High-Pressure Shock Compression of Condensed Matter

Editors-in-Chiej Lee Davison Yasuyuki Horie

Editor-in-Chiej Emeritus Robert A. Graham

Advisory Board Roger Cheret, France Vladimir E. Fortov, Russia Jing Fuqian, China Y.M. Gupta, USA James N. Johnson, USA Akira B. Sawaoka, Japan

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Jonas A. Zukas William P. Walters Editors

Explosive Effects and Applications

With 160 Illustrations

~ Springer

Jonas A. Zukas Computatîonal Mechanics Associates P.O. Box 11314 Balt îmore, MO 21239 USA

Editors-in-Chief Lee Oavison 39 Canoncito Vista Road Tijeras, NM 87059 USA leedavison@aol.com

William P. Walters Army Research Laboralory Aberdeen Proving Ground Aherdeen, MO 21005 USA

Yasuyuki Horic 1..os Alamos National Laboratory Las Alamos, NM 87545 USA horie@ lanl.gov

Library of Congress Cataioging-in-PubJication Data Explosive effects and applications I edited by Jonas A. Z\lkas,

William P. Walters. p. cm. - . (Higb prcssure sbock compression of coodensed

ITI<ltter) Includes bibliographical referem:es.

1. Blast cffca.. 2. Sbock waves. 3. Condenscd maltcr. 1. Zukas, Jonas A. II. Walters, W.P. (William P.), 1943-111. Scries. TA 6S4.7.E9S 1997 662'.2-Ix:'21 97-5779

ISBN 978-0-387-95558-2 Printed on acid-fI'ec paper.

CI 1998 Springer Science+8 usiness M~dia N~w York Originally publishcd by Springer-Vertag New York in 1998

AII rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in wbole or in pan witboullbe wriuen pennission of Ihe publisber (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC). except for brief excerpts in con­nection wilb reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in conneclion wilb any fono ofinfonnalion storage arni retrieval, electronic adaplation, compuler software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, lrademarks, service marks, and similar lenns, even ifthey are IlOt identified as such, is nOI 10 be taken as an expression of opinion as 10 whdher or IlOllhey are subjecllo proprietary rights.

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ISBN 978-0-387-95558-2 ISBN 978-1-4612-0589-0 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4612-0589-0

Preface

Our principal motivation in putting together this book, a project started in earnest in early 1996, was to have a book on energetic materials that was accessible to a newcomer to the field. To this end, we asked all contributors to emphasize basic principles and to provide a broad overview of their fields of specialization. In addition, we requested that they summarize the state of the art in their areas as well. By and large, we believe this goal has been met.

At the time this book was started, many of the classic books dealing with energetic materials were either "out of stock" or "out of print." These are publishing industry jargon for "If you don't already have it, you're not going to get it from us." Left were but a handful of books for specialists in the field. Fortunately, many of the authors and contributors to these extinct classics were active as teachers and lecturers in university classrooms and short courses. Indeed, many of the chapters in this book had their origins as course notes for short courses dealing with detonation physics and explosive technology. All of this was good material, aimed at an audience assumed to have no prior experience with energetic materials, but buried in short course notes that are not readily accessible. They accepted enthusiastically the invitation to prepare chapters covering their work and generously share a lifetime of expertise with the reader.

The book is divided into ten chapters. The first two provide a broad overview of the nature of explosives and their many applications. Most people consider explosives in a military context, and so will be surprised to find that the civilian use of explosives, particularly in rock blasting and demolitions, has always outweighed their use by the military. This has held true even in times of war. Since explosives release their energy over an extremely short period of time, the presence of shock waves is inevitable in all applications. This topic, as well as a description of explosive behavior under shock loading conditions, is considered in Chapter 3. Fundamentals of detonation theory are covered in Chapter 4 and the study of explosive initiation is continued in some detail in Chapter 6. Chapter 5 deals with the chemistry of explosives. In order to be useful in industry, the energy generated by an explosive, or explosive output, must be harnessed in a

v

vi Preface

meaningful fashion. Chapter 7 covers one such application, the Gurney model, in great detail. Hazards and safety considerations are dealt with in Chapters 8 and 9. Chapter 10 considers one of many possible applications, the safe demolition of structures through the use of explosives. The astute reader will note some duplication between chapters. This is intentional. The editors felt that repetition of the basics from different points of view would be beneficial to understanding the subject matter and well worth the slight increase in the length of the book.

The material in this book has been prepared to be readily accessible to anyone with a first degree in science or engineering. Familiarity with the fundamental principles of thermodynamics and organic chemistry that are typically presented at an undergraduate level is particularly helpful.

All contributors to the book are internationally recognized experts in their respective fields. We thank them for the time they have taken to pre­pare and preserve this material. We are also grateful to the many reviewers whose advice contributed to the quality of the book.

This book is primarily meant for self-study by scientists and engineers who need an introduction to energetic materials and references for further study. With the addition of some supplemental material and class exercises, it can also serve as an advanced undergraduate or graduate text on explo­sive effects.

The Aberdeen Diner, where Bill Walters and I have spent more time than either of us care to remember, has as its motto:

"If you like the food, tell your friends. If not, tell us."

We encourage readers of the book to share their suggestions for improve­ment. Comments such as "great book" or "this is the worst piece of trash I've ever read" are useful in that they convey minimal information on how the book has been received. We would urge you though, having been moved enough by the book to write in the first place, to be just a tad more specific. Praise is delightful, but a detailed description of the faults of the book is invaluable. If there are enough of them, there may even be a "new and improved" version of this book. After all, why should the manufacturers of detergents have all the fun!

Baltimore, Maryland Aberdeen, Maryland

Jonas A. Zukas William P. Walters

Contents

Preface ................................................................. v List of Editors and Contributors ....................................... xv

CHAPTER I

Introduction to Explosives William C. Davis

1

1.1. History ............................................................ 1 1.2. Nomenclature ...................................................... 5 1.3. Blasting ............................................................ 6 1.4. Military Uses....................................................... 9

1.4.1. Blast Waves ................................................. 10 1.4.2. Fragm.ents .................................................... 13

1.5. Jet Penetrators ..................................................... 15 1.6. Reactive Armor .................................................... 16 1.7. Explosive Welding.................................................. 17 1.8. Wave Shaping and Lenses .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 1.9. Conclusions ........................................................ 20

1.10. Problems (Hints and Solutions) ...................................... 20 References ......................................................... 21

CHAPTER 2 Explosives Development and Fundamentals of Explosives Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Peter R. Lee

2.1. Introduction ........................................................ 23 2.2. Nomenclature ...................................................... 24

2.2.1. Units of Measurement ........................................ 24 2.2.2. Definitions of Physical, Chemical, and Materials

Properties of Explosives ...................................... 26 2.3. The Nature of Explosions ........................................... 26

2.3.1. Physical Explosions .......................................... 26 2.3.2. Chemical Explosions ......................................... 27 2.3.3. Nuclear Explosions .......................................... 27

2.4. What Are Explosives? ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

vii

Vl11 Contents

2.5. A Short History of Explosives ....................................... 29 2.5.1. Greek Fire........ ................................ ........... 29 2.5.2. Gunpowder, or Black Powder ................................ 29 2.5.3. Brief Chronology of the Discovery and Development of the

Commoner High Explosives and Propellants .................. 30 2.5.3.1. Nitroglycerine ...................................... 30 2.5.3.2. Nitrocellulose ....................................... 33 2.5.3.3. Gun Propellant Developments ....................... 36 2.5.3.4. Picric Acid (2,4,6-Trinitrophenol) .................... 37 2.5.3.5. Tetryl (2,4,6-Trinitrophenylmethylnitramine) ......... 38 2.5.3.6. TNT (Trinitrotoluene) ............................... 39 2.5.3.7. RDX (Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine) ................ 40 2.5.3.8. HMX (Cyclotetramethylenetetranitramine) ........... 41 2.5.3.9. PETN (Pentaerithrytoltetranitrate) ................... 41

2.5.3.10. HNS (Hexanitrostilbene) ............................ 41 2.5.3.11. TATB (Triaminotrinitrobenzene) .................... 42 2.5.3.12. HBN (Hexanitrobenzene) ............................ 42 2.5.3.13. Commercial Explosives .............................. 42 2.5.3.14. Future Explosives Development ..................... 43

CHAPTER 3

Shock Waves; Rarefaction Waves; Equations of State William C. Davis

47

3.1. Introduction ........................................................ 47 3.2. Notation and Units ................................................. 48 3.3. List of Symbols ..................................................... 49 3.4. Shock Waves ....................................................... 50 3.5. Rarefaction Waves ................................................. 55 3.6. Reference Frames .................................................. 61 3.7. Sharp Shocks and Diffuse Rarefactions .............................. 63 3.8. Transmission and Reflection of Waves at Interfaces .................. 64 3.9. The Shock Tube.................................................... 72

3.10. Detonation ......................................................... 74 3.11. Phase Changes ..................................................... 77 3.12. Hydrodynamics and Thermodynamics ............................... 80 3.13. Equations of State .................................................. 82

3.13.1. Ideal Gas and Polytropic Gas .............................. 83 3.13.2. Abel ...................................................... 85 3.13.3. Inverse Power Potential .................................... 86 3.13.4. Expansion of Equations of State in Powers of v ............. 86 3.13.5. Tait ....................................................... 87 3.13.6. BKW ..................................................... 88 3.13.7. Intermolecular Potentials ................................... 88 3.13.8. JWL ...................................................... 89 3.13.9. Linear U-u ................................................ 91

3.13.10. Walsh Mirror Image ....................................... 93 3.13.11. Hayes ..................................................... 94 3.13.12. Davis ..................................................... 95 3.13.13. Williamsburg .............................................. 95

Contents IX

3.13.14. Summary .................................................. 96 3.14. Equations of State for Mixtures ..................................... 96 3.15. The Adiabatic Gamma, the Griineisen Gamma, and

the Fundamental Derivative ......................................... 100 Hugoniot Curve Data [Fritz (1996b)] ................................ 105

3.16. Problems (Hints and Solutions) ..................................... 105 References ........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

CHAPTER 4

Introduction to Detonation Physics Paul W. Cooper

115

4.1. Nomenclature ...................................................... 115 4.2. The Simple Model .................................................. 116 4.3. The Jump Equations................................................ 119 4.4. The Detonation Product P- V Isentrope ............................. 120 4.5. Detonation Velocity and Density .................................... 121 4.6. The C-J State ...................................................... 127 4.7. The Detonation Product P-u Hugoniot .............................. 128 4.8. Detonation Velocity and Charge Diameter........................... 130 4.9. Conclusion ......................................................... 133

Bibliography ....................................................... 134 References ......................................................... 134

CHAPTER 5

The Chemistry of Explosives Jimmie C. Oxley

137

5.1. Background ........................................................ 137 5.2. Conventional Explosives ............................................ 140 5.3. Nitrate Esters ...................................................... 141

5.3.1. Nitrate Ester Formulations ................................... 144 5.4. Nitroarenes ........................................................ 146

5.4.1. Thermally Stable Nitroarenes ................................. 151 5.5. Nitroalkanes ....................................................... 154 5.6. Nitramines ......................................................... 156

5.6.1. Nitramine Composites........................................ 159 5.7. Heterocyclic Explosives ............................................. 160 5.8. Energetic Salts ..................................................... 162 5.9. Composite Explosives............................................... 165

5.10. Liquid Oxidizers and Explosives ..................................... 166 5.11. Unconventional Explosives.......................................... 168

References ......................................................... 171

CHAPTER 6

Theories and Techniques of Initiation Peter R. Lee

173

6.1. Introduction ........................................................ 173 6.2. Nomenclature ...................................................... 173

x Contents

6.3. Initiation Theories 6.4. Thermal Explosion Theory ......................................... .

6.4.1. Semenov Theory ............................................ . 6.4.1.1. Critical Conditions .................................. .

6.4.2. Frank-Kamenetskii Theory .................................. . 6.5. Elementary Detonation Theory ..................................... .

6.5.1. Shock Initiation ............................................. . 6.5.2. The Hydrodynamic Theory of Detonation .................... .

6.5.2.1. Steady Detonation .................................. . 6.5.2.2. Transient Detonation Waves ......................... .

6.6. Relationships Between Thermal and Shock Initiation Theories ....... . 6.7. Initiation Mechanisms ............................................. .

6.7.1. Initiation by Heat ........................................... . 6.7.2. Friction or Stabbing ......................................... . 6.7.3. Flash or Flame ............................................. . 6.7.4. Percussion .................................................. . 6.7.5. Electrical ................................................... . 6.7.6. Coherent Light ............................................. .

6.8. Initiation Trains ................................................... . 6.9. Conclusions ....................................................... .

References

CHAPTER 7

The Gurney Model for Explosive Output for Driving Metal James E. Kennedy

174 176 176 180 182 189 192 194 194 201 203 205 207 208 208 208 209 212 214 217 217

221

7.1. Introduction ........................................................ 221 7.2. Nomenclature ...................................................... 223 7.3. Results of the Gurney Model........................................ 224

7.3.1. Terminal Velocity Formulas for Symmetric and Asymmetric Configurations ................................... 225

7.3.2. Gurney Equations............................................ 227 7.3.3. Imploding Geometries........................................ 228 7.3.4. Impulse Estimation .......................................... 231

7.3.4.1. Specific Impulse of Unconfined Surface Charges ....... 231 7.3.4.2. Impulse Increase by Tamping ......................... 232

7.3.5. Gurney Energy of Explosives ................................. 232 7.4. Applications of Gurney Analysis .................................... 235

7.4.1. Tamping Effectiveness........................................ 236 7.4.2. Direction of Metal Projection ................................. 236

7.5. Extensions of Gurney Analysis ...................................... 238 7.5.1. Estimation of Gurney Velocity from Chemistry, Density, and

Detonation Parameters ....................................... 238 7.5.2. Effects of Gaps .............................................. 239 7.5.3. Acceleration Solutions ........................................ 239

7.5.3.1. Jones Analysis for Slab Geometries ................... 239 7.5.3.2. Chanteret Analysis for Symmetric Slabs and

Exploding Cylinders .................................. 242 7.5.3.3. Flis Analysis by Lagrange's Principle.................. 243

Contents Xl

7.5.4. Electrical Gurney Energy ..................................... 245 7.5.5. Laser Ablation Gurney Energy ............................... 245

7.6. Limitations and Corrections in Gurney Analysis ..................... 246 7.6.1. Comparison with Gas-Dynamic Solution for Open Sandwich... 246 7.6.2. Correction for Side Losses .................................... 247 7.6.3. Scaling ...................................................... 249

7.7. Combination of Gurney with Other Physics .......................... 249 7.7.1. Inelastic Collision Momentum Transfer ....................... 250 7.7.2. Detonation Transfer by Flyer Plate Impact .................... 251

7.7.2.1. Shock-Initiation Criteria.............................. 251 7.7.2.2. Analysis ofImpact Interaction ........................ 251 7.7.2.3. Gurney Analysis to Evaluate Initiation Criterion ...... 252

Acknowledgment ................................................... 254 References ......................................................... 255

CHAPTER 8

Hazard Assessment of Explosives and Propellants Peter R. Lee

259

8.1. Introduction ........................................................ 259 8.1.1. Aims ........................................................ 259 8.1.2. Nomenclature................................................ 260 8.1.3. Background ................................................. 261

8.2. Basic Precepts of Hazard Testing .................................... 263 8.2.1. Absolute and Relative Sensitivities ............................ 263 8.2.2. Differences Between Hazard and Reliability Testing ........... 265 8.2.3. Analysis of Test Results ...................................... 267

8.2.3.1. The Bruceton Staircase Technique .................... 267 8.2.3.2. Method of Minimum Contradictoriness ............... 269 8.2.3.3. The Role of Judgment in Hazard Testing .............. 270

8.3. Sensitiveness, Sensitivity, and Explosiveness .......................... 271 8.4. Stages in Hazard Assessment ........................................ 275

8.4.1. Powder Tests ................................................ 276 8.4.2. Impact Tests ................................................. 277 8.4.3. Design Details of Some Powder Impact Test Machines ......... 278

8.4.3.1. US Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh ...................... 279 8.4.3.2. US Naval Ordnance Laboratory, White Oak, MD:

Laboratory Scale Test ................................ 280 8.4.3.3. Los Alamos Laboratory Scale Impact Test and Navy

Weapon Center, China Lake.......................... 281 8.4.3.4. Picatinny Arsenal Laboratory Scale Test .............. 281 8.4.3.5. Bureau of Mines Test ................................ 281 8.4.3.6. Rotter Test .......................................... 282 8.4.3.7. Bureau of Explosives (NY) Laboratory Scale Tests .... 283 8.4.3.8. German BAM Technique ............................. 283 8.4.3.9. Test Results ......................................... 284

8.4.4. Powder Friction Tests ........................................ 286 8.4.4.1. UK Mallet Friction Test ............................. 286 8.4.4.2. US Bureau of Mines Pendulum Friction Test .......... 287

xii Contents

8.4.4.3. US Navy Weapons Center, Friction Pendulum Test .... 288 8.4.4.4. German BAM Friction Test .......................... 288 8.4.4.5. UK Rotary Friction Test ............................. 288 8.4.4.6. Test Results ......................................... 289

8.4.5. Other Powder Sensitiveness Tests ............................. 290 8.5. Charge Hazard Tests ............................................... 290

8.5.1. Shock Initiation Tests ........................................ 291 8.5.1.1. Uninstrumented Gap Tests ........................... 292 8.5.1.2. Instrumented Gap Tests .............................. 296 8.5.1.3. Gap Test Results..................................... 298 8.5.1.4. Other Shock Initiation Tests .......................... 298

8.5.2. Charge Impact Tests ......................................... 302 8.5.2.1. Oblique Impact Test ................................. 302 8.5.2.2. LANL Oblique Impact Test .......................... 303 8.5.2.3. LLNL-Pantex Skid Test ............................. 304 8.5.2.4. Oblique Impact (Skid) Test Results ................... 304

8.5.3. High-Speed Impact Test: The Susan Test ...................... 305 8.5.3.1. Results of Susan Test Firings ......................... 307

8.5.4. Intrusion Tests ............................................... 309 8.5.4.1. LANL Spigot Intrusion Test.......................... 309 8.5.4.2. AWE Spigot Test .................................... 310 8.5.4.3. US Navy Spigot Test................................. 311 8.5.4.4. Spigot Test Results ................................... 311

8.5.5. Thermal Hazard Tests........................................ 311 8.5.5.1. Thermal Hazard Testing ............................. 312

8.6. Electrostatic Sensitiveness ........................................... 319 8.6.1. Powder Tests ................................................ 320

8.7. Assessment of the Results of the Tests on Energetic Materials......... 321 8.8. "Insensitive" High Explosives and Propellants ....................... 322 8.9. System or Weapon Tests for 1M ..................................... 326

8.9.1. Insensitive Munitions Thermal Tests .......................... 328 8.9.1.1. Slow Cook-Off Tests ................................. 328 8.9.1.2. Fast Cook-Off Test (Fuel Fire Test) ................... 329 8.9.1.3. Results of Cook-Off Tests ............................ 330

8.9.2. Impact Tests ................................................. 331 8.9.2.1. Bullet and Fragment Attack Tests .................... 331 8.9.2.2. Shaped-Charge Jet Impact Tests ...................... 333 8.9.2.3. Sympathetic Detonation Test ......................... 335

8.9.3. Procedures for Insensitive Munitions Testing .................. 335 8.9.4. Research Required to Improve Understanding of Insensitive

Munitions and the Results of Insensitive Munitions Testing .... 336 Acknowledgment ................................................... 337 References ......................................................... 337

CHAPTER 9 Safe Handling of Explosives Jimmie C. Oxley

341

9.1. Explosive Safety .................................................... 341 9.2. Sensitivity Testing .................................................. 343

9.2.1. Impact ...................................................... 343

Contents xiii

9.2.2. Friction ..................................................... 346 9.2.3. ESD ......................................................... 346

9.3. Thennal Stability ................................................... 346 9.3.l Comparative Thennal Stabilities .............................. 347 9.3.2 Quantitative Thennal Stabilities .............................. 349 9.3.3 Summary of Thennal Analytical Tools ........................ 354 9.3.4. Time-to-Explosion ........................................... 356

9.4. Case History of an Ammonium Nitrate (AN) Emulsion Accident ..... 358 9.4.1. Thennal Stability of AN Fonnulations by DSC ............... 359 9.4.2. Thennal Stability of AN Fonnulations by Isothennal

Techniques .................................................. 361 9.4.3. Thennal Stability of AN with Additives ....................... 366 9.4.4. Verification of Small-Scale AN Kinetics by Larger-Scale Tests .. 370

9.4.4.1. One-Liter Cook-Off .................................. 371 9.4.4.2. Sealed Cook-Off ..................................... 372

9.4.5. Visual Observations .......................................... 374 9.4.6. Summary .................................................... 374

9.5. Thennal Stability of Organic Explosives ............................. 375 9.6. Toxicity of Explosives .............................................. 375

References ......................................................... 378

CHAPTER 10

Demolitions ............................................................ 381 Chris A. Weickert

10.1. Introduction........................................................ 381 10.2. Explosively Fonned Projectiles ...................................... 386 10.3. Wall Breaching ..................................................... 391 10.4. Bridge Demolition .................................................. 399 10.5. Explosive Ordnance Disposal ....................................... 413

References ......................................................... 420

Index ................................................................... 425

List of Editors and Contributors

Editors

William P. Walters US Army Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Aberdeen, Maryland, USA.

Jonas A. Zukas Computational Mechanics Associates, Inc., Baltimore, Maryland, USA.

Contributors

Paul W. Cooper Consultant, formerly Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA.

William C. Davis Energetic Dynamics Los Alamos, Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA.

James E. Kennedy Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA.

Peter R. Lee Peter Lee Consulting Co., Ltd., Tunbridge Wells, Kent, England.

Jimmie C. Oxley Gordon Research Conferences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island, USA.

Chris A. Weickert Defence Research Establishment Suffield, Medicine Hat, Alberta, Canada.

xv