 – 1842)

Regarded as a man who reformed the English public school Regarded as a man who reformed the English public school

system at a time when it was out of control.system at a time when it was out of control. Dr Thomas Arnold (initiated) and other liberal headmasters Dr Thomas Arnold (initiated) and other liberal headmasters

(copied) reformed the public schools by:(copied) reformed the public schools by:

• Changing the behaviour of boysChanging the behaviour of boys

• Changing the severity of punishments by mastersChanging the severity of punishments by masters

• Role of sixth formRole of sixth form

• Academic curriculumAcademic curriculum

Main Aim: preach good moral behaviour. This was part of Main Aim: preach good moral behaviour. This was part of muscularmuscular

Christianity or the belief in having a strong, robust, hearty soul Christianity or the belief in having a strong, robust, hearty soul with a with a

strong, fit body.strong, fit body.

Stage 2 Stage 2 ………….. continued………….. continued

It was fine to play sport and to play hard but always for the glory It was fine to play sport and to play hard but always for the glory of God – not for its own sake or for any extrinsic values.of God – not for its own sake or for any extrinsic values.

• Arnold used games as a vehicle for establishing social control.Arnold used games as a vehicle for establishing social control.

• Arnold also established a more trusting and sympathetic Arnold also established a more trusting and sympathetic relationship with sixth form while his masters gradually relationship with sixth form while his masters gradually adopted status of sixth form increased the powers of discipline adopted status of sixth form increased the powers of discipline and in return required them to positive role models. and in return required them to positive role models.

• Sixth form = link between masters and boysSixth form = link between masters and boys

• Growth of the house systemGrowth of the house system

House SystemHouse SystemThe House system became the focus of boys personal, social, The House system became the focus of boys personal, social,

recreational and sporting existence. The House System ultimately set recreational and sporting existence. The House System ultimately set an environment of healthy competition and cohesive attitudes.an environment of healthy competition and cohesive attitudes.

Technical and Social DevelopmentsTechnical and Social DevelopmentsStage 3 – Athleticism + the ‘Cult’ (1842 – 1914)Stage 3 – Athleticism + the ‘Cult’ (1842 – 1914)

Public school is of mellowed building magnificent games fields, Public school is of mellowed building magnificent games fields, colours, caps, cricketers = All symbols of athleticismcolours, caps, cricketers = All symbols of athleticism

Athleticism: The combination of physical effort and moral Athleticism: The combination of physical effort and moral integrity or playing hard but with sportsmanship.integrity or playing hard but with sportsmanship.

Athleticism reached cult proportions: a craze or obsession of Athleticism reached cult proportions: a craze or obsession of playing team games. Compulsory games for the development playing team games. Compulsory games for the development of character became compulsory at Clifton and at Uppingham. of character became compulsory at Clifton and at Uppingham. At grammar schools games were central to school life.At grammar schools games were central to school life.

Voluntary free time activities (not yet as part of the curriculum) Voluntary free time activities (not yet as part of the curriculum) included: included:

*Rowing *Football *Cricket *Various racquet games*Rowing *Football *Cricket *Various racquet games

Stage 3 – Stage 3 – ContinuedContinued………………On leaving university, these young men would go into adult On leaving university, these young men would go into adult

life taking the ‘games ethic’ with them.life taking the ‘games ethic’ with them.

Task: Consider what some academics have said about the Task: Consider what some academics have said about the emergence of athleticism in this stage. emergence of athleticism in this stage.

The ex-public school boy was expected to have a well rounded The ex-public school boy was expected to have a well rounded character, impeccable manners and enviable personal character, impeccable manners and enviable personal qualities. Having led a team on the games field, it was qualities. Having led a team on the games field, it was assumed that he could lead a regiment on the battlefield.assumed that he could lead a regiment on the battlefield.

1850 onwards: Games were purposefully deliberately 1850 onwards: Games were purposefully deliberately assimilated into the formal curriculum of the public school.assimilated into the formal curriculum of the public school.


The development of athleticism in girls’ public schoolsThe development of athleticism in girls’ public schoolsAthleticism reaching cult proportions in boys’ public schools , Athleticism reaching cult proportions in boys’ public schools ,

there was a delay in the development of opportunities for there was a delay in the development of opportunities for the upper-middle class girls.the upper-middle class girls.

Reasons:Reasons:- Traditional role of women (education – seen as a threat to Traditional role of women (education – seen as a threat to

the behavioural norms of society)the behavioural norms of society)- Anxiety - over wearing of slightly revealing clothing for Anxiety - over wearing of slightly revealing clothing for

physical exercise.physical exercise.- It was not considered necessary to give girls the same It was not considered necessary to give girls the same

opportunities as boys.opportunities as boys.- Unladylike – it was thought inappropriate for women to be Unladylike – it was thought inappropriate for women to be

competitive or livelycompetitive or lively- Medical concerns – strenuous physical activity would Medical concerns – strenuous physical activity would

complicate/prohibit child bearingcomplicate/prohibit child bearing


Examples of great pioneers of and for physical education in Examples of great pioneers of and for physical education in the mid to late 19the mid to late 19thth century are: century are:

- Frances Mary BluesFrances Mary Blues

- Dorothea BealeDorothea Beale

- Madame Bergman OsterbergMadame Bergman Osterberg

Task: In which of the three stages of development would you Task: In which of the three stages of development would you place the following (some fit in more than 1 stage)place the following (some fit in more than 1 stage)

* Muscular Christianity* Muscular Christianity * House System* House System *Mob Activities*Mob Activities

*Values*Values * Hooligans* Hooligans

*Social Control*Social Control * Character development* Character development

* Dr Thomas Arnold* Dr Thomas Arnold * Recreation* Recreation

Technical developments: the emergence of structured Technical developments: the emergence of structured and organised popular recreational activities and their and organised popular recreational activities and their

development into recognised sportsdevelopment into recognised sports

Swimming: (beginning of the 19Swimming: (beginning of the 19thth century) - bathing in public century) - bathing in public schools was spontaneous, unorganised and centred around schools was spontaneous, unorganised and centred around natural facilities (rivers and ponds). Boys had swum in the natural facilities (rivers and ponds). Boys had swum in the open at home and brought this culture to school. However open at home and brought this culture to school. However there was no master input or supervision.there was no master input or supervision.

As the century progressed, athleticism developed. Swimming As the century progressed, athleticism developed. Swimming became more structured and regulated with natural facilities became more structured and regulated with natural facilities such as Duck Puddle at Harrow being transformed into such as Duck Puddle at Harrow being transformed into major bathing facility equipped with changing huts, diving major bathing facility equipped with changing huts, diving boards, and with swimming instructors and arranged boards, and with swimming instructors and arranged competitive events.competitive events.

Increasingly headmasters regarded swimming as a necessary Increasingly headmasters regarded swimming as a necessary athletic, also believing that water immersion was athletic, also believing that water immersion was therapeutic. therapeutic.



Rowing: viewed as a vehicle for the promotion to set desirable Rowing: viewed as a vehicle for the promotion to set desirable values into school boys. The adoption of rowing by Eton, values into school boys. The adoption of rowing by Eton, Shrewsbury, Westminster, Oxford and Cambridge dates from Shrewsbury, Westminster, Oxford and Cambridge dates from 1800. Other schools that had river access soon followed. 1800. Other schools that had river access soon followed.

The first inter-school race was between Westminster and Eton The first inter-school race was between Westminster and Eton and the University Boat Race was first rowed at Henley in 1829and the University Boat Race was first rowed at Henley in 1829

Fear of drowning caused the sport to become more formalised Fear of drowning caused the sport to become more formalised from the 1840’s and participants were required to pass from the 1840’s and participants were required to pass swimming tests.swimming tests.



Athletics: Eighteenth-century public school boys took the sports of Athletics: Eighteenth-century public school boys took the sports of their local village wakes and fairs back to school. Predominantly their local village wakes and fairs back to school. Predominantly played for fun and to relieve the boredom of school life.played for fun and to relieve the boredom of school life.

By the 1870’s athletic sports day had become both a major social By the 1870’s athletic sports day had become both a major social occasion and a symbol of a more modern age.occasion and a symbol of a more modern age.

School sports day represented an era of technical development, School sports day represented an era of technical development, more friendly social relationships between boys and masters, more friendly social relationships between boys and masters, and a developing interest in skilfulness over brute force.and a developing interest in skilfulness over brute force.

Sports Day were highly organised with elaborate programmes, Sports Day were highly organised with elaborate programmes, press coverage, large numbers of spectators and military band.press coverage, large numbers of spectators and military band.



Football: earliest days of public school history, impromptu, Football: earliest days of public school history, impromptu, natural forms of football were played. Boys brought games natural forms of football were played. Boys brought games from home which developed into school games.from home which developed into school games.

During the second phase of public school development, with During the second phase of public school development, with rebellion almost over and fighting on the decline, football rebellion almost over and fighting on the decline, football became the place to settle disputes and to show courage and became the place to settle disputes and to show courage and determination. Ironically football helped the social class that determination. Ironically football helped the social class that had traditionally tried to kill it off and for the 1had traditionally tried to kill it off and for the 1stst time in time in British History it became respectable.British History it became respectable.

By the 1860’s, transport and communication had greatly By the 1860’s, transport and communication had greatly improved; more contests could be organised, however there improved; more contests could be organised, however there were disagreements in inter-school matches as each school were disagreements in inter-school matches as each school had different rules. had different rules.



Cricket: popular rural game by the mid 1700’s, cricket was soon Cricket: popular rural game by the mid 1700’s, cricket was soon adopted b the public schools. Headmasters were happy to adopted b the public schools. Headmasters were happy to accept the game as its standardised rules, lack of violence accept the game as its standardised rules, lack of violence and involvement by the gentry made it respectable. I also and involvement by the gentry made it respectable. I also occupied boys and kept them out of mischief.occupied boys and kept them out of mischief.

During the 1850’s and 60’s, cricket grew with William Clarke XI During the 1850’s and 60’s, cricket grew with William Clarke XI touring the country to entertain and inspire.touring the country to entertain and inspire.

Cricket in public schools was now associated with:Cricket in public schools was now associated with:- Regularity as inter house and school gameRegularity as inter house and school game- Compulsory participationCompulsory participation- Grand social occasionsGrand social occasions- The belief that it instilled a range of character building The belief that it instilled a range of character building

qualities.qualities.

Technical developments continued…Technical developments continued…

Court and Racquet Games: Fives – was hugely popular in the Court and Racquet Games: Fives – was hugely popular in the public schools but failed to become a national game of any public schools but failed to become a national game of any standing. This was because: standing. This was because:

- It had a tradition of being played as a recreational game in It had a tradition of being played as a recreational game in free timefree time

- Different versions of the gameDifferent versions of the game- Limited scope for developing characterLimited scope for developing character- The more sophisticated game of racquets was already The more sophisticated game of racquets was already

established.established.

Racquets and Squash: at first played informally by school Racquets and Squash: at first played informally by school boys. Ironically attaining a high social status in public boys. Ironically attaining a high social status in public schools, far beyond its beginnings in a prison. By 1850 two schools, far beyond its beginnings in a prison. By 1850 two standardised courts were built at Harrow.standardised courts were built at Harrow.

Many argue that racquets led to the invention of the more Many argue that racquets led to the invention of the more compact and less expensive game of squash compact and less expensive game of squash

Technical developments continued…Technical developments continued…

Lawn Tennis: invented by and for the middle classes as a social Lawn Tennis: invented by and for the middle classes as a social experience. It also became a vehicle for the emancipation experience. It also became a vehicle for the emancipation (freedom from restrictions) of women. It is not surprising that (freedom from restrictions) of women. It is not surprising that it was not welcomed by the boys’ public schools at a time it was not welcomed by the boys’ public schools at a time when manliness and courage were all important.when manliness and courage were all important.

Why did the boys’ public schools reject lawn tennis? Why did the boys’ public schools reject lawn tennis? - Courts took up comparatively large space for the number of Courts took up comparatively large space for the number of

boys it occupiedboys it occupied- Did not require the courage or physicality of football or cricketDid not require the courage or physicality of football or cricket- Could not rival the contemporary status of cricket or footballCould not rival the contemporary status of cricket or football- Had a rep of being ‘pat ball’ and suitable only for girlsHad a rep of being ‘pat ball’ and suitable only for girls- As a new invention it was treated with some suspicion As a new invention it was treated with some suspicion

Rational Recreation in an Urban Industrial Rational Recreation in an Urban Industrial SocietySociety

Characteristics of Rational RecreationCharacteristics of Rational Recreation

• Regional national/internationalRegional national/international

• Codification, administrationCodification, administration

• Respectable, fair playRespectable, fair play

• RegularRegular

• Exclusive/ElitistExclusive/Elitist

• Urban/Sub-UrbanUrban/Sub-Urban

• Control of GamblingControl of Gambling

• Purpose Built Facilities Purpose Built Facilities


Characteristics of Popular RecreationCharacteristics of Popular Recreation• LocalLocal• Simple, unwritten rulesSimple, unwritten rules• Cruel/ViolentCruel/Violent• OccasionalOccasional• Courtly/PopularCourtly/Popular• RuralRural• WageringWagering• Natural/SimpleNatural/Simple


Task:Task:

Aim to identify 3 additional changes which have Aim to identify 3 additional changes which have occurred over the last few yearsoccurred over the last few years

Urban Industrial Factors which influenced Urban Industrial Factors which influenced the development of Rational Sportthe development of Rational Sport

• Industrial Revolution – Changes in working conditionsIndustrial Revolution – Changes in working conditions• Urban Revolution – Changes in living conditionsUrban Revolution – Changes in living conditions• Increased free timeIncreased free time• The Railways – Excursions and trips, following your own The Railways – Excursions and trips, following your own

team and going to the countrysideteam and going to the countryside• Changing Role of Women – Tennis used as a vehicle for Changing Role of Women – Tennis used as a vehicle for

emancipation for middle classemancipation for middle class• Middle Class Emergence – Changes in attitudes, tastes Middle Class Emergence – Changes in attitudes, tastes

manners and expectationsmanners and expectations


• Changing Working Conditions – Improved over timeChanging Working Conditions – Improved over time

• Paid Holidays for Working Class – By end of century; Paid Holidays for Working Class – By end of century; benevolence of employers; provision of factory facilitiesbenevolence of employers; provision of factory facilities

• Saturday Half Day Saturday Half Day

• Agrarian Revolution – Changes in Agricultural MethodsAgrarian Revolution – Changes in Agricultural Methods


Individual Activities Included:Individual Activities Included:

• SwimmingSwimming

• AthleticsAthletics

• GymnasticsGymnastics

Games Activities Included:Games Activities Included:

• FootballFootball

• CricketCricket

• TennisTennis

The Rationalisation of Bathing and The Rationalisation of Bathing and Swimming in Post – Industrial CommunitiesSwimming in Post – Industrial Communities

• The emergence of sport for the masses, particularly The emergence of sport for the masses, particularly spectator sport, excursion trips and paid holidays were hard spectator sport, excursion trips and paid holidays were hard wonwon

• In early 19In early 19thth century, rural peasants migrated to towns and century, rural peasants migrated to towns and cities in search of regular work, with sport or recreation cities in search of regular work, with sport or recreation being last thing on minds of industrial working classbeing last thing on minds of industrial working class

Things looking up…Things looking up…• Factory Acts improved working conditions; kind factory Factory Acts improved working conditions; kind factory

owners began to look after their staff to increase loyalty owners began to look after their staff to increase loyalty and morale in the workplace.and morale in the workplace.

• By 1890, workers had won their Saturday Half By 1890, workers had won their Saturday Half DayDay


Swimming as a rationalised activity had several threads which Swimming as a rationalised activity had several threads which consisted of:consisted of:

• The Water Cure and Regency Spa MovementThe Water Cure and Regency Spa Movement

• Victorian Sea BathingVictorian Sea Bathing

• 1919thth Century Public Baths for the middle and working Century Public Baths for the middle and working classesclasses


• The Water Cure was otherwise known as the therapeutic The Water Cure was otherwise known as the therapeutic effect of immersion in water, which existed in inland spa’s effect of immersion in water, which existed in inland spa’s such as Bath and Cheltenhamsuch as Bath and Cheltenham

• During the Victorian era, beaches were designated as During the Victorian era, beaches were designated as socially exclusive and bathing machines were towed to the socially exclusive and bathing machines were towed to the water giving bathers some privacywater giving bathers some privacy

• By the 1870’s, the new rail network brought the working By the 1870’s, the new rail network brought the working class to the seaside who copied activities of their social class to the seaside who copied activities of their social superiorssuperiors

• Swimming became fashionable for the middle and amateur Swimming became fashionable for the middle and amateur class with competitive events being organisedclass with competitive events being organised


• 1818thth and 19 and 19thth century industrialisation and urbanisation led century industrialisation and urbanisation led to overcrowding and diseaseto overcrowding and disease

• In 1846, central government attempted to improve this with In 1846, central government attempted to improve this with it’s wash house actsit’s wash house acts

• This was whereby loans were offered to major towns if they This was whereby loans were offered to major towns if they built public bathsbuilt public baths

The Emergence of Track and Field Activities The Emergence of Track and Field Activities as a new form of Urban Festivalas a new form of Urban Festival

• Due to the steady urbanisation of England, rural fairs came Due to the steady urbanisation of England, rural fairs came to an end followed by professional athletics being to an end followed by professional athletics being established in big industrial citiesestablished in big industrial cities

• The Amateur Athletics Association (AAA) was established in The Amateur Athletics Association (AAA) was established in 1880 which helped increase working class involvement in 1880 which helped increase working class involvement in sportssports

• The organisation was responsible for opening up the sport The organisation was responsible for opening up the sport to all levels of society without compromising it’s imageto all levels of society without compromising it’s image

The Emergence of Track and Field Activities The Emergence of Track and Field Activities as a new form of Urban Festivalas a new form of Urban Festival

The Modern Olympic MovementThe Modern Olympic Movement• A French aristocrat named Baron Pierre de Coubertin who A French aristocrat named Baron Pierre de Coubertin who

was inspired by sport started the Olympic Games in 1896, was inspired by sport started the Olympic Games in 1896, with his aim to foster athleticism and friendship between with his aim to foster athleticism and friendship between nationsnations

• However, by the time the games came to London in 1908, However, by the time the games came to London in 1908, all his ideas had largely been crushedall his ideas had largely been crushed

• This conflict was captured in the film ‘Chariots of Fire’ This conflict was captured in the film ‘Chariots of Fire’ (1981). This follows the preparations and Olympic fortunes (1981). This follows the preparations and Olympic fortunes of two British athletes in the Paris Games of 1924 of two British athletes in the Paris Games of 1924

The Rationalisation of GamesThe Rationalisation of Games

Association FootballAssociation Football• Following the formation of the Football Association (FA), Following the formation of the Football Association (FA),

Soccer became both an amateur game for gentlemen and a Soccer became both an amateur game for gentlemen and a professional game for the ‘people’ (Working Class)professional game for the ‘people’ (Working Class)

• It soon became clear, that football was a regular spectator It soon became clear, that football was a regular spectator attraction rather than an annual festival occasionattraction rather than an annual festival occasion

• Therefore, due to players becoming unable to agree time Therefore, due to players becoming unable to agree time off work, the FA reluctantly accepted professionalismoff work, the FA reluctantly accepted professionalism


CricketCricket• In the 1870’s, county cricket took over from the touring XI’s In the 1870’s, county cricket took over from the touring XI’s

as a spectator attraction – while county communities as a spectator attraction – while county communities needed and respected professionals, they kept them firmly needed and respected professionals, they kept them firmly in their social placein their social place

• E.G – They had different names, Pro v’s Amateur. They E.G – They had different names, Pro v’s Amateur. They even had different eating arrangements and did not even even had different eating arrangements and did not even travel to matches together or share a changing roomtravel to matches together or share a changing room


Lawn TennisLawn Tennis• The Middle Classes were excluded from real tennis so they The Middle Classes were excluded from real tennis so they

looked for their own alternativelooked for their own alternative• The game was perfect for upper middle class suburban The game was perfect for upper middle class suburban

gardensgardens• The working class were excluded and had to wait for public The working class were excluded and had to wait for public

provision, which delayed their participationprovision, which delayed their participationIt’s role in the emancipation of women…It’s role in the emancipation of women…• Lawn tennis helped remove stereotypes of Victorian times, Lawn tennis helped remove stereotypes of Victorian times,

as women could participate on their own or with men and as women could participate on their own or with men and wearing whatever they wantedwearing whatever they wanted


Task:Task:

Explain some changes which have occurred in one of Explain some changes which have occurred in one of these games since the turn of the 19these games since the turn of the 19thth century century

The development of drill, physical training and The development of drill, physical training and physical education in elementary schoolsphysical education in elementary schools

End of the 19End of the 19thth century centuryBackground informationBackground information- In 1886, the army rejected 380 out of each 1000 recruits on - In 1886, the army rejected 380 out of each 1000 recruits on

physical grounds.physical grounds.- Board schools (state schools) established by the Foster Board schools (state schools) established by the Foster

Education Act 1870, previously the education of the poor Education Act 1870, previously the education of the poor had been a parish responsibility.had been a parish responsibility.

- Restricted space for play and physical exerciseRestricted space for play and physical exercise- Many schools in industrial towns had no playing facilities.Many schools in industrial towns had no playing facilities.

Elementary school drillElementary school drillObjectives:Objectives:- Fitness for army recruitsFitness for army recruits- DisciplineDiscipline- To do for working-class children what games was doing for To do for working-class children what games was doing for

public school boyspublic school boys

The development of drill, physical training and The development of drill, physical training and physical education in elementary schools physical education in elementary schools

continued………..continued………..

ContentContent

- 1870 = military drill1870 = military drill

- 1890’s = Swedish drill1890’s = Swedish drill

- 1900 = the Bored of Education stated that games were a 1900 = the Bored of Education stated that games were a suitable alternative to Swedish drillsuitable alternative to Swedish drill

MethodologyMethodology

- Authoritarian / Command response, taught by army non-- Authoritarian / Command response, taught by army non-commissioned officers (NCO’s) in 1870’s. By the 1890’s commissioned officers (NCO’s) in 1870’s. By the 1890’s taught by qualified teachers.taught by qualified teachers.

The development of drill, physical training and The development of drill, physical training and physical education in elementary schools physical education in elementary schools continued………….continued………….

The Model Course 1902The Model Course 1902

Background InformationBackground Information

- Military needs became more powerful than educational Military needs became more powerful than educational theory.theory.

- Girls and boys instructed together: failed to cater for age or Girls and boys instructed together: failed to cater for age or gendergender

- Children treated as soldiersChildren treated as soldiers

- Taught by NCO’s or teachers who had been trained by themTaught by NCO’s or teachers who had been trained by them

- Dull + repetitive contentDull + repetitive content

- Set against the backdrop of poor diets, bad housing and Set against the backdrop of poor diets, bad housing and other forms of social deprivation.other forms of social deprivation.

All of the above contributed to the lowered the status All of the above contributed to the lowered the status of the subject.of the subject.


continued………….continued………….

The Model Course 1902The Model Course 1902

Military based content was imposed as a result of Military based content was imposed as a result of Britain’s poor performance in the Boer WarBritain’s poor performance in the Boer War

Objectives:Objectives: Content:Content:

- Fitness (for military service)Fitness (for military service) Military drillMilitary drill

- Training in handing weaponsTraining in handing weapons ExercisesExercises

- DisciplineDiscipline Weapon trainingWeapon training

Methodology:Methodology:

- Command – response (‘Attention’, ‘Stand at ease’, Marching Command – response (‘Attention’, ‘Stand at ease’, Marching etc)etc)

- Group response/ no individualityGroup response/ no individuality

- In ranksIn ranks



Early Syllabuses of Physical Training (PT) 1904 and 1909Early Syllabuses of Physical Training (PT) 1904 and 1909

Background Information:Background Information:

- Revisions of the 1902 model courseRevisions of the 1902 model course

- School medical service was established which identified the School medical service was established which identified the necessity of raising the general standard of physical health necessity of raising the general standard of physical health among the children of the poor.among the children of the poor.

- Emphasis on exercise in the open air and the use of Emphasis on exercise in the open air and the use of suitable clothingsuitable clothing

- 1909 – local authorities required to train teachers to deliver 1909 – local authorities required to train teachers to deliver the syllabusesthe syllabuses

- Still large numbers and poor facilities Still large numbers and poor facilities

Early Syllabuses of Physical Training (PT) 1904 and Early Syllabuses of Physical Training (PT) 1904 and 1909 1909 continued………….continued………….

Objectives:Objectives:

- Obedience and DisciplineObedience and Discipline

- EnjoymentEnjoyment

- Alertness, decision-making, control of mind over bodyAlertness, decision-making, control of mind over body

- 1909 – therapeutic effects of exercise (with emphasis on 1909 – therapeutic effects of exercise (with emphasis on respiration, circulation and posture)respiration, circulation and posture)

Content:Content:

- Recreative aspects to relive dullness, tedium and monotony Recreative aspects to relive dullness, tedium and monotony of former lessonof former lesson

- Introduction of dancing steps and simple gamesIntroduction of dancing steps and simple games

- Inclusion of Danish and rhythmic swinging exercisesInclusion of Danish and rhythmic swinging exercises

Early Syllabuses of Physical Training (PT) 1904 and Early Syllabuses of Physical Training (PT) 1904 and 1909 1909 continued………….continued………….


- Still formalStill formal

- Still in ranks with marchingStill in ranks with marching

- Still unison response to commandsStill unison response to commands

- A kinder approach by teachersA kinder approach by teachers

- Some freedom of choice for teachersSome freedom of choice for teachers



The Syllabus 1919The Syllabus 1919

Background Information:Background Information:

- Set against huge loss of life in WW1 and in post-war flu - Set against huge loss of life in WW1 and in post-war flu epidemicepidemic

- The syllabus was progressive in terms its broader content and - The syllabus was progressive in terms its broader content and child-centred approach.child-centred approach.

Important Note: The Fisher Education Act 1918 promoted holiday Important Note: The Fisher Education Act 1918 promoted holiday and school camps, school playing fields and school swimming and school camps, school playing fields and school swimming baths.baths.

Objectives:Objectives:

- Enjoyment and play for the under 7’sEnjoyment and play for the under 7’s

- Therapeutic work for the over 7’sTherapeutic work for the over 7’s

The 1919 Syllabus The 1919 Syllabus continued……….continued……….

Content:Content:

- Exercises and ‘positions’ same s 1909Exercises and ‘positions’ same s 1909

- Special section for games for the under 7’sSpecial section for games for the under 7’s

- Not less than half the lesson on ‘general activity exercises’ Not less than half the lesson on ‘general activity exercises’ – active free movement, including small games and dancing– active free movement, including small games and dancing

1919 syllabus – the first ‘child centred’ syllabus, but some 1919 syllabus – the first ‘child centred’ syllabus, but some teachers stayed with their old ways.teachers stayed with their old ways.


- More freedom for teachers ad pupilsMore freedom for teachers ad pupils

- Less formalityLess formality

Syllabus of Physical training 1933Syllabus of Physical training 1933(the last syllabus to be published under George Newman’s (the last syllabus to be published under George Newman’s

direction)direction)

Background Information: Background Information: The industrial depression of the 1930’s left many of the The industrial depression of the 1930’s left many of the

working class unemployedworking class unemployedThis syllabus- had one section for the under 11’s and one for This syllabus- had one section for the under 11’s and one for

the ove 11’sthe ove 11’s

Influences: Influences: - The Hadow Report 1926 identified the need to differentiate - The Hadow Report 1926 identified the need to differentiate

between ages for physical training.between ages for physical training.- A detailed, high quality and highly respected syllabusA detailed, high quality and highly respected syllabus- Newman stated that good nourishment, effective medical Newman stated that good nourishment, effective medical

inspection and treatment and hygienic surroundings were inspection and treatment and hygienic surroundings were all necessary for a good health as well as a comprehensive all necessary for a good health as well as a comprehensive system of physical training…..for the normal development system of physical training…..for the normal development of the body.of the body.

Syllabus of Physical training 1933Syllabus of Physical training 1933

Objectives: Objectives: - Physical fitness - Therapeutic results - Good PhysiquePhysical fitness - Therapeutic results - Good Physique- Good posture - Development of mind and body (holistic aims)Good posture - Development of mind and body (holistic aims)

Content:Content:- AthleticsAthletics - Gymnastic and games skills- Gymnastic and games skills - Group work - Group work

Methodology:Methodology:- Still direct style for the majority of the lessonStill direct style for the majority of the lesson- Group work/tasks throughoutGroup work/tasks throughout- Encouragement for special clothing/kitEncouragement for special clothing/kit- 5 x 20 minute lesson a week recommended5 x 20 minute lesson a week recommended- Outdoor lessons recommended for health benefitsOutdoor lessons recommended for health benefits- Some decentralised parts to the lessonSome decentralised parts to the lesson

Decentralised = the teacher acts as the guide, with children working Decentralised = the teacher acts as the guide, with children working at their own pace answering tasks in an individual wayat their own pace answering tasks in an individual way

Revision QuestionsRevision Questions

1.1. What is meant by the words objectives, content and What is meant by the words objectives, content and methodology?methodology?

2.2. Compare the content of the 1902 model course with that of Compare the content of the 1902 model course with that of the moving and planning the programme.the moving and planning the programme.

3.3. Wit which syllabuses would you associate the following Wit which syllabuses would you associate the following words or phrases? (Some maybe linked to more than one words or phrases? (Some maybe linked to more than one syllabus)syllabus)

Child-centredChild-centred Army NCO’sArmy NCO’sBoer WarBoer War Army assault apparatus Army assault apparatus Dr George NewmanDr George Newman Play for the under 7’sPlay for the under 7’sTherapeuticTherapeutic Butler Education ActButler Education Act

Note: Dr George Newman role was overseeing the publication of Note: Dr George Newman role was overseeing the publication of the three Board Education syllabuses between 1909 and the three Board Education syllabuses between 1909 and 19331933

Physical Education and Modern TrendsPhysical Education and Modern Trends

Moving and Growing and Planning the ProgrammeMoving and Growing and Planning the Programme• The (Butler) Education Act 1944 aimed to ensure equality of The (Butler) Education Act 1944 aimed to ensure equality of

educational opportunity and to provide playing fields for all educational opportunity and to provide playing fields for all schoolsschools

• The Second World War required ‘thinking soldiers’ which The Second World War required ‘thinking soldiers’ which influenced the need for ‘thinking children’. Assault course influenced the need for ‘thinking children’. Assault course obstacle equipment, influenced apparatus design as well as obstacle equipment, influenced apparatus design as well as encouraging individual interpretation of encouraging individual interpretation of open tasks open tasks

Background:Background:

- The Butler Education Act 1944 aimed to ensure equality of The Butler Education Act 1944 aimed to ensure equality of education of educational opportunity.education of educational opportunity.

- Local authorities were required to provide playing fields for Local authorities were required to provide playing fields for al schools.al schools.

- School leaving age was raised to 15 yearsSchool leaving age was raised to 15 years


This influenced the problem solving approach…This influenced the problem solving approach…1.1. Moving & Growing (1952)Moving & Growing (1952)2.2. Planning the Programme (1954)Planning the Programme (1954)

Influences:Influences:- The 2The 2ndnd World War, required thinking soldiers and the subsequent World War, required thinking soldiers and the subsequent

perceived need for increasingly thinking children.perceived need for increasingly thinking children.- Assault course obstacle equipment, influenced apparatus designAssault course obstacle equipment, influenced apparatus design- Modern educational dance methods influenced the Modern educational dance methods influenced the

creative/movement approachcreative/movement approach- Introduction of problem solving approach to learning (open tasks)Introduction of problem solving approach to learning (open tasks)

Also… The extensive post war rebuilding programme lead to an Also… The extensive post war rebuilding programme lead to an expansion of facilitiesexpansion of facilities


ObjectivesObjectives• Physical, Social and Cognitive SkillsPhysical, Social and Cognitive Skills• Variety of experiencesVariety of experiences• Enjoyment and Personal SatisfactionEnjoyment and Personal Satisfaction

MethodologyMethodology• Child centred and enjoyment orientatedChild centred and enjoyment orientated• ProgressiveProgressive• Teacher guidance rather than directionTeacher guidance rather than direction

ContentContent• Agility exercisesAgility exercises• SwimmingSwimming• Movement to MusicMovement to Music

historical studies in physical education and sport our times and our attitudes, our games and our...

Documents