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UDK 63/66 ISSN 1840-0809

HERBOLOGIA

An International Journal on Weed Research and Control

Vol. 8, No. 1, March 2007

Issued by: The Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina and The Weed Science Society of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Editorial Board Paolo Barberi (Italy) Shamsher S. Narwal (India) Vladimir Borona (Ukraine) Zvonimir Ostojić (Croatia) Daniela Chodova (Czech Republic) Danijela Petrović (B&H) Mirha Đikić (B&H) Marko Skoko (B&H) Azra Hadžić (B&H) Lidija Stefanović (Serbia) Gabriella Kazinczi (Hungary) Taib Šarić (B&H) Senka Milanova (Bulgaria) Dubravka Šoljan (B&H) Ševal Muminović (B&H)

Editor-in-Chief: Prof. Dr. Taib Šarić Technical Editor: Dr. Mirha Đikić

Address of the Editorial Board and Administration Herbološko društvo BiH (Faculty of Agriculture)

71.000 Sarajevo, Zmaja od Bosne 8, Bosnia and Herzegovina Phone: ++387 33 653 033, Fax: ++387 33 667 429

E-mail: [email protected]

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CONTENTS

Page 1. P. Marinov-Serafimov, Tsvetanka Dimitrova, Irena Golubinova, Anna Ilieva: Study of suitability of some solutions in allelopathic researches………………………. 1

2. P. Marinov-Serafimov, Tsvetanka Dimitrova: Effect of weed extracts on the seed germination in some grain legumes………………………………………………………11 3. Mirha Đikić: The influence of plant residues on the germination and sprouting of Agropyron repens and Galium aparine...................................................................... 23

4. Tsvetanka Dimitrova: The problem of weeds in spring forage pea (Pisum sativum L.) for grain………………...….. 29

5. Š. Týr, M. Macák: The diversity and harmfulness of weeds and weed cover in maize……………………………………..35 6. Eva Demjanová, M. Macák, Š. Týr, I. Đalović, J. Smatana: Effects of tillage systems and crop rotation on weed populations, density, diversity and weed biomass in maize……………………………………………………… ...45 7. B. Konstantinović, Maja Meseldžija: More recent possibilities of corrective weed control in maize, sunflower and soybean………………………………………………….57 8. Divna Marić: Testing of efficacy of some herbicides combinations in maize………………………………………67 9. Divna Marić: Investigation of efficacy of some herbicides

combinations in soybean……………………………………..75

10. Sulejman Redžić: The syntaxonomy of weed vegetation at the Continental Dinaric Alps (w. Balkan)…………………83 Instruction to Authors in Herbologia……………………………97

Herbologia Vol.8, No. 1, 2007.

STUDY OF SUITABILITY OF SOME SOLUTIONS IN ALLELOPATHIC RESEARCHES

Plamen Marinov-Serafimov, Tsvetanka Dimitrova, Irena Golubinova

and Anna Ilieva Institute of Forage Crops, Pleven, Bulgaria, [email protected]

Abstract

The influence of eight aqueous solutions (distilled water; physiological

solution; mannitol; Ringer; distilled water + 1 g/l-1 sodium benzoate; physiological solution + 1 g/l-1 sodium benzoate; distilled water + 1 g/l-1 thymol and physiological solution + 1 g/l-1 thymol) under in vitro conditions on germination, dynamics of growth and accumulation of fresh biomass in g per germ was studied with the following test plants: soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) variety Srebrina; peas (Pisum sativum L.) variety Pleven 4 vetch (Vicia sativa L.) variety Obrazets 666; alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) variety Pleven 6; Sudan Grass (Sorghum sudanense (Piper) Stapf.) variety Targovishte and Sorghum bicolor (L.) variety Verdon. It was found that the tested solutions – mannitol, physiological solution and Ringer exerted an inhibitory effect on the germination, growth and accumulation of fresh biomass in g per germ at the initial development stages of the test plants on average of 6 to 37%, 4.8 to 7.9 cm and 0.058 to 0.098 g, respectively, as compared to the control variant. Sodium benzoate at 0.1% concentration exerted a strong inhibitory effect of 70 to 100% on the studied biometric characteristics, whereas the addition of thymol to distilled water at 0.1% concentration exerted no inhibitory influence on the germination and initial development of the test plants. That allows adding the preserving agent when preparing water extracts to find the toxic or allelopathic effect in the weed – cultivated plant system under in vitro conditions. Keywords: aqueous extracts, solutions, preserving agents, inhibition, allelopathy.

Introduction

During the last decades there has been enlargement of research work on the study of allelopathic interrelations between cultivated plants and weed species with the purpose of finding and using ecologically friendly and harmless to man chemical compounds synthesized by some plant species that allow to be used for regulation of plant pests and diseases, as well as against

mailto:[email protected]

Plamen Marinov-Serafimov et al.

weed vegetation (Weston, 1996; Dikić et al., 2003; Labrada, 2003). Most of these studies were performed under in vitro conditions through the preparation of aqueous extracts (infusa frigida paratum) from different plant parts of weeds and the studies were directed to find their inhibitory effect on the germination and initial development of seeds of different agricultural plants (Moyer et al., 1997; Miller, 1983; Fu-Hsing Hsu et al., 2000; Kostadinova et al., 2002; Chon et al., 2003). The prepared extracts are extremely “unstable”, create suitable conditions for development of different microorganisms that partly change their pH and exert a negative osmotic effect on the tested species (Bell, 1974). That particularly concerns the weed species containing glycosides (Ivanov et al., 1971). All that necessitates keeping the extracts at lower temperatures (Gill et al., 1993; Bruce et al., 1999; Ebana et al., 2001) or as lyophilized which requires the use of expensive laboratory equipment. The studies of the influence of different solutions on the germination and initial development of seeds from different agricultural crops are insufficient and extremely limited (Uhivits, 1946; Nelson, 1965; Bansal et al., 1980; Braccini et al., 1996; Neto et al., 2004).

The reports on addition of preserving agents to the solutions and their influence on the processes of seed germination and initial development under in vitro conditions are sporadic and contradictory. According to Peterson and LaRue (1981), sodium benzoate does not disturb the development cycle of Glycine max (L.) Merrl., but significantly decreases the pathogenic microorganisms. Karuna et al. (1991) suggested adding sodium benzoate during the seed germination of Sorghum genus species under in vitro conditions in order to prevent pathogenic fungus growth. The studies of Rietveld (1977) and Guri and Patel (1995) showed that the preserving agent addition inhibited the growth of the initial plant germ and accelerated the processes of aging in the plant organisms. The use of thymol in medicine and industry as a bactericidal, antiseptic and mycotic preparation is well known, but in literature there is no data on its influence on the seed germination and initial development in different groups of agricultural crops.

The objective of the study was to find suitable solutions and preserving agents, which do not inhibit the germination and initial development of the tested seeds from some agricultural crops and their use in allelopathic studies under in vitro conditions.

Materials and methods

The study was carried out in 2006 under laboratory conditions at the Institute of Forage Crops in Pleven, Bulgaria.

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Study of suitability of some solutions in allelopathic researches

3

The object of the study were seeds from the following species: Glycine max (L.) Merr. variety Srebrina; Pisum sativum (L.) variety Pleven 4; Vicia sativa (L.) variety Obrazets 666; Medicago sativa (L.) variety Pleven 6; Sorghum sudanense (Piper) Stapf variety Targovishte and Sorghum bicolor (L.) variety Verdon. Seed vigour was determined by the method of Gill et al. (1993). The tested seeds were imbibed and germinated in the following solutions: 1. Distilled water (Control); 2. Physiological solution; 3. Mannitol; 4. Ringer’s solution – balanced solution of electrolytes (sodium, calcium and potassium chlorides); 5. Distilled water + 1 g/l-1 sodium benzoate; 6. Physiological solution + 1 g/l-1 sodium benzoate; 7. Distilled water + 1 g/l-1 thymol – component of essential oil contained in Thymus vulgaris (L.) and 8. Physiological solution + 1 g/l-1 thymol.

In order to determine the effect of the different solutions on the germination and initial development of the seeds of the test plants, a number of 100 seeds per species were placed in plastic containers of a size of 14x11x5 cm on filter paper Filtrak 383. The seed surface was sterilized before their using with 0.5% solution of potassium permanganate (KMnO4) for 5 minutes and then washed with distilled water.

Twenty-five ml of each solution were pipetted in the plastic containers and sterile distilled water was used as a control. Each variant was laid out in five replications. So prepared samples were put in incubator at 220C ± 20C temperature (Moyer and Huang, 1997) for seven days.

The following characteristics were determined: Percentage of germinated seed (%); Length of primary germ (root + hypocotyl), cm; Formed fresh biomass in g per germ. The index of initial plant development (GI) was determined by the formula of Gariglio et al. (2002): Gi = G / G0 – L / L0 – 100; Where: G - percentage of germinated seeds in the studied variant; G0 - percentage of germinated seeds in the control variant; L – average length (cm) of the primary germ in the studied variant; L0 – average length (cm) of the primary germ in the control variant. pH of the solutions was determined with Gallenkamp pH Stick.

The obtained data were processed mathematically and statistically through the φ-test of Fisher (Plohinskii, 1967). The variance analysis was performed with the programme product MS/DOS – STDTA, version 5.0.

Results and discussion

The laboratory germinability of the seeds of G. max, P. sativum, V. sativa, M. sativa, S. sudanense and S. bicolor varied on average from 59 to 104% in the different solutions – mannitol, physiological solution and Ringer,


as compared to the control variant with distilled water. The highest percentage of germinated seeds, as compared to the control variant was found in the physiological solution – 94%, followed by Ringer – 88% and the lowest one in mannitol – 82%. Irrespective of the high percentage of germinated seeds, as compared to the control variant, the differences were statistically significantly reduced at P<0.001% (Table 1). Table 1. Influence of the different solutions on the seed germination

Variants Species and varieties

Parameters 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 NGS 90 84 76 80 0 0 88 82 % 100 93 84 89 98 91

Glycine max (L.) Merr tφ 6.3 4.4 3.0 0.5 2.4

NGS 88 80 78 52 0 0 86 76 % 100 91 89 59 98 86

Pisum sativum (L.) tφ 2.4 2.9 11.0 0.5 3.8

NGS 98 98 86 88 0 0 98 82 % 100 100 88 90 100 84

Vicia sativa (L.)

tφ - 3.4 2.3 - 4.5 NGS 94 98 76 92 0 0 90 92 % 100 104 81 98 96 98

Medicago sativa (L.)

tφ - 5.3 0.6 1.1 0.6 NGS 80 65 66 74 74 2 82 68 % 100 81 83 93 93 3 103 85

Sorhgum sudanense (Piper) Stapf tφ 4.9 4.4 1.8 2.3 10.9 - 3.8

NGS 92 86 60 90 82 79 92 90 % 100 94 65 98 89 86 102 98

Sorghum bicolor (L.) tφ 1.6 9.7 0.5 3.0 3.9 - 0.5

NGS 90 85 74 79 26 14 89 82 Average % 100 94 82 88 29 16 99 91

Legend: 1 - Distilled water; 2 – Physiological solution; 3 – Mannitol; 4 – Ringer; 5 - Distilled water + 1 g/L -1 Sodium benzoate; 6 - Physiological solution + 1 g/L-1 Sodium benzoate; 7 - Distilled water +1 g/L-1 thymol; 8 - Physiological solution + 1 g/L-1 thymol. NGS - Number germinated seeds in the variants; % – Percentage of germinated seeds, as compared to the controls with distilled water; tφ -φ-test of Fisher.

An exception to the described relation was observed in M. sativa, V. sativa, S. sudanense and S. bicolor for the seed germination in physiological solution and Ringer where the percentage of germinated seeds varied from 93

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to 104%, as compared to the control variant. This was probably due to the different quantity of reserve nutrients accumulated in the seeds or as a result of the influence of the electrolyte solutions on the water-salt and acid-base balance of cells, on the one hand and to the varietal or biological characteristics of the studied crops, on the other hand. The addition of 1 g/l-1 sodium benzoate to the physiological solution or to the distilled water inhibited up to 100% the seed germination of G. max, P. sativum, V. sativa and M. sati55555va, whereas in S. sudanense and S. bicolor the studied character varied from 3 to 93%, the differences being statistically significantly reduced at P<0.001%, as compared to the control variant with distilled water. When adding 1 g/l-1 thymol to the distilled water there was no inhibitory effect of the preserving agent (P<0.001%) on the germination of the tested seeds.

The germination and initial development of the test plant seeds also depended on the pH medium to a great extent. The pH of the tested solutions varied within the range of 5.6 to 6.8, which was within the limits for development of the tested crops (Popov et al., 1966). The addition of preserving agents – thymol 1 g/l-1 or sodium benzoate 1 g/l-1 did not change the solution pH substantially (from -0.3 to +0.4) (Tab. 2). Table 2. pH of the tested solutions

№ Species on the solutions pH 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Distilled water Physiological solution Mannitol Ringer Distilled water +1 g/l sodium benzoate Physiological solution + 1 g/l sodium benzoate Distilled water +1 g/l thymol Physiological solution + 1 g/l thymol

6.4 5.8 5.6 5.7 6.8 6.8 6.5 6.2

Therefore the solution pH exerted no inhibitory effect on the tested seed

germination. The obtained results in the experimental work of Monks et al. (1998) and Chon et al. (2003) were analogous.

The data of the biometric measurements of the length of primary germ growth (cm) gave possibility for objective estimation of the differences at the initial developmental stages of the test plants depending on the solution type (Table 3).

The initial germ length was reduced to the greatest degree when using mannitol, from 97 to 84% (on average 93%) followed by the variant with


physiological solution, from 73 to 47% (on average 60%) and to the least degree in Ringer, from 80 to 25 (on average 56%), as compared to the control variant with distilled water, the differences being statistically significantly reduced at P<0.001%, irrespective of the fact that the percentage of the germinated seeds of V. sativa, M. sativa, S. bicolor and S. sudanense in physiological solution and Ringer showed a tendency to equalization with the control variant – distilled water (Table 1).

Table 3. Influence of the different solutions on the growth of initial germ, cm

Variants Species and varieties 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Glycine max (L.) Merr.

8.2 2.2 1.2 2.2 0 0 7.6 1.7

Pisum sativum (L.) 10.2 5.1 0.3 2.0 0 0 9.7 4.7 Vicia sativa (L.) 10.8 3.8 0.5 4.0 0 0 10.8 3.5 Medicago sativa (L.)

6.4 2.8 1.0 4.3 0 0 5.8 3.2

Sorhgum sudanense (Piper) Stapf

8.1 2.6 0.6 6.1 3.4 0.2 7.5 3.2

Sorghum bicolor (L.)

7.4 3.9 0.3 3.8 1.7 0.7 8.7 4.6

Average 8.5 3.4 0.7 3.7 0.9 0.2 8.4 3.5 GD – 5% = 0.714; GD – 1% = 0.944; GD – 0.1% = 1.217

Legend: 1 - Distilled water; 2 – Physiological solution; 3 – Mannitol; 4 – Ringer; 5 - Distilled water + 1 g/l-1 Sodium benzoate; 6 - Physiological solution + 1 g/l-1 Sodium benzoate; 7 - Distilled water +1 g/l-1 thymol; 8 - Physiological solution + 1 g/l-1 thymol.

The addition of 1 g/l sodium benzoate to the distilled water or to the physiological solution exerted a strong depressing effect on the initial germ growth in cm in all tested plants. Thymol at a concentration of 0.1% did not inhibit the initial germ growth in test plants statistically significantly, which allowed the preserving agent to find application as an additive when preparing water extracts to determine the toxic or allelopathic effect in the system of weed-cultivated plant (Table 3).

The dynamics of fresh biomass accumulation in g per germ at the initial developmental stages of G. max, P. sativum, V. sativa, M. sativa, S. sudanense and S. bicolor depended on the same factors and followed the observed relations with regard to the initial germ growth, cm (Table 4).

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The complex estimation of the influence of the tested solutions on the germination and growth dynamics in cm and accumulation of fresh biomass in g per germ, showed that irrespective of the test plants species, the differences in the studied biometric characteristics were statistically significantly reduced, as compared to the control variant. When adding thymol to the distilled water there was a tendency to equalization of the studied characteristics with the control variant and the differences were statistically non-significant (Tables 1, 3 and 4).

Table 4. Influence of the different solutions on the fresh biomass accumulation in g per germ

Variants Species and varieties 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Glycine max (L.) Merr.

0.22 0.08 0.04 0.08 0 0 0.19 0.07

Pisum sativum (L.) 0.18 0.10 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.17 0.10 Vicia sativa (L.) 0.11 0.06 0.00 0.07 0 0 0.10 0.04 Medicago sativa (L.)

0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0 0 0.04 0.03

Sorhgum sudanense (Piper) Stapf

0.04 0.00 0 0.02 0.02 0 0.03 0.02


0.05 0.03 0 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.06 0.02

Average 0.11 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.10 0.05 GD – 5% = 0.164; GD – 1% = 0.216; GD – 0.1% = 0.279

Legend: 1 - Distilled water; 2 – Physiological solution; 3 – Mannitol; 4 – Ringer; 5 - Distilled water + 1 g/l-1 Sodium benzoate; 6 - Physiological solution + 1 g/l-1 Sodium benzoate; 7 - Distilled water +1 g/l-1 thymol; 8 - Physiological solution + 1 g/l-1 thymol.

Therefore the seed germination can be considered as a less sensitive period of the individual development of the test plants, whereas the growth and formation of fresh biomass of the initial germ allowed to be used as a potential test for determination of the toxic or inhibitory effect of the different solutions under in vitro conditions, since the initial germ was submitted to the direct effect of the tested solutions.

The obtained experimental data was in conformity with the published results of Gundersson et al. (1997); Kapustka (1997); Kapanen and Itavaara (2001); Ahmed (2004); Camargo et al. (2004), according to whom the effect of the interaction of the seeds with different toxic substances is already


manifested during their germination, but it is more pronounced on the growth of the initial germ of the plants.

The obtained results when determining the index of the initial plant development (GI) were analogous. The tested solutions provoked an inhibitory effect on the germination and initial development (GI) of G. max, P. sativum, V. sativa, M. sativa, S. sudanense and S. bicolor, as compared to the control variant with distilled water in the following ascending order: distilled water + 1 g/l-1 sodium benzoate 10% < physiological solution + 1 g/l-1 sodium benzoate 15% < mannitol 30% < physiological solution + 1 g/l-1 thymol 38% < Ringer 43% < physiological solution 45% < distilled water + 1 g/l-1 thymol 95% < distilled water – 100% (control). The analyses indicated that the studied solutions showed a high degree of toxicity – GI varied on average from 10 to 45%. Only the control variant – distilled water and the variant with distilled water + 1 g/l thymol showed no phytotoxic effect (GI>80% - Tiquia et al., 1996) on the test plants (Table 5).

Table 5. Index of development (GI) of the test plants in the studied solutions, %

Variants Species and varieties1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Glycine max (L.) Merr.

100 25 12 28 0 0 91 19

Pisum sativum (L.) 100 45 26 12 0 0 93 40 Vicia sativa (L.) 100 35 41 33 0 0 100 27 Medicago sativa (L.) 100 45 13 66 0 0 87 49 Sorhgum sudanense (Piper) Stapf

100 26 61 70 39 8 95 34


100 96 26 50 21 81 102 61

Average 100 45 30 43 10 15 95 38 Legend: 1 - Distilled water; 2 – Physiological solution; 3 – Mannitol; 4 – Ringer; 5 - Distilled water + 1 g/l-1 Sodium benzoate; 6 - Physiological solution + 1 g/l-1 Sodium benzoate; 7 - Distilled water +1 g/l-1 thymol; 8 - Physiological solution + 1 g/l-1 thymol.

Conclusions The studied solutions of mannitol, physiological solution and Ringer

exerted an inhibitory effect on the germination, dynamics of growth and accumulation of fresh biomass in g per germ at the initial developmental stages of the test plants: G. max, P. sativum, V. sativa, M. sativa, S.sudanense and S.

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bicolour of 6 to 37%; 4.8 to 7.9 cm and 0.058 to 0.098 g, respectively, as compared to the control variant with distilled water.

The addition of sodium benzoate to the distilled water or to the physiological solution at 0.1% concentration exerted a strong inhibitory effect of 70 to 100% on the studied biometric characteristics and the index of plant development (GI) was reduced 2 to 10 times, as compared to the control variant with distilled water.

The addition of thymol to distilled water at 0.1% concentration exerted no inhibitory effect on the germination and initial development of the test plants – GI varied within the range of 91 to 102% (on average 95%), as compared to the control variant – distilled water (GI=100%).

Thymol could be used as a preserving agent when preparing aqueous solutions to find the toxic or allelopathic effect in the system of weed – cultivated plant under in vitro conditions.

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Indian arid zone. Biologia Plantarium, 22,327-331. BELL, D., (1974): The influence of osmotic pressure in tests for allelopathy. Transactions of

the Illinois State Academy Sciences, 67,312–317. BRACCINI, A., H. RUIZ, M. BRACCINI and M. REIS, (1996): Influencia do potenccial

hidrico por polietilenoglicol na qualidade fisiologica de sementes de soja. Requisa Agropecuaria Brasileira, 33,1451–1459.

BRUCE, S., J. KIRKEGAARD, S. CORMACK and J. PRATLEY, (1999): Wheat residue leache test inhibit canola germination and growth. 10th international Rapeseed congress. Camberra, Australia, 595.

CANARGO, C., A.FERREIRA-FILNO, M. SALOMON, (2004): Temperature and pH of nutrient solution on wheat primary root growth. Scientia Agricola, 61,313-318.

CHON, S., Y. KIM and J. LEE, (2003): Herbicide potential and quantification of causative allelochemicals from Compositae weeds. Weed Research, 43,444-450.

DIKIĆ, M, Š. MUMINOVIĆ, D. GADŽO, (2003): Alelopatija kao novi biolośki metod borbe protiv korova. Herbologija, 4, 121-132.

EBANA, K., W. YAN, R. DILDAY, H. NAMAI and K. OKUNO, (2001): Variation in the allelopathic effect of rice with water-soluble extract. Agronomy Journal, 93,12-16.

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MILLER, D., (1983): Allelopathic effect of alfalfa. Journal Chem. Ecol., 9,8. MONKS, C., D. DELANEY, J. HENDERSON, (1998): Soybean Handbook for Alabama.

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and seedling growth of ten weed species. Bot. Bull. Acad. Sin.,38,131–139. NELSON, M., (1965): Flowering plants of West Africa. University of London, 39-49. NETO, N., S. SATURNINO, D. BOMFIM, C. CUSTODIO, (2004): Water stress induced by

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Herbologia Vol. 8, No.1, 2007.

EFFECT OF WEED EXTRACTS ON THE SEED GERMINATION IN

SOME GRAIN LEGUMES

Plamen Marinov-Serafimov*, Tsvetanka Dimitrova Institute of Forage Crops, Pleven 5800, Bulgaria

*Е-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

Inhibitory effect of extracts from Amaranthus retroflexus (L.), Chenopodium album (L.), Erigeron canadensis (L.) and Solanum nigrum (L.) on the germination of seeds of Glycine max (L.) Merrill, Pisum sativum (L.) and Vicia sativa (L.) was studied. All tested weed extracts inhibited the seed germination of tested species by 26.7 tо 100%.

Aqueous extracts from Solanum nigrum and Chenopodium album had the greatest inhibitory effect (87.1%), whereas Amaranthus retroflexus and Erigeron canadensis inhibited seed germination on average by 74.0%.

Pisum sativum was the most susceptible to the effect of the different extracts, LC50 varying from 6.5 tо 25.3 g/l, followed by V. sativa, LC50 - 8.3 tо 36.7 g/l and G. max had relatively the lowest susceptibility, LC50 was within the range of 13.1 tо 59.7 g/l dry weed biomass.

Key words: inhibition, weed extracts, seed germination.

Introduction

The study of grain legume agrophytocenoses is closely related to the problems of interspecies relations between cultivated plants and weeds. The relatively low competitiveness of Glycine max (L.) Merrill, Pisum sativum (L.) and Vicia sativa (L.) at the initial stages of their development characterizes the annual late spring weeds as a limiting factor of grain yield. According to Petrov (1980), Lyubenov (1988) and Marinov-Serafimov and Dimitrova (2006), the annual late spring weeds in Bulgaria represent 58 tо 99% of total weed infestation in Glycine max (L.) Merr., Pisum sativum (L.) and Vicia sativa (L.). Dominant weed species are Amaranthus retroflexus (L.), Chenopodium album (L.), Erigeron canadensis (L.) and Solanum nigrum (L.). Studies of a number of authors (Hunt, 1982; Rice, 1974; Brown et. al., 1995; Chung, et al., 1997; Moer and Huang, 1997; Reigosa et al., 1999; Agraval et al., 2002; Kostadinova et al., 2002; Chaniago, 2003; Fujii, 2003; Hoque et al., 2003; Marchin-Silva and Aqϋila, 2006) showed that many of the weed species accumulate in their


Plamen Marinov-Serafimov and Tsvetanka Dimitrova.

aboveground biomass water-soluble substances, inhibitors, that through leaching, evaporation and decomposition of plant residues fall into environment and as a result they inhibit the seed germination of a number of agricultural crops. The obtained results are contradictory and confirm to a different degree the inhibitory or stimulatory effect (Mallik et al., 1994, Kadioglu et al., 2005, Serafimov et al., 2005) of the different weeds on the seed germination. The limited studies in our country (Stoimenova, 1990 and Marinov-Serafimov, 2005) are an argument to determine the inhibitory effect of typical weeds in grain legume agrophytocenoses on the seed germination of soybean, pea and vetch.

Material and methods

The study was conducted in 2006 in the laboratory of the Institute of Forage Crops in Pleven, Pavlikeni Branch.

Collection and Preparation of Plant Material

Seeds of the tested grain legumes soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merrill) variety “Srebrina”, peas (Pisum sativum L.) variety “Pleven 4” and vetch (Vicia sativa L.) variety “Obrazets 666” were harvested in 2005. Seed vigour was determined before the experiment by the method of Gill et al. (1993). The aboveground biomass of Amaranthus retroflexus (L.), Chenopodium album (L.), Erigeron canadensis (L.) and Solanum nigrum (L.) was collected at the flowering stage of weeds from trial plots with a natural background of weed infestation. The plant material of available weed species was dried to constant dry weight at 55 ± 30С (Chon and Nelson, 2001). Preparation of Weed Extracts

A hundred g of each weed species were cold extracted in 1 l distilled water at a temperature of 24 ± 20С for 24 h in a shuttle apparatus at 240 rotations/minute. The obtained extracts were decanted, filtered with filter paper Filtrak 383 and centrifuged in „К24” centrifuge at 5000 rotations per minute. All available aqueous extracts were brought to final concentrations of 5, 25, 50 and 100 g dry biomass per liter distilled water (g/l), 0.5, 2.5, 5.0 and 10.0%, respectively. One g/l C10H14O was added to each extract as a preserving agent. Bioassay Techniques

In order to assess the effect of the tested cold aqueous extracts from A. retroflexus, Ch. album, E. canadensis and S. nigrum on the seed germination of test plants, 10 seeds of each species were placed in Petri dishes, 9 mm in

12

Effect of weed extracts on the seed germination in some grain legumes

13

diameter on filter paper. Fifteen ml of the extracts were pipetted in each Petri dish and distilled water was used as a control. Each variant had ten replications. The so prepared samples were placed in a thermostat at a temperature of 220 С ± 20 С (Moyer and Huang, 1997) for seven days (Adetayo et al., 2005 and Liebman and David, 2006).

Mathematical statistical processing of experimental data was performed after preliminary transformation of germinated seed percentage in relation to the control variant by the formula: ( )100/xarcsinY %= (Hinkelmann and Kempthorne, 1994). The depression coefficients (B) in seed germination of the tested grain legumes were determined depending on weed species and extract concentration g/l, using regression relation of the following type: lg Y = lg Y0 + B lg x (Zaharenko, 2000), where: Y –germinated seed percentage depending on the concentration g/l and weed species; Y0 – germinated seed number in the control variant taken for 100%; x – extract concentration, g/l dry biomass; В – depression coefficient in germination depending on the extract species and concentration.

The programmed product SPEARMAN estimates (Hamilton et al., 1978) was used to determine 50% inhibition in seed germination (LC50) of the tested accessions. All experimental data was statistically processed by the methods of dispersion and regression analysis with the programme product STATGRAPHICS Plus for Windows Version 2.1 аnd solution pH was determined using Gallenkamp pH Stick.


Data on the effect of the different tested extracts on the laboratory seed germinability of G. max, P. sativum and V. sativa varied within a wide range from 16.5 tо 56.0%, as compared to the control variant (Table 1).

Depending on the extract species and inhibition degree in seed germination of the tested grain legumes, there were five groups. First group (inhibition of seed germination >80%) included extracts from A. retroflexus, Ch. album and S. nigrum in P. sativum; Second group (inhibition of seed germination of 71 to 80%) included extracts from S. nigrum in G. max and V. sativa and E. canadensis in P. sativum; Third group (inhibition of seed germination of 61 tо 70%) - extracts from Ch. album in V. sativa; Fourth group (inhibition of seed germination of 51 to 60%) - Ch. album in G. max and Fifth group: inhibition of seed germination > 50% - A. retroflexus in G. max and V. sativa and E. canadensis in V. sativa. Therefore the seeds of the studied grain


legumes reacted in a different way to the inhibitory effect of the tested weed extracts. P. sativum was considerably more susceptible, followed by V. sativa and the seeds of G. max were relatively the least susceptible.

With regard to the concentration relations, it was evident that with increase of the extract concentration the germinated seed percentage decreased disproportionately in all test plants, as compared to the control variant, the differences being statistically significantly smaller at P<0.05% (Table 1).

The obtained results were analogous when determining LC50 on seed germination of G. max, P. sativum and V. sativa depending on the extract species (Table 2). P. sativum was the most susceptible to the different extracts (LC50 range from 6.5 tо 25.3 g/l-1), followed by V. sativa (LC50 from 8.3 tо 36.7 g/l-1) and G. max had relatively the least susceptibility, LC50 was within the range of 13.1 tо 59.7 g/l-1 dry weed biomass. Depending on LC50 inhibitory effect of the studied extracts, they could be conventionally grouped in the following ascending order: A. retroflexus > E. Canadensis > Ch. album > S. nigrum. Table 1. Effect of the weed extracts on the seed germination of the test plants, as compared to the control variant, %

Weeds Culti-vars

g/l-1 A. retroflexus Ch. album E. canadensis S.nigrum

Gly

cine

max

5

25

50

100

73.3 d (0.95 ± 0.05)*

61.6 c (0.88 ± 0.03)

50.6 b (0.77 ± 0.06)

38.4 a (0.62 ± 0.06)

57.3 b (0.84 ± 0.04)*

40.5 a (0.65 ± 0.01)

36.4 a (0.59 ± 0.03)

34.2 a (0.56 ± 0.01)

73.3 b (0.96 ± 0.04)*

66.6 b (0.92 ± 0.01)

67.5 b (0.94 ± 0.04)

0.0 a

69.9 c (0.94 ± 0.03)*

40.7 a (0.65 ± 0.01) b

0.0

0.0 a

Vici

a sa

tiva

5

25

50

100

62.4 (0.88 ± 0.03) c

51.5 (0.78 ± 0.01) b

55.6 (0.83 ± 0.01) b

31.3 (0.52 ± 0.05) a

60.0 c (0.86 ± 0.03)

33.4 b (0.55 ± 0.04)

26.4 b (0.44 ± 0.08)

0.0 a

62.4 c (0.88 ± 0.03)

21.4 b (0.36 ± 0.06)

21.4 b (0.36 ± 0.04)

0.0 a

57.7 d (0.84 ± 0.04)

18.6 c (0.32 ± 0.03)

5.9 b (0.10 ± 0.01)

0.0 a

14


15

Pisu

m sa

tivum

5

25

50

100

47.9 c (0.74 ± 0.05)

23.6 b (0.39 ± 0.02)

0.0 a

0.0 a

52.4 b (0.79 ± 0.03)

11.9 a (0.19 ± 0.04)

11.9 a (0.19 ± 0.04)

0.0 b

56.0 b (0.83 ± 0.01)

52.4 b (0.79 ± 0.03)

11.9 a (0.19 ± 0.04)

0.0 a

46.2 c (0.72 ± 0.04)

19.7 b (0.34 ± 0.01)

0.0 a

0.0 a a, b, c, d LSD at 95% confidence interval

Legend: Percentage of germinated seeds in the control variant with distilled water [number of germinated seeds: G. max – 95 (100%), V. sativa – 98 (100%) and P. sativum 88 – (100%); g/l - concentration of weed extracts; All data is presented as means ± SE; * square root-transformed data with SE shown in parentheses alongside back-transformed mean values.

The extracts from S. nigrum and Ch. album were the strongest inhibitors of seed germination of the test crops and A. retroflexus and E. сanadensis had relatively the slightest inhibitory effect. Similar results were obtained by Kadioglu et al. (2005), according to whom the extracts from S. nigrum and Ch. album exerted a strong inhibitory effect on the seed germination of different agricultural crops.

The coefficients of depression (B) of the different extracts on the seed germination mainly depended on test plant species and extract concentration. It is evident from Table 2 that the depression coefficients (B) were relatively the lowest at the highest studied concentration of 100 g/l dry weed biomass and with decrease of the concentration to 50 and 25 g/l, the depression coefficient (B) also increased. An exception to the described relation was only found for the extract concentration of 5 g/l (Table 2). Table 2. Values of the depression coefficient (B) and extract concentrations inhibiting 50% the seed germination (LC50)

Weeds A. retroflexus Ch. album E. canadensis S. nigrum

Culti-vars

g/l

B LC50 B LC50 B LC50 B LC50

Gly

cine

m

ax

5 25 50 100

0.450.530.420.42

59.7

[39.2, 90.9]*

0.80 0.99 0.63 0.46

13.1 [6.7, 25.7]

*

0.45 0.45 0.25

-

51.5

[39.8, 66.6]*

0.52 0.98

- -

15.6

[12.2, 20.3]*


Vici

a sa

tiva

5 25 50 100

0.340.720.360.51

36.7

[20.5, 65.9]*

0.74 1.20 0.83

-

9.6

[6.4, 14.5]

*

0.68 1.69 0.96

-

8.3

[6.3, 10.9]*

0.79 1.84 1.76

-

7.3

[-5.3 + 9.9]*

Pisu

m

sativ

um 5

25 50 100

1.061.58

- -

6.5

[4.0, 10.7]*

0.93 2.32 1.32

-

6.9

[5.2, 9.2]*

0.85 0.71 1.32

-

25.3

[15.7, 40.7]*

1.11 1.77

- -

5.7

[3.4, 9.4]*

Legend: g/l-1 - concentration of weed extracts; B – depression coefficient in seed germination depending on species and concentration of the extracts; * ± 95% lower / upper confidence interval.

This relation can be explained by the presence of glycoalkaloids and

tannins in the tested extracts (Agarwal et al., 2002, Serafimov et al., 2005). It is known that steroid alkaloids, tannins possess strong toxicity with a protoplasmic and hemolytic effect (Karagyozov, 1960) and at the higher concentrations (50 and 100 g/l) they provoked a letal effect on the seeds of the test accessions, whereas the lower extract concentrations (5 and 25 g/l) inhibited the germination to a different degree, which was probably due to the lower content of glycoalkaloids in them.

The seed germination of the test plants also depended on extract pH. The extract pH varied within a wide range from 3.6 to 6.9 and depended on the extract species (Figure 1). There was negative correlation relation between the extract concentration and pH that was very pronounced in extracts from S. nigrum (r = -0.839) and A. retroflexus (r = -0.846), less pronounced in E. canadensis (r = -0.615), whereas in extracts from Ch. album (r = -0.212). The extract effect on the seed germination of the studied grain legumes varied from indifferent to actively harmful and can be expressed as a function of their oxidation. The oxidative processes were the strongest in extracts made from dry biomass of S. nigrum (y = -0.038.[pH] + 4.68; R2 = 0.885) followed by A. retroflexus (y = -0.041.[pH] + 6.72; R2 = 0.802), E. Canadensis (y = -0.038.[pH] + 3.805; R2 = 0.592) and the slightest in Ch. album (y = -0.009.[pH] + 4.60; R2 = 0.164).

16


17

02468

Control distilled water

0.5%

2.5%5.0%

10.0%

A. retroflexus (L.)

Ch. album (L.)

E. canadensis (L.)

S. nigrum (L.)

Figure 1. Interrelation between concentration and pH depending on extract species

Data on the concentration relations to the test plant and extract species obtained after applying different mathematical models (linear and linear quadratic) is presented in Table 3. The results of the regression and correlation analysis showed that the degree of inhibition in seed germination of the studied accessions was according to 1x.bay += and increased linearly with increase of the concentrations (g/l) of all tested extracts.

An exception to the described relation was only observed for seeds of G. max in their germination with extracts from Ch. album, where r = 0.697 аnd R2= 0.486. That could be explained by the relatively lower susceptibility of the seeds of G. max to the tested extracts, as compared to P. sativum and V. sativa. These regularities were also confirmed by 1x.bay += and ( )2

1x.bay += , where r varied from 0.610 tо 0.992 аnd R2 was within the range of 0.372 tо 0.949. With regard to the depression coefficient (B) in seed germination depending on the extract species and concentration by 2x.bay += and

( )21x.bay += , they were in negative correlation relation, with evident

deviation for G. max with extracts from A. retroflexus, Ch. album and E. canadensis, as well as for V. sativa with extracts from A. retroflexus. The model 1x.bay += was not adequate with regard to the depression (B) of the different extracts on the seed germination of the test accessions.

Statistical analysis of data showed narrow functional relations of the type of between extract concentration (x)x,x,x(fy 321= 1), depression coefficient (x2) and weed species (x3) in seed germination (y) of G. max, P. sativum and V. sativa. The relations can be expressed by the following

2 equations: in G. max (y = 4.76 + 4.07.х1 - 48.75.х2 - 0.701.х3 ; R = 0.948), in


P. sativum (y = 22.77 + 6.72.х1 - 22.88.х2 - 0.231.х3 ; R2=0.956) and V. sativa (y = 18.15 + 4.08.х1 – 30.37.х2 - 0.273.х3 ; R2 = 0.923).

Conclusion Aqueous extracts from Amaranthus retroflexus (L.), Chenopodium

album

album (L.) ha

the differen

depress

References AGARWAL, A. R., A.GAHLOT, R. VER 2002): Effect of weed extracts on

BROWN ,

CHANIA teraction between soybean

CHON,

CHUNG , J.K. AHN, H.J. JU, (1997): Allelopathic potential evaluation of rice

FUJII, Y solation of

(L.), Erigeron canadensis (L.) and Solanum nigrum (L.) in the studied grain legume agrophytocenoses inhibited the seed germination of Glycine max (L.) Merrill, Pisum sativum (L.) and Vicia sativa (L.) by 26.7 tо 100%.

Aqueous extracts from Solanum nigrum (L.) and Chenopodiumd the greatest inhibitory effect, whereas Amaranthus retroflexus (L.) and

Erigeron canadensis (L.) inhibited seed germination on average by 74.0%. Pisum sativum (L.) was the most susceptible to the effect of t extracts, LC50 varying from 6.5 tо 25.3 g/l, followed by V. sativa (L.),

LC50 - 8.3 tо 36.7 g/l and G. max (L.) Merrill had relatively the lowest susceptibility, LC50 was within the range of 13.1 tо 59.7 g/l dry weed biomass.

Narrow relations were found between extract concentration (g/l),ion coefficient (B) and weed species in seed germination for Glycine

max (L.) Merrill (germination = 4.76 + 4.07.х1 - 48.75.х2 - 0.701.х3 ; R2=0.948), for Pisum sativum (germination = 22.77 + 6.72.х1 - 22.88.х2 - 0.231.х3 ; R2=0.956) and for Vicia sativa (germination = 18.15 + 4.08.х1 – 30.37.х2 - 0.273.х3 ; R2=0.923). They allow making rapid assessment of inhibitory effect of the late spring weeds on the germination of the studied grain legumes.

MA, P. B. RAO, (seedling growth of some varieties of wheat, Joyrnal Environ Biol. Jan., 23(1):19-2. , P., M. J. MORRA, (1995): Glucosinolate-containing plant tissues as bioherbicidesJournal of Agricul. and Food Chem., 43(12):3070-3074. GO, I., (2003): Assessment of possible allelopathic in

(Glycine max) and Amaranthus powellii and Cyperus rotundus using in vitro systems, Proceedings of the 11th Australian Agronomy Conference, Geelong, Victoria. S. U., C. J .NELSON, (2001): Effects of experimental procedures and conditions on bioassay sensitivity of Lucerne autotoxicity, Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 32:1607-1619. , I.M., K.H. KIMcultivars on Echinochloa crus-galli, Korean J. Weed Sci. 17:52–58. ., (2003): Allelopathy in the natural and agricultural ecosystems and ipotent allelochemicals from Velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens) and Hairy vetch (Vicia villosa), Biological Sciences in Space, 17 (1):1-8.

18


19

GILL, S., G. ANOLIEFO, U. IDUOZE, (1993): Allelopate effects of aqueous extract from Siam weed on the growth cowpea. Third International workshop on Bio-Control and Management of C. Odorata, Cote d`Ivore.

HAMILTON, M. A., R.C. RUSSO, R.V. THURSTON, (1978): Trimmed Spearman-Karber Method for Estimating Median Lethal Concentrations in Toxicity Bioassays, Environ. Sci. Technol., 12(4):417.

HINNKELMANN, K., O. KEMPTHORNE, (1994): Design and Analysis of Experiments, Volume 1, Wiley and Sons, New York.

HOQUE, A., A. ROMEL, M. UDDIN, M. HOSSAIN, (2003): Allelopathic Effects of Different Concentration of Water Extracts of Eupatorium odoratum Leaf on Germination and Growth Behavior of Six Agricultural, Crops Journal of Biological Sciences, 3(8): 741-750.

HUNT, R., (1982): Plant growth curves, the functional approach to plant growth analysis, Edward Arnold, Ltd. London.

KADIOGLU, I., Y. YANAR, U. ASAV, (2005): Allopathicc effects of weeds extracts against seed germination of some plants, Journal Environ Biol., 26(2):169-173.

КARAGIOZUV, К., (1960): Alkaloids, Sofia, Bulgaria. KOSTADINOVA, P., T. AHMED, K. KUZMOVA, (2002): A study on the allelopathic

potential of Convulvulus arvensis leaves and roots, Journal of Enviromental Protection and Ecology 3(3):665-672.

LYUBENOV, Y., (1988): Integrated systems of weed control, Volume I, Zemizdat, Sofia, Bulgaria.

MALLIK, M., R. PUCHALA, F. GROSZ, (1994): A growth inhibitory factor from lambsquarters (Chenopodium album), Journal of Chemical Ecology, 20(4) Abstract.

MARCHIN-SILVA, F., M. AQŰILA, (2006): Contribution to the study of native species allelopathic potential, Rev. Árvore, 30(4), Viçosa jul./ago.

MARINOV-SERAFIMOV, PL., 2005: Study of competitive interrelations between soybean and black nightshade (Solanum nigrum L.) under conditions of leached chernozem in North Bulgaria. PhD Dissertation, Pleven, Bulgaria.

MARINOV-SERAFIMOV, PL., TS. DIMITROVA, (2006): Dynamic and distribution of the main weeds in weed associations of some Grain-Legume crops. 70th Anniversary of Plant Protection Institute and Annual Balkan Week of Plant Health. Book of abstracts. Plant Protection institute May 28 – 31, Kostinbrod, Bulgaria, p. 50.

MOUER, J., H. HUANG, (1997): Effect of aqueous extracts crop residues on seed germination and seedling growth of ten weed species, Bot. Bull. Acad. Sin.,38:131-139.

REIGOSA, M., A. SÁNCHEZ-MOREIRAS, L. GONZÁLEZ, (1999): Ecophysiological approach in allelopathy, Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 18(5):577-608.

PETROV, IV., (1980): Study on weed vegetation in soybean under conditions of calcareous chernozem. Author’s abstract of PhD Dissertation, Sofia, Bulgaria.

RICE, E.L., (1974): Allelopathy. Academic Press, New York, San Francisco and London. STOIMENOVA, IV., (1990): Competitive interelations between soybean and common

amaranth Amaranthus retroflexus (L.) depending on some ecological conditions, Dr. Sc. (Agr.) Dissertation, Sofia, Bulgaria.

SERAFIMOV, PL., V. SABEV, I. GOLUBINOVA, (2005): Inhibitory effect of aqueous extract from black nightshade (Solanum nigrum L.) on primary development of soybean seeds. Book of Scientific Reports of Jubilee Scientific Conference, Pavlikeni, Bulgaria, p. 100 – 106.

ZAHARENKO, V. A., (2000): Theoretical principles of management of weed components of


20

agrophytocenosis. Agrarian Science, 9:16-14.

Effect of weed extracts on the seed es germination in some grain legum

21

2

1

x.bayx.bay

+=+=

Table 3. Concentration and depression relations in inhibition of seed germination of the studied grain legumes

Cultivars and weeds

r R2

2

1

x.b

x.b

ay

ay

+=

+= r

A. retroflexus

2

1

x.7.8503.4yx.08.595.16y

−=+= 0.879

-0.758 0.774** 0.574* −

+= 84.6y 1x.47..18 0.974

Ch. album

2

1

x.66.5200.16yx.69.447.29y

−=+= 0.697

-0.742 0.486* 0.524* −

+= 1x.18.1985.16y 0.869

E. canadensis

2

1

x.16.6316.5yx.49.898.7y

−=+= 0.938

-0.848 0.879** 0.719* −

+−= 1x.16.2638.2y 0.895

Gly

cine

max

S. nigrum 2

1

x.53.6026.0yx.32.933.24y

−−=+= 0.869

-0.999 0.754* 0.998** −

+= 1x.97.3367.5y 0.964

A. retroflexus

2x.62.7781.9yx.97.493.21y

−=+= 1 0.809

-0.818 0.655* 0.669* −

+= 1x.36.182.16y 0.909

Ch. album

2x.63.6019.3yx.19.859.26y

−=+= 1 0.881

-0.912 0.777** 0.830** −

+= 1x.71.2938.10y 0.974

E. canadensis

2

1

x.04.4996.7yx.20.847.29y

−=+= 0.838

-0.905 0.702* 0.818** −

+= 1x.70.3084.11y 0.954

Vici

a sa

tiva

S. nigrum 2x.04.4871.1yx.26.882.33y

−=+= 1 0.802

-0.987 0.644* 0.974*** −

+= 1x.81.316.14y 0.941

A. retroflexus

2

1

x.48.4817.0yx.01.885.36y

−=+= 0.784

-0.999 0.615* 0.999*** −

+= 1x.13.3184.17y 0.927

Ch. album

2

1

x.47.3983.10yx.78.772.36y

−=+= 0.769

-0.950 0.592* 0.819** −

+= 1x.46.3092.17y 0.917

E. canadensis

2x.00.6565.1yx.60.805.25y

−=+= 1 0.884

-0.986 0.782** 0.972*** −

+= 1x.62.3093.8y 0.959

0.992

Pisu

m sa

tivum

S. nigrum 2

1

x.60.4586.0yx.75.775.37y

−=+= 0.776

-0.999 0.601* 0.998** −

+= 1x.27.3011.19y

Legend: y – percentage of germinated seeds; x1 – concentration g/l-1 of extract; x2 – coefficient of depression (B); r – correlation coefficient; R2 – regression coefficient (coefficient of determination). Coefficient significance at

;1.0P* ≤ %;05.0P** ≤ %01.0P*** ≤ .


THE INFLUENCE OF PLANT RESIDUES ON THE GERMINATION AND SPROUTING OF AGROPYRON REPENS AND GALIUM APARINE

Mirha Đikić

Faculty of Agriculture, Zmaja od Bosne 8, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected]

Abstract

The objectives of this study were to investigate the influence of plant residues on the the number, height and biomass of quackgrass (Agropyron repens) and cleavers (Galium aparine).

Plant residues which were used included: wheat (Triticum aestivum), barley (Hordeum vulgare), rye (Secale cereale), potato (Solanum tuberosum), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), and mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris).

The straw of barley and rye inhibited the number (by 17.8 and 6.7%, respectively) and biomass (by 47.5 and 16.8%, respectively) of A. repens seedlings. The straw of wheat significantly diminished only the biomass of A. repens seedling by 49.5%.

Potato and tomato diminished the investigated parameters of quackgrass (in average): the number by 20.5% and 22.5%, the height by 11.2% and 14.3%, and the mass by 25.4% and 33.8%, respectively.

Residues of A. vulgaris stimulated the germination and sprouting of A. repens. When 10 grams of mugwort residues were placed in pot it caused stimulation of investigated parameters of quackgrass: the number by 17.9%, the height by 6.4% and the biomass by 15.1%. Adding 15 grams of A. vulgaris per pot caused the number and biomass stimulation of A. repens by 18.5 and 12.9%, respectively.

The straw of wheat, rye, and barley had no inhibition on the investigated parameters of Galium aparine. But, some of them caused stimulation, as follows: barley – number of G. aparine seedlings, rye – height and biomass of cleavers seedlings. Keywords: allelopathy, plant residues, quackgrass, cleavers

Introduction

Allelopthy is defined as any direct or indirect inhibitory or stimulatory effect by one plant on another through the chemical compounds that escape to the environment (A l d r i c h and K r e m e r, 1997). Allelopathy has been the subject of numerous modern research efforts.

Mirha Đikić

P u t n a m and D u k e (1974) showed that some crops (wheat, barley, oats, rye, etc.) leach toxic substances from their alive and dead roots, which can reduce weediness of the field with its negative allelopathic influence. S h i l l i n g et al. (1995) reported that when soybean and sunflower grow in dried green rye, without soil tillage, the mass of lambsquaters, ragweed and redroot pigweed are reduced by 99,92 and 96%, respectively.

C h u n g and M i l l e r (1995) observed that alfalfa residue mixed with sand at rates of 1 to 2 g kg-1 reduced growth of lambsquarters, pigweed, crabgrass and velvetleaf. S a t i et al., (2004) reported that during early phase of decomposition, wheat biomass released more phytotoxins than at later stages of decomposition.

The objective of this work was to investigate the influence of the plant residues on the number, height and DW (dry weight) biomass of weed seedlings.


Plant residues from wheat (Triticum aestivum), barley (Hordeum

vulgare), rye (Secale cereale), potato (Solanum tuberosum), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), and mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris) were used. The effect of these residues on quackgrass (Agropyron repens) and cleavers (Galim aparine) was investigated. 10-15 g of plant residues was put in pot and mixed with soil. In each pot was put about 2.5 kilos of soil. In that medium 50 germinable weed seeds were sown. The depth of sowing was 1.5 cm. Each experiment lasted for one month. All experiments were replicated four times and the results were statistically analysed by ANOVA using Student test (P = 0.05 and 0.01).


The results of experiments can be seen in the next tables.

Table 1. The influence of plant residues of wheat, rye, and barley on the number and height of Agropyron repens seedlings, relatively

The number of A. repens seedlings The height of A. repens seedlings Plant residues 1st experi-

ment 2nd experi-

ment avera-

ge 1st experi-

ment 2nd expei-

ment avera-

ge Wheat 102.3 98.3 100.3 87.1 94.6 90.9 Rye 95.4 91.1 93.3 77.3- - 97.9 87.6 Barley 100.8 82.2- 91.5 Check 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

24

The problem of weeds in spring forage pea (Pisum sativum l.) for grain

25

Lsd 0.05 9.09 13.78 13.14 8.04 0.01 13.08 19.82 19.90 12.16

The straw of barley in the second experiment inhibited the number of

A. repens seedlings by 17.8%. Rye straw reduced the number of A. repens by 6.7% and height by 12.4

(in average).

Table 2. The influence of plant residues of tomato and potato on the number and height of Agropyron repens seedlings, relatively

The number of Agropyron repens seedlings

The height of Agropyron repens seedlings Plant

residues 1st experiment

2nd experiment

average

1st experiment

2nd experiment

average

Potato 87.3 71.6-- 79.5 80.6- 96.9 88.8 Tomato 72.9- 82.0 77.5 71.1- - 100.2 85.7 Check 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100,0 100.0 Lsd 0.05 18.64 18.48 15.56 8.02 0.01 28.21 28.04 23.55 12.11

Potato and tomato diminished the investigated parameters of quackgrass (in average): the number by 20.5% and 22.5% and the height by 11.2% and 14.3%, respectively.

Table 3. The influence of plant residues on biomass of Agropyron repens seedling, relatively

The biomass of Agropyron repens seedlings

The biomass of Agropyron repens seedlings Plant

residues 1st exper.

2nd exper.

average

Plant residues 1st

exper. 2nd

exper. avera-

ge Wheat 50.5- - 85.4 67.9 Potato 65.5- - 83.6 74.6 Rye 31.1- - 88.5 59.8 Tomato 51.7- - 80.6 66.2 Barley 103.9 62.5- - 83.2 Check 100.0 100.0 100.0 Check 100.0 100.0 100.0 Lsd 0.05 27.62 17.06 Lsd 0.05 20.69 20.14 0.01 39.72 24.53 0.01 31.03 30.59

The straw of barley in the second experiment inhibited the biomass (by 47.5%) of A. repens seedlings, while the wheat and rye straw in the first experiment diminished the biomass by 49.5 and 68.9%, respectively.

Mirha Đikić

Potato and tomato diminished the biomass of Agropyron repens by 25.4% and 33.8%, respectively.

Table 4. The influence of plant residues of mugwort on the number, height and biomass of Agropyron repens seedlings, relatively

Plant residues The number Height Biomass 10 grams of mugwort 117.9++ 106.4 115.1 15 grams of mugwort 118.5++ 100.5 112.9 Check 100.0 100.0 100.0 Lsd 0.05 11.49 10.68 25.20 0.01 17.39 16.20 39.10

Residues of A. vulgaris stimulated the germination and sprouting of A.

repens. When 10 grams of mugwort residues were placed in pot it caused stimulation of investigated parameters of quackgrass: the number by 17.9%, the height by 6.4% and the biomass by 15.1%. Adding 15 grams of A. vulgaris per pot caused the number and biomass stimulation of A. repens by 18.5 and 12.9%, respectively. Table 5. The influence of plant residues of wheat, rye, and barley on the number and height of Galium aparine seedlings, relatively

The number of Gallium aparine seedlings

The height of Gallium aparine seedlings Plant

residues 1st experiment

2nd experiment

average

1st experiment

2nd experiment

average

Wheat 105.7 101.7 103.7 102.9 89.4 96.2 Rye 106.8 102.5 104.7 111.1+ 107.5 109.3 Barley 111.5++ 111.8 111.7 103.4 110.3 106.9 Check 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Lsd 0.05 6.86 19.00 9.32 13.71 0.01 9.87 27.32 13.40 19.71

Table 6. The influence of plant residues of wheat, rye, and barley on the biomass of Galium aparine seedlings, relatively

The biomass of Gallium aparine seedlings Plant residues 1st experiment 2nd experiment average Rye 119.8+ 111.5 115.7 Barley 95.2 96.5 95.9 Check 100.0 100.0 100.0 Lsd 0.05 18.56 21.04 0.01 28.15 31.80

26


27

The straw of wheat, rye, and barley did not inhibit the investigated parameters of Galium aparine. But some of them caused stimulation, as follows: barley – number of cleaver seedlings (by 11.7%), rye – height (by 9.3%) and biomass (by 15.7%) of G. aparine seedlings. K a z i n c z i et al. (1998) found that shoot residues of G. aparine promoted the development of winter wheat.

Conclusions From the above results it can be concluded that plant residues of potato

and tomato showed allelopathic potential aganist A. repens. In this work a strong allelopathic potential aganist A. repens was not obtained by rye, wheat and barley. G. aparine, one of the most harmful weeds in small grains, was stimulated when germinated and sprouted in rye and barley straw.

References

ALDRICH, R. J. & R.J. KREMER, (1997): Principles in Weed Management. Second Edition.

Iowa State Univ. Press/Ames. CHUNG, M. & D.A. MILLER, (1995): Effect of alfalfa plant and soil extract on germination

and growth of alfalfa. Agronomy J. 87. KAZINCZI, G. J. HORVATH, K. HUNYADI, D. LUKACS, 1998: A contribution to the

biology of cleavers (Galium aparine L.). Z. Pfl. Krankh. Pfl. Schutz, Sonderh, XVI, 83-90.

PUTNAM A.R. & W.B. DUKE, (1978): Allelopathy in agroecosystem. Annal Review of Phytopathology No. 16.

SATI, S.C. R. PALANIRAJ, S.S. NARWAL, R.D. GAUR, D.S. DAHIYA, (2004): Effects of decomposing wheat and barley residues on the germination and seedling growth of Trianthema portulacastrum and Echinochloa colonum. IV International Conference Allelopathy in Sustainable Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems. Hisar, India.

SHILLING, D.G., R.A. LIEBL, A.D. WORSHAM, (1985): Rye (Secale cereale) and wheat (Triticum aestivum) mulch: Suppression of certain broad-leaves weeds and the isolation and identification of phytotoxins. In: Chemistry of Allelopathy (ed. A.C. Thompson) ASC Symposium Series 268. Washington D.C.: American Chemical Society.

Herbologia Vol. 8, No. 1, 2007.

THE PROBLEM OF WEEDS IN SPRING FORAGE PEA (Pisum sativum L.) FOR GRAIN

Tsvetanka Dimitrova

Institute of Forage Crops, 5800 Pleven, Bulgaria, [email protected]

Abstract

The study was carried out at the Institute of Forage Crops, Pleven during the period 2003-2005 on slightly leached chernozem and a natural background of weed infestation. It was found that:

At a high weed infestation degree and under the conditions of the study, the reduction of spring forage pea yield reached to 33%; The herbicide Imazamox 40 a.i.l-1 (Pulsar 40) at the dose of 24 ml a.i.ha-1 + Desh - 500 ml ha-

1 could be applied to spring forage pea at the 3-5 leaf stage to control the annual mono- and dicotyledonous weeds. The treatment with the herbicide at the mentioned dose resulted in a decrease of weed infestation degree by 96% and an increase of grain yield by 43% (on average for a three-year period). Oat, sown as a cover crop for pea, decreased the weed infestation degree by 55% and the grain yield was 17% higher than that from the pure untreated stand. Keywords: herbicides, adjuvant Desh, weeds, productivity, spring forage pea.

Introduction

Annual leguminous crops, to which spring forage pea belongs, are biologically characterized by their slow initial growth and developmental. In this period they are greatly vulnerable to competitiveness of weed vegetation. Besides the direct negative effect of the weeds on all important vital factors of growth and development of cultivated plants, they also cause considerable indirect losses hindering the working processes of the harvesting machines. Under the conditions of our studies (Dimitrova, 2000), the grain losses reached to about ½ of the biological potential of pea depending on the weed infestation degree and weather conditions. This crop is characterized by its high susceptibility to herbicides (Fetvadzhieva, 1973), but some authors reported also selective ones in their studies (Dimitrova, 2002, 2005; Figarol, 1997; Hobson and Pyan, 1987). According to Lyubenov (1987), the weed control is most successful when combining qualitative soil cultivation with chemical method.


Tsvetanka Dimitrova

Under the influence of different factors changes occur in the weed associations which require to search for new possibilities for weed control (Legere, 1993; Streibig et al., 1993). These circumstances, as well as some new requirements in an ecological and economic aspects are a serious argument for new studies with the purpose of increasing the range of possibilities for weed control. Due to the compensation changes having occurred in the weed associations and the increase of resistant weeds, it is necessary to establish new agrochemical and technological criteria in the application of weed control measures in order to eliminate the ecological problems arising in the use of herbicides (Nikolova, 2003).

Contemporary agroecological conditions require improvement of the methods and means of weed control as a constituent part of the integrated system.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of the weeds and their control by using the herbicide Imazamox 40 a.i.l-1 (Pulsar 40) applied alone and combined with the adjuvant Desh and with oat (Avena sativa) as a cover crop on the grain productivity of spring forage pea (Pisum sativum L.)


The study was conducted during the period 2003-2005 in the experimental field of the Institute of Forage Crops in Pleven. The trial was carried out with the variety “Pleven 4” on slightly leached chernozem by the block method with a size of harvest plot of 20 m2. The trial variants were: V1 – zero check; V2 – weeded check; V3 – spring pea + oat as a cover crop; V4 – Imazethapyr 100 a.i.l-1 (Pivot 100EC) - standard –50 ml a.i.ha-1; V5 – Imazamox 40 a.i.l-1 (Pulsar 40) – 20 ml a.i.ha-1; V6 – Imazamox 40 a.i.l-1 – 20 ml a.i.ha-1 + Desh – 500 ml ha-1; V7 – Imazamox 40 a.i.l-1 – 24 ml a.i.ha-1; V8 – Imazamox 40 a.i.l-1 – 24 ml a.i.ha-1 + Desh – 500 ml ha-1.

The herbicide doses, in active ingredient per ha, were applied with 400 l/ha working solution at the 3-5 leaf stage of the crop. In variant V3 oat was sown as a cover crop in a perpendicular direction to pea (40 kg/ha). In this case, oat was used in its capacity of a biological means of weed control and as an alternative to the chemical method.

An area with a natural background of weed infestation with predominant participation of Sinapis arvensis L., Amaranthus spp., Raphanus spp., Setaria spp., Panicum crus galli L. was used to carry out the trial. During the period of study the rainfall amount in the growing season was similar in the first two years, 231 mm and 245 mm respectively and it reached to 445 mm in the last year.

30


31

In order to achieve this objective the following characteristics were observed: Herbicide selectivity (according to the EWRS methodology with a 9-score scale – at score 1 there are no damages to the crop and at score 9 the crop is completely killed); weed infestation degree (by the quantity-weight method); grain yield; structural elements of yield; grain qualities (1000-grain weight, germinable vigour and germinability).


Imazamox, applied alone or in combination with the adjuvant Desh, at the studied doses showed high selectivity to pea. Imazamox possesses a wide spectrum of phytotoxic action on the annual mono- and dicotyledonous weeds (Setaria spp., Panicum crus galli L., Sinapis arvensis L., Amaranthus spp., Solanum nigrum L.).

It is evident from the results in Table 1 that the lowest degree of weed infestation was recorded for treatment with Imazamox in combination with Desh at the doses of 24 ml a.i.ha-1 and 500 ml ha-1 (V8), respectively. It was only 5% with regard to the weed number and 4% with regard to their weight, as compared to those in the zero check (V1). These values were almost equal to those of the standard Imazethapyr (V8). The addition of adjuvant to the herbicide applied at the higher dose resulted in an increase of herbicidal effect by 5% and 10%, respectively and the increase was by 9% and 11% at the low dose. The addition of adjuvants can stimulate the uptake of the herbicide resulting in an increase of the herbicidal effect which allows dose reduction (Mathiassen & Kudsk, 2002; Kieloch & Domaradzki, 2005).

In its capacity of a biological control means, oat sown as a cover crop (V3) suppressed the weed development as a result of its ability to release phytotoxins. In spite of the lower effect, as compared to that of the chemical control, oat decreased the weed participation by 56% with regard to their number and by 55% regarding their weight in comparison with those in the zero check (V1). In an ecological aspect, this approach can be considered to be an alternative to the chemical method, though with lower efficiency.

The grain yield (Table 2) was closely related to the weed infestation degree. In spite of the differences in the yields during the different years due to the variation of the weather conditions, the tendencies in the values of this parameter remained the same among the variants. In all three years the differences in the grain yield from the treated stands and that from the untreated one in the zero variant (V1) had very good positive significance. It is evident from the data analysis, on average for the experimental period, that the grain yield from the weeded check (V2) was 3460 kg ha-1, exceeding that in the

Tsvetanka Dimitrova

zero check (V1) by 50%. This result showed unequivocally that spring pea is a crop susceptible to negative weed effect. The elimination of their competition to a smaller or greater extent, as a result of the Imazamox treatment (alone or combined with adjuvant) increased the grain yield by 32% to 43% and by 43% in the standard. The increase of the grain yield from the stand with oat as a cover crop was by 17%, which was considerably lower than the stands with chemical control. That was due to the lower efficacy of oat for weed control, on the one hand, and to its competitive effect on pea, on the other.

The weeds exerted a negative effect also on the formation of structural elements of the yield (Table 3). Proof of that were the deviations in the values of the number of formed reproductive stems and in their development ((height and pod number per stem) in zero check (V1), as compared to the values of these characteristics in the weeded check (V2) and in the treated stands (V4, V5, V6, V7 and V8). With regard to grain qualities (1000-grain weight, germinable vigour and germinability) there was no regular tendency in the values of these characteristics. Table 1. Degree of weed infestation of spring forage pea for grain (on

average for 2003-2005)

Weeds / m2

Number Biomass, g Variants*

Annual monocoty-ledonous

Annual dicotyle-donous

Total

% V1

Annual monocoty-ledonous

Annual dicotyle-donous

Total

% V1

V1 272 156 428 100 239 1980 2219 100 V2 - - - - - - - - V3 117 72 189 44 102 909 1011 45 V4 12 6 18 4 8 55 63 3 V5 52 18 70 16 44 416 460 21 V6 20 10 30 7 22 214 436 20 V7 32 13 45 10 34 286 320 14 V8 14 8 22 5 10 73 83 4 * Variants: V1 – zero check; V2 – weeded check; V3 – pea + oat; V4 – Imazethapyr 100 a.i.L-1 (Pivot 100EC) - standard – 50 ml a.i.ha-1; V5 – Imazamox 40 a.i.L-1 (Pulsar 40) – 20 ml a.i.ha-1; V6 – Imazamox 40 a.i.L-1 – 20 ml a.i.ha-1 + Desh – 500 ml ha-1; V7 – Imazamox 40 a.i.L-1 – 24 ml a.i.ha-1; V8 – Imazamox 40 a.i.L-1 - 24 ml a.i.ha-1 + Desh – 500 ml ha-1.

32


33

Таble 2. Effect of the weeds and their control on the grain productivity of spring forage pea, kg/ha-1

Variants* 2003 2004 2005 Average

2003-2005 % V1

% V2

V1 2010 2530 2390 2310 100 67 V2 3040 3640 3710 3460 150 100 V3 2250 2920 2960 2710 117 78 V4 2970 3540 3570 3360 145 97 V5 2630 3260 3280 3060 132 88 V6 2850 3440 3480 3260 141 94 V7 2810 3340 3390 3180 138 92 V8 2940 3490 3510 3310 143 96 GD P o.o5 106.58 160.01 111.02 59.63 P o.o1 147.92 222.08 154.08 82.67 P 0,1 205.71 308.84 214.28 115.09

*Variants: as in Table 1. Table 3. Effect of the weeds and their control on the structural elements of grain yield from spring forage pea

Variants*

Reproductive stem number/m2

Stem height, cm

Pod number per stem

1000-grain weight

V1 78 126 7,2 150,32 V2 124 150 11,0 151,66 V3 91 131 8,3 150,69 V4 116 149 10,4 152,10 V5 105 145 9,8 151,02 V6 114 145 10,2 151,64 V7 108 145 10,1 151,46 V8 114 147 10,3 151,68 Average 106.2 142.2 9.7 151,32

*Variants: as in Table 1.

Conclusions

At a high weed infestation degree and under the conditions of the study, the reduction of yield of spring forage pea reached to 33%.

The herbicide Imazamox 40 a.i. l-1 (Pulsar 40) at the dose of 24 ml a.i.ha-1 + Desh - 500 ml ha-1 could be applied to spring forage pea at the 3-5 leaf stage to control the annual mono- and dicotyledonous weeds.

Tsvetanka Dimitrova

The treatment with the herbicide at the mentioned dose resulted in a decrease of weed infestation degree by 96% and an increase of grain yield by 43% (on average for a three-year period).

Oat sown as a cover crop for pea decreased the weed infestation degree by 55% and the grain yield was 17% higher than that from the pure untreated stand. Therefore it can be applied as an alternative to the chemical method.

References DIMITROVA, TS., (2000): Biological study of herbicides for weed control in spring forage

pea, Plant Science, 37, 5, 328-331. DIMITROVA, TS., (2002): Effect of Some Graminicides on Prodictivity of Spring Forage Pea,

Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science, VІІ, 2-3, 189-192. DIMITROVA, TS., (2005): Influence of Bentazone 600 g/l and Fluazifop – P – butyl 150 g/l

on the weeds and productivity of forage pea for grain, Proc. Breeding and technological aspects in production and processing of soybean and other forage crops, 08.09.2005, Pavlikeni, 168-174.

FETVADZHIEVA, N., (1973): Weed control, 3rd edition, Zemizdat, Sofia. FIGAROL, M., (1997): Pois: désherbé en reduisant les doses. La France agricole, 34: 26-73. HOBSON, G.P. and P.J.PYAN, (1987): Terbuthylazin plus isoxaben for weed control in peas.

Proceeding, vol. 3, 123-125. KIELOCH, R., K. DOMARADZKI, (2005): The influence of relative humidity on Anthemis

arvensis and Stellaria media control by tribenuron – methyl used alone and with adjuvants. 13th EWRS Symposium, Bari, Italy, CD-ROM.

LEGERE, A., SASON, N., RIOUX, R., (1993): Perennial weeds in conservation tillage systems. Brighton Crop Protection Conference – Weeds, 2, 747-752.

LYUBENOV, YA. et al., (1987): Integrated systems of weed control, volume 1, Zemizdat, Sofia.

MATHIASSEN, S., PER KUDSK (2002): The influence of adjuvants on the efficacy and rainfastness of iudosulfuron. 12th EWRS (European Weed Research Society) Symposium 2002, Wageningen, 206-207.

NIKOLOVA, V., (2003): Herbicide application at sublethal doses – alternative in contemporary agriculture, Plant Science, 40, 99-102.

STREIBIG, J.C., ADREASEN, C. BLAKLOW, N.M., (1993): Crop management effects the community dynamics of weed. Brighton Crop Protection Conference – Weeds. 2. 487-494.

34


THE DIVERSITY AND HARMFULNESS OF WEEDS AND WEED COVER IN MAIZE

Štefan Týr, Milan Macák

Department of Sustainable Agriculture and Herbology, Faculty of Agrobiology and Food Resources, Slovak Agricultural University in Nitra, Tr. A.Hlinku 2, 949 76 Nitra,

Slovak Republic, [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract

The data of the first weed survey in maize conducted in 1997–2005 in the Slovak Republic were applied to study density and occurrence of species of weeds in maize production region, sugar beat production region and potato production region, which cover more than 85% of the total arable land in the Slovak Republic. The scale of four infestation levels from weak to heavy was used. The pilot farms were selected according to a set of criteria of agro–climatic conditions of different production regions, crop rotation and tillage management. The higher infestation level and occurrence of weed species (26 species) in maize fields were revealed in the maize production region and fewer occurrences (10 species) and less infestation level were found in the sugar beat production region. The most spread and troublesome weeds are Echinochloa crus–galli, Amaranthus spp., Atriplex spp., Chenopodium spp., Cirsium arvense which infested 60–100% of maize fields in all production regions, with big share of heavy infested fields (more than 25% weed cover per square meter) in maize and potato production regions. Persicaria spp. was the problem for farmers only in the maize production region with heavy infestations of nearly 19% of maize fields. The occurrence of perennial weed Elytrigia repens in maize fields increased from 32 to 94.4% towards more humid and colder weather conditions. Harmfulness of E. repens expressed as a share of medium infested fields (3rd grade, 6–25% weed cover per square meter) was in relatively narrow interval from 11 to 18%. The results are discussed in relation to differences between production regions. Keywords: weed survey, weed density, weed diversity, weed cover, maize

Introduction

Information about occurrence and abundance of dominant weed species or invading species help to create effective weed control strategies. From a weed management perspective, the most relevant experimentation is



Štefan Tyr and Milan Macak

comparative in nature, with crop species evaluated in conjuction with weeds and organized in realistic spatial patterns (McDonald et. al., 2004).

As species richness decreases, the average cover of wildlife plants may remain unchanged due to the increased dominance of a few species or the invasion of new species (neophytes). Both trends, the disappearance of site adapted species or species with regional limited occurrence and the introduction of new species may lead to a loss in regional specificity and a homogenisation of floras on arable land across Europe (Radics, 2004). On the other hand highly selective weed control strategies can be successfully targeted towards key growth periods and key problem species in order to minimize the impact of weeds on crop yield and quality (Nørremark and Griepentrog, 2004).

In agrophytocenosis, the environmental driving factors considered include not only soil and ambient temperature and humidity but also soil properties (Walter et al., 2002), soil nutrient status (Evans et al., 2003), management practices and crop rotation (Týr and Bartošová, 2006). Weed population density and biomass production may be markedly reduced using crop rotation (temporal diversification) and intercropping (spatial diversification) strategies. The success of rotation systems for weed suppression appears to be based on the use of crop sequences that create varying patterns of resource competition, allelopathic interference, soil disturbance, and mechanical damage to provide an unstable and frequently inhospitable environment that prevents the proliferation of a particular weed species. The relative importance and most effective combinations of these weed control tactics have not been adequately assessed. In addition, the weed-suppressive effects of other related factors, such as manipulation of soil fertility dynamics in rotation sequences, need to be examined (Liebman et al., 1993).

Weed surveys are useful for determining the occurrence and relative importance of weed species in crop production systems (Frick and Tomas, 1992). Documenting the distribution, numeric abundance and weed communities can help to understand the inter-specific diversity, size and extend of weed population in agricultural eco-region of any area (Sultan and Nasir, 2003). Determination of important weed species can help to establish priorities and strategies of weed control in maize field. The data about weed density and time of emergence are also used to predict loss of yields (Cousens et al., 1987). Occurrence of less important weed species (Tóth, 2006) and study of dominant weed species in some crops (Týr, 2003) are carry out also in Slovakia. Classification of weed vegetation of arable land in Czech and Slovak and determination of diagnostic species was made by Lososova et. al. (2006).

36

The diversity and harmfulness of weeds and weed cover in maize

The aim of the study was to find out the distribution and abundance of weed species in maize fields in main production region of the Slovak Republic with respect to their importance and harmfulness.


Exploration of weed density and diversity was realized in frame of monitoring research conducted in Slovakia during 1997–2005. Each year in average 30 farms in main production regions of Slovakia were evaluated with total acreage of 30–50 thousand ha. The area of evaluated large scale field range from 30 to 120 ha and number of fields per farm ranged from one to two. The pilot farms were selected according to the set of criteria – agro–climatic conditions of different production regions, crop rotation, tillage management with standard chemical weed control practices. The survey was based on the data from 47 fields of 28 farms located in maize production region (KVO); sugar beat production region (RVO) and potato production region (ZVO). It covers more than 85% of total acreage of arable land in the Slovak Republic.

The number of farms per region was 12 in maize production region, 6 in sugar beat production region and 10 in potato production region. Present study assessed the actual weed infestation in latest year of weed survey in 2005.

An actual weed infestation was evaluated before application of herbicides and 3-4 weeks after application of herbicides in accordance to International scales of EWRS (Anonymous, 1988). The commercial weed control of evaluated fields reached good and excellent effect.

In the present study we summarized data about maize field actual weed infestation from first evaluation. Screening of each field was made on the area of 1 m2 with four replications. One square on each replication (0.7 m by 1.5 m) covers rows and inter–rows cultivation. The four randomly established sample squares were situated minimally 20 m from field margin and apart each other, respectively. The fields with same history were selected. The maize growing in monoculture is not included in present study. After harvest of winter crops (winter wheat, winter barley, triticale, rye, and winter rape), stubble cleaning followed by mouldboard ploughing and standard mechanical and chemical weed control were used. The level of infestation was evaluated according to average density of weeds per square meter (Table 1)

37


Table 1. Evaluation scale of actual weed infestation Actual weed infestation none weak low medium heavy infestation level 0 1 2 3 4

Group of weeds

number of weeds per m2

Excessively dangerous

– ≤ 2 3–5 6–15 ≥ 16

Less dangerous – ≤ 4 5–8 9–20 ≥ 21 Insignificant – ≤ 8 9–15 16–30 ≥ 31

% weeds cover Total weeds infestation – up to 1 2–5 6–25 more than 25

The received data from pilot farms were computed to the whole area of

growing crop in particular production region on the base of acreage of evaluated fields and share of maize in structure of growing crops and acreage of maize in particular production region. In 2005 the acreage of maize growing in maize production region was 121,599 ha, in sugar beat production region 10,378 ha, and in potato production region 3,622 ha. Table 2. Characteristics of main production regions of the Slovak Republic

Production region

Characteristics Maize production region

Sugar beat production region

Potato production region

Acreage of arable land 724 900 ha 231 400 ha 270 600 ha Share of total arable land

50.7 % 16.2 % 18.9 %

Altitude up to 250 m up to 350 m 350–500mnm Average annual temperature

above 9 °C 8–9°C 6.5-8°C

Average annual precipitation

below 600 mm 550–650mm 700–800mm

The data of the species as Chenopodium spp. (as Chenopodium

hybridum L., Ch. polyspermum L., Ch. strictum ROTH), Persicaria spp, Amaranthus spp., Atriplex spp., Sonchus spp., Setaria spp., Anthemis spp., Chamomilla spp., Plantago spp. were counted together as one species group.

38


The data were computed and expressed in tables for different production region.


The high weed diversity was noted in the maize production region and

less diversity was in the sugar beet production region. Species composition differs according to production regions. The frequency of occurrence of 31 species in evaluated production region was determined.

The higher diversity of weeds population was noted in maize production region, totally 26 weed species (Table 3). The species with minor occurrence up to 2% are as follows: Ambrosia artemisiifolia, Carduus nutans, Iva xanthiifolia, Sonchus spp., Tripleurospermum perforatum, Equisetum arvense, Taraxacum officinale, Phragmites australis. The weeds that occurred more than 3% in maize field are listed in table 3. The most troublesome weeds in maize were Echinochloa crus-galli, Amaranthus spp., Cirsium arvense, and Persicaria spp. High frequencies of occurrence with nearly 16% heavy infested fields had also Atriplex spp. and Chenopodium spp.

Ambrosia artemisiifolia and Iva xanthifolia were identified in some maize fields (below 1% of area) in warm maize production region only. The occurrence of Ambrosia in sunflower and maize fields was investigated by Toth (2006) during 1997–2004. He noted very variable frequency of occurrence, nearly 18% maize fields were infested up to 1% cover per square meter in 1999 and no infested fields were noted in 2001. The first record in maize field in Slovakia was in 1985 (Černuško 2006). Frequency of occurrence of Datura stramonium as thermophilic species was ordinarily noted in maize growing region in all levels of infestation approximately on 30% of maize fields but only 3% of maize field were infested in first (weak) level in sugar beat production region. The maize fields in potato production region were without occurrence of D. stramonium. Tyšer and Nováková (2006) also quoted that worse environmental conditions decreased the total number of weed species, mainly the number of thermophilous late summer annual weeds. Relatively high frequency of Abutilon theophrasti (velvetleaf) was also found in warmer region (maize production region) with total spread on 22% in second level of infestation and with some very heavy infested fields with more than 25% velvetleaf cover. A.theophrasti Medic is also an important weed throughout the region in which maize (Zea mays) and soyabean (Glicine max) are grown in the USA (Traoré et al., 2002). Occurrence of Phragmites australis was revealed only in some fields in the maize production region, but locally with the heaviest infestation level.

39


Table 3. The actual weed infestation of maize fields in the maize production region

Infestation level 0 1 2 3 4 Species 1000 ha % 1000

ha % 1000 ha % 1000

ha % 1000 ha %

Datura stramonium 85.8 70.6 7.6 6.2 13.9 11.4 7.3 6.0 7.0 5.8 Persicaria spp. 76.9 63.2 6.5 5.3 15.5 12.8 9.1 7.5 13.7 11.2 Sinapis arvensis 110.2 90.6 10.3 8.5 1.2 0.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Echinochloa crus-galli 49.6 40.8 17.9 14.8 12.6 10.4 18.1 14.9 23.3 19.2 Capsella bursa-pastoris 118.1 97.1 1.2 1.0 0.0 0.0 2.3 1.9 0.0 0.0 Amaranthus spp. 23.6 19.4 38.9 32.0 29.2 24.1 10.1 8.3 19.8 16.3 Atriplex spp. 48.4 39.8 21.1 17.4 32.8 27.0 10.5 8.6 8.8 7.2 Setaria spp. 100.8 82.9 5.6 4.6 13.0 10.7 2.1 1.7 0.0 0.0 Chenopodium spp. 34.9 28.7 29.1 23.9 38.3 31.5 10.5 8.6 8.8 7.2 Cirsium arvense 48.9 40.2 27.8 22.9 12.4 10.2 15.0 12.4 17.4 14.3 Abutilon theophrasti 89.9 73.9 0.2 0.1 26.6 21.9 2.8 2.3 2.1 1.7 Fallopia convolvulus 80.9 66.5 20.5 16.8 20.3 16.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Panicum milliaceum (L.) ssp. agricola H.Szhotz et Mikolas

100.7 82.8 4.7 3.9 14.0 11.6 2.1 1.7 0.0 0.0

Convolvulus arvensis 110.0 90.5 10.3 8.5 1.3 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Elytrigia repens 82.4 67.8 15.1 12.4 10.2 8.4 12.7 10.4 1.2 0.9 Raphanus raphanistrum 110.2 90.6 10.3 8.5 1.2 0.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Anthemis spp. 115.3 94.8 2.8 2.3 3.5 2.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Chamomilla spp. 116.4 95.7 1.6 1.4 3.5 2.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

The less biodiversity of weed population in the canopy of maize fields was found out in the sugar beat production region (10 species). The 100% occurrence of Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P.B., Amaranthus spp, Atriplex spp. and Chenopodium spp. were examined and one third of maize fields were heavy infested in 3rd level of infestation by these weeds. In the potato production region weed diversity of maize fields was relatively high – 17 species. The occurrence of new species as Arctium lappa, Plantago spp., Malva neglecta (under 1% only) and Sinapis arvensis, Galium aparine and Apera spica-venti was noted. The most troublesome weeds in maize fields were Amaranthus spp., Atriplex spp., Chenopodium spp. and Cirsium arvense. High average annual temperature (above 9°C), longer growing season and less sum of annual precipitation (below 600 mm) in the maize production region on the one side and colder (6.5-8°C) and partially more humid conditions (700–800 mm) on potato growing region are the relevant factors influenced the variability of the weed flora composition in maize canopy.

40


Table 4. The actual weed infestation of maize field in the sugar beat and potato production regions

Infestation level 0 1 2 3 4 1000

ha % 1000

ha % 1000 ha % 1000

ha % 1000 ha %

Species

Sugar beat production region Datura stramonium 10.1 97.0 0.3 3.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Persicaria spp. 5.7 54.5 3.8 36.4 0.9 9.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Echinochloa crus-galli 0.0 0.0 3.8 36.4 3.8 36.4 2.8 27.3 0.0 0.0 Amaranthus spp. 0.0 0.0 4.4 42.4 3.1 30.3 2.8 27.3 0.0 0.0 Atriplex spp. 0.0 0.0 3.8 36.4 3.5 33.3 3.1 30.3 0.0 0.0 Setaria spp. 9.4 90.9 0.9 9.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Chenopodium spp 0.0 0.0 3.8 36.4 3.5 33.3 3.1 30.3 0.0 0.0 Cirsium arvense 3.5 33.3 3.1 30.3 1.6 15.2 2.2 21.2 0.0 0.0 Panicum milleaceum (L.) ssp. agricola H.Scholz et Mikolas 9.4 90.9 0.9 9.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Elytrigia repens 4.4 42.4 2.8 27.3 1.3 12.1 1.9 18.2 0.0 0.0 Potato production region Persicaria spp. 0.8 21.0 2.1 57.6 0.7 18.3 0.1 3.2 0.0 0.0 Sinapis arvensis 2.8 78.2 0.2 5.5 0.2 5.5 0.2 5.5 0.2 5.5 Echinochloa crus-galli 1.3 35.1 0.9 24.4 1.3 34.9 0.0 0.0 0.2 5.6 Amaranthus spp. 1.1 30.0 0.4 10.0 0.0 0.3 1.9 51.7 0.3 7.9 Galium aparine 3.1 86.8 0.2 6.7 0.1 2.4 0.1 2.4 0.1 1.7 Atriplex spp. 0.4 11.3 0.7 18.2 1.1 30.3 1.1 29.4 0.4 10.8 Apera spica-venti 3.4 94.4 0.2 5.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Setaria spp. 3.4 93.8 0.2 6.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Chenopodium spp. 0.4 11.3 0.7 18.2 1.1 30.3 1.1 29.4 0.4 10.8 Tripleurospermum perforatum 3.1 86.6 0.2 6.7 0.1 1.7 0.1 2.4 0.1 2.4 Cirsium arvense 0.9 25.1 1.5 40.2 0.1 3.8 0.7 19.1 0.4 11.8 Panicum milleaceum (L.) ssp. agricola H.Scholz et Mikoláš 3.4 93.8 0.2 6.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Elytrigia repens 0.2 5.6 1.8 50.6 1.1 3.6 0.3 9.6 0.1 2.7 Anthemis spp. 3.3 92.3 0.3 7.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

On the bases of analysed data from different production regions (Table 3, 4) the most spread and harmful weeds are Echinochloa crus-galli, Amaranthus spp., Atriplex spp., Chenopodium spp., Cirsium arvense - infesting 60–100% of maize fields in all production regions. The Persicaria spp. was the problem for farmers in the maize production region only with heavy infestations nearly 19% maize fields. The specific role played by the perennial weed Elytrigia repens with strong tendency to infest maize fields with increasing occurrence from 32.2% - 57.6% - 94.4% towards more humid

41


conditions. Harmfulness of E. repens expressed as share of heavy infested fields (3rd- 4th grade) was relatively in narrow interval from 11 to 18%.

The most troublesome weed established was Echinochloa crus-galli in the maize production region, Atriplex spp. and Chenopodium spp. in the sugarbeat production region and Cirsium arvense in the potato production region.

The perennial weeds Cirsium arvense and Elytrigia repens are potentially very troublesome weeds and for acceptable control the deep mouldboard ploughing and stubble cleaning practices must be maintained. Acknowledgement. The research was supported by VEGA grant No. 1/244/05 and No. 1/1343/04 Integrated management of production and ecological function in the Danube Lowland Agriculture.

References ANONYMOUS (1988). Guidance for the use and presentation of statistics in weed

researching. Weed Research, 28, 139-144. ČERNUŠKO, K. (2006): Expanzia hospodársky významných burin a ich eliminácia. Available

on www.agroporadenstvo.sk/rv/ochrana/expanzia.htm, approved 5.1.2007. COUSENS, R., BRAIN, P., O’DONOVAN, J.T., O’SULIVAN, P.A. (1987): The use of

biologically realistic equations to describe the effects of weed density and relative time of emergence on crop yield. Weed Science, 35, 720-725.

EVANS, S.P., KNEŽEVIĆ, S.Z., LINDQUIST, J.L., SHAPIRO, C.A., BLANKENSHIP, E.E., 2003. Nitrogen application influences the critical period for weed control in corn. Weed Science, 51, 408-417.

FRICK, B., THOMAS, A.G. (1992): Weed survey in different tillage systems in South Western Ontario, field Crops. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 72, 1337-1347

LIEBMAN, M., DYCK, E. (1993): Crop rotation and intercropping strategies for weed management. Ecological Applications 3 (1), 92-122.

LOSOSOVA, Z., CHYTRY, M., CIMALOVA, S., OTYPKOVA, Z., PYSEK, P. TICHY, L. (2006): Classification of weed vegetation of arable land in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Folia geobotanica, 41, 259-273.

McDONALD, A.J., RIHA, S.J., MOHLER, C.L. (2004): Mining the record: historical evidence for climatic inluences on maize – Abutilon theophrasti competition. Weed Research, 44, 439-445.

NØRREMARK, M., GRIEPENTROG, H.W. (2004): Analysis and definition of the close-to-crop area in relation to robotic weeding 6th EWRS Workshop on Physical and Cultural Weed Control 127 Lillehammer, Norway, 8-10 March 2004, 127-140

RADICS, L., GLEMNITZ, M., HOFFMANN, J., CZIMBER, G.Y. (2004): Composition of weed floras in different agricultural management systems.within the European climatic gradient. 6th EWRS Workshop on Physical and Cultural Weed Control Lillehammer, Norway, 8-10 March 2004, p. 58-68.

SULTAN, S., NASIR, Z.A. (2003): Dynamics of Weed Communities in Grain Fields of Chakwal, Pakistan. Asian Journal Plant. Sci., 2 (17-24), 1198-1204.

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http://www.agroporadenstvo.sk/rv/ochrana/expanzia.htm


TÓTH, Š. (2006): Výskyt hospodársky významných a málo významných druhov burin na Slovensku v rokoch 1997-2004. In: Zborník vedeckých prác SCPV-VÚRV – Ústav Agroekolkógie Michalovce, 22p.

TRAORÉ, J., LINDQUIST, J.L., MASON, S.C., MARTIN, A.R., MORTENSEN, D.A. (2002): Comparative ecophysiology of grain sorghum and Abutilon theophrasti in monoculture and in mixture

TÝR, Š. (2003): Regulácia burín v porastoch kukurice. Naše pole, 7, (5), 20-23. TÝR, Š., LACKO-BARTOŠOVÁ, M. (2006): Weed infestation and weed management in

integrated and ecological agricultural cropping systems. Herbologia, Vol. 7, No. 2, p. 1-8, ISSN 1840-0809.

TYŠER, L., NOVÁKOVÁ, K. (2006): Weed vegetation of agrophytocenoses in selected regions of the Czech Republic. Herbologia, Vol. 7, No. 2, p. 9.-19, ISSN 1840-0809

WALTER, A.M., CHRISTENSEN, S., SIMMELSGAARD, S.E. (2002): Spatial correlation between weed species densities and soil properties. Weed Research, 42, 26-38.

43


EFFECTS OF TILLAGE SYSTEMS AND CROP ROTATION ON WEED POPULATIONS, DENSITY, DIVERSITY AND WEED

BIOMASS IN MAIZE

Eva Demjanová1, Milan Macák1, Štefan Týr1, Ivica Đalović2, Jozef Smatana1

1Department of Sustainable Agriculture and Herbology, Faculty of Agrobiology and Food Resources, Slovak Agricultural University in Nitra, Tr. A.Hlinku 2, 949 76 Nitra,

Slovak Republic, [email protected]; [email protected] of Kragujevac, Faculty of Agronomy. Cacak, Serbia

Abstract

The study was conducted over 7 years (1994–2000) in field trials in the Experimental station of the Slovak Agricultural University near Nitra (west Slovakia). The evaluated crop rotation treatments were as follows: S1 continuous maize, S2 corn – spring barley rotation, S3 three-crop rotation maize for grain – common pea – winter wheat, S4 four-crop rotation maize for grain – spring barley – common pea – winter wheat. Three basic tillage treatments were as follows: CT – mouldboard ploughing to a depth of 30 cm (conventional tillage), RT1 – offset disc ploughing 15 cm deep followed by combined cultivator, RT2 – shallow loosening to the depth 10 cm twice (reduced tillage). Total weed density generally decreased with increasing tillage depth. Annual weeds – broadleaves (17 species) were clearly the dominant group in all tillage treatments, compared with the perennials (6 species) and annual grassy (4 species) weeds. Both the number of weed species and density for different groups showed a general trend RT>CT. Total weeds density was significantly lower under the CT than the other reduced tillage systems. In comparison with CT tillage, reduced tillage treatments RT1 and RT2 increased weed density in average by 240.7 and 225.3%, respectively. The main benefit of conventional tillage is highly significant declination of perennial weeds – 2.6 perennial weed plants in CT as compared to 7.5 in RT2 and 9.0 in RT1 per quadrant. Dominant weed species were Amaranthus spp. (A. retroflexus and A. powelli), Chenopodium album, Echinochloa crus–galli, Convolvulus arvensis and Cirsium arvense. Number of species of the annual broadleaves and grassy weeds group was insignificant in CT and RT1, RT2. Significantly less weed dry biomass was found in conventional treatment under mouldboard ploughing as compared to reduced tillage by offset disc ploughing or shallow loosening. Crop rotation has insignificant influence on variability of species richness expressed according Margalef’s index in maize canopy.



Eva Demjanova et al.

Tillage system was more influential than crop rotations on the composition of the weed flora, weed density and diversity and weed biomass. Keywords: weed density, diversity, weeds dry biomass, crop rotation, tillage.

Introduction

Weediness is related to soil utilization, tillage and plant protection. Many species are hard to kill (Farkas, 2006). Weeds represent an important obstacle in maize production and their competition can cause yield reductions of up to 70% in maize grain yields (Teasdale, 1995). The effectiveness of interrow cultivation in suppressing weeds in maize is well documented (Wilson, 1993). Success of mechanical weed control may vary according to particular species. Perron and Legere (2000) ascertained that tillage intensity did not affect seed production of Echinochloa crus–gali and Chenopodium album in maize, with the exception that E. crus galli which produced more seeds in chisel than in mouldboard plough tillage in soybean in a maize - soybean rotation.

Changes in tillage practices can cause shifts in weed species and densities (Blackshaw et al., 1994). Previous studies have documented that conservation tillage can increase the density of perennial weeds and some annual grasses. The effect of reduced tillage on annual broadleaf weeds is less clear: density of some species increase, but of others decrease. Most researches have indicated that less intensive tillage favours perennial species, species disseminated by wind, annual grasses and volunteer crops. Annual broad-leaved species tend to adapt better to frequently disturbed habitats and are therefore more abundant in conventional tillage systems (Streit et al., 2003).

Weeds are one of the greatest limiting factors to efficient crop production. Weeds are very sensitive to mechanical (tillage), chemical (herbicide spraying) and agronomic (crop rotation) disturbance and farming systems (Wrucke and Arnold 1985; Barberi et al., 1997; Týr and Bartošová, 2006). Therefore they are suitable as an indicator of the degree of cropping intensity. Changes in tillage can have a significant effect on weed control and weed populations. Weed species, soil seed density, seed production and surface residue can influence weed population dynamics under different tillage systems (Teasdale et al., 1991).

Crop rotation is considered as an essential component of integrated weed management systems (Clements et al., 1994). Weed diversity has been shown to increase under crop rotation compared to monoculture (Stevenson et al., 1997). Greater diversity prevents the domination of a few problem weeds.

46

Effects of tillage systems and crop rotation on weed populations, density, diversity and …

47

It has also been suggested that weed densities are lower in crop rotational systems than in monocultures (Doucet et al., 1999). For these reasons, crop rotation is an important weed management tool in low input and organic systems.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of tillage systems and crop rotation on weed populations, weeds density and diversity, weeds dry biomass.


The study was conducted over 7 years (1994–2000) in field trials in the Experimental station of the Slovak Agricultural University near Nitra (west Slovakia). The experimental site belongs to warm and moderate arid climatic region in the south-west of Slovakia. Table 1. Weather conditions during maize growing season in the years 1994–2000

Precipitation (mm) Temperatures (˚C) Month/Year 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

April 94 74 103 30 47 60 27 10.6 10.7 11.0 7.6 12.0 12.1 13.0 May 110 63 143 43 33 30 28 15.2 14.6 16.4 15.9 15.3 15.6 16.2 June 29 89 50 61 29 32 6 18.7 17.7 19.2 18.6 19.6 18.5 20.1 July 33 0 69 117 61 91 61 23.1 22.9 18.3 19.0 21.0 20.6 18.9 August 60 62 59 13 31 47 22 21.4 19.8 19.4 20.8 20.9 19.0 22.1 September 110 84 78 28 50 7 52 17.1 14.2 11.9 15.3 15.1 18.1 15.4 Total (mm) 436 372 502 292 251 267 196 - - - - - - - Average (0C) - - - - - - - 17.7 16.7 16.0 16.2 17. 17.3 17.6

The main soil type is Orthic Luvisol with 2.3% of humus content and

good supply of accessible N, P and K and pH 5.7 in average. The crop rotation treatments were as follows: S1 continuous maize, S2 double cropping maize for corn – spring barley sequences, S3 three crops rotation maize for corn – common pea – winter wheat, S4 four crops rotation maize for corn – spring barley – common pea – winter wheat.

Three basic tillage treatments were as follows: CT – mouldboard ploughing to depth 30 cm (conventional tillage), RT1 – offset disc ploughing to depth 15 cm and combined cultivator, RT2 – twice shallow loosening to the depth 10 cm (reduced cultivation).

Common pest and disease control practices were applied. Herbicides (expressed in active ingredients) and inter-row tillage for weed control by stick harrow were as follows: 1994 - mechanical weeding only, 1995 - pre–emergence application of dicamba-DMA salt + s–metolachlor and post–


emergence application of clopyralid + pyridate, 1996 - post-emergence application of rimsulfuron + dicamba–DMA salt, 1997- mechanical weeding only, 1998 - post–ememergence application of rimsulfuron thifensulfuron methyl, 1999 - pre–emergence application of atrazine + acetochlor diclormid and post-emergence application of clopyralid, 2000 - post-emergence application of clopyralid + 2,4 D and metosulam.

Plots for tillage system were arranged in a split plot design. Plots were divided into subplots (11 x 40 m) and were subjected to tillage treatments with four replications.

Weed infestation was evaluated twice a year. First evaluation was in the spring before herbicides application by counting method, second evaluation before harvest of maize in September using weight–measuring method on the square area of l m2 in each replication. One area on each replication (0.7 by 1.5 m) to cover rows and inter–rows cultivation was established in parallel to maize rows in the middle maize rows. During the third or fourth decade of September, a sample was taken in the square and the weeds were identified, grouped into broadleaves, perennials and annual grasses and counted. These groups were counted separately and dried in laboratory oven. The data of weed density and diversity, biomass and crop yield in all tillage and crop rotation treatments as well as their interactions were subjected to analysis of variance using Statgrapfics procedure and F-test (Fisher`s protected LSD test) of significance was used to separate differences between treatments means. To describe species diversity we used Margalef `s index – DMG as a measure of species richness, calculated according formula: DMG = (S–1) x (logN)–1

where S denotes the number of species and logN is the logarithm of average total weed density (plants m-2) in each plot (Magurran, 1988).


Twenty seven weed species were found in sampling frames during this experiment. Dominant weeds were Amaranthus species (A. retroflexus and A. powelli), Chenopodium album, Echinochloa crus–galli, Convolvulus arvensis and Cirsium arvense, each ranged from 1–87.4% of the total density and had a frequency of occurrence that ranged from 66 to 83% in at least one year of the experiment.

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49

Effect of tillage systems and crop rotation on weed density and weed species composition Significant influence of tillage, crop rotation and year on total weed density in maize has been observed (Table 2). Table 2. F statistics from ANOVA for weed density, weed species richness

(DMG) during 1994-2000. Source of variation Density DMG

Rotation 4.69 ** 0.65 NS Tillage management 33.54 ** 13.87 ** Rotation x Tillage 2.00 NS 0.68 NS Year 11.40 ** 9.79 ** Rotation x Year 1.64 NS 1.13 NS Tillage x Year 1.91 NS 0.49 NS

** significant at P < 0.01 values, NS no significant at P < 0.01

All evaluated interactions of rotation x tillage, rotation x year and tillage x year were insignificant. Total weed density generally decreased with increasing cropping intensity. Annual weeds – broadleaves (17 species) were clearly the dominant group under all tillage treatments, compared with the perennials (6 species) and annual grassy (4 species) weeds. Both the number of species and density for the different groups showed a general trend RT>CT (Table 3).

Total weeds density was significantly lower under the CT than the other reduced tillage systems. In comparison with CT tillage, reduced tillage treatments RT1 and RT2 increased weed density in average by 240.7 and 225.3%, respectively. The results are in acccordance with the results of Tolimir et al. (2006); they noted considerably lower weed infestation per square meter under conventional tillage (7) compared to reduced (39) and zero–tillage (46).

Similarly Birkás et al. (2002) ascertained that soil conditions, caused by shallow disk tillage, increase weed infestation in maize and in the case of maize crop sequence. Finding concerning perennial weeds are in accordance with some reports (Kneževič et al., 2003, Wrucke and Arnold, 1985) and the results concerning group of annual broadleaf weeds are contradictory to the results in the same studies, but agree with other finding (Froud-Williams, 1981; Buhler, 1995). The main benefit of conventional tillage is highly significant decrease of perennial weeds – 2.6 plants of perennial weeds in CT with comparison to 7.5 in RT2 and 9.0 in RT1 per square.


Table 3. Weed density of different group of weeds in tillage systems and crop sequences during 1994–2000 in number m-2

Tillage Weed species CT RT1 RT2 Average Annual grassy 4.8 11.0 14.3 10.0 b Broadleaves 8.9 19.2 14.9 14.3 c Perennials 2.6 9.0 7.5 6.4 a Total density 16.3 a 39.2 b 36.7 b Crop rotation Weed species S1 S2 S3 S4 Annual grassy 12.1 9.8 9.1 9.2 Broadleaves 16.9 12.1 13.1 15.3 Perennials 9.5 6.7 3.6 5.7 Average 38.5 a 28.6 b 25.8 b 30.2a b

Means within columns or rows followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 0.05 probability level using the LDS-test

Frequency of occurrence and density of dominated weeds Amaranthus

species (A. retroflexus and A. powelli), Chenopodium album (broadleaves group), Echinochloa crus-galli (annual grasses), Convolvulus arvensis and Cirsium arvense (perennials group) were significantly greater in the reduced tillage (RT1, RT2) than in the conventional (CT) tillage system.

Tillage management (Table 4) and year were the most important factors in determining weed density (26.8% and 27.4% respectively). Crop rotation accounted for only 5.6% of the total variance and the interaction of crop rotation and tillage accounted for an additional 4.8%.

The significantly higher weed density was noted in monoculture of maize with comparison to maize growing in the double crop and three crops rotation (Table 3). The weeds density in maize canopy growing in monoculture (S1) and four crop sequences (S4) was insignificant due to high density of broadleaf group in four crop sequences. Table 4. ANOVA of treatments effects evaluated, variance partitioning of total weed density and weed species richness (DMG) among effects for 1994–2000

Population density D MG Component Sum of

square Variance (% of total)

Sum of square

Variance (% of total)

Rotation 1868.01 5.63 72.60 1.26 Tillage 8899.99 26.82 1033.72 17.93

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51

managementYear 9077.93 27.36 2188.58 37.97 Rotation x Tillage

1595 4.80 152.45 2.65

Rotation x Year

3927 11.80 758.84 13.16

Tillage x Year

3040 9.16 217.34 3.77

Residual 4776 14.39 1341.13 23.27 Total 33185 – 5764.67 –

The lesser role of crop rotation in the regulation of weed density with

comparison to tillage treatments is consistent with results reported from Doucet et al. (1999).

Effect of tillage systems and crop rotation on weed diversity

As in the case of weed density, tillage management was the most important factor determining also species richness (17.9% of the total variance, excepting the year 37.9%) as we can see in Table 4. Crop rotation and the interaction of rotation with tillage management have minor effects on species richness, accounting for less than 4% of the total variance. The high significant influence of tillage management and year suggests that tillage and weather played the main role in regulating the relative abundance of weed species (Table 2). Crop rotation has insignificant influence on variability of species richness expressed according Margalef`s index in canopy of maize (Table 3).

Number of species of the annual broadleaf and grassy weeds was similar in CT and RT1, RT2. Perennial weeds showed the highest values under treatments with reduced tillage. Comparison base on the number of species did not reveal the significant differences between evaluated tillage treatments (Table 5). The number of species per square is relatively high (6.8-7.5). Tyšer et al. (2006) state 0.4-1.6 species per square meter on conventional field under row crops.


Table 5. Number of species under the three tillage systems in maize (1994–2000)

Tillage treatment Weed species CT RT1 RT2

Annual grassy 1.2 1.1 1.2 Broadleaves 3.7 3.8 3.8 Perennials 1.9 2.4 2.5 Total 6.8 a 7.3 a 7.5 a

Effect of tillage systems and crop rotation on weed dry biomass

Weed dry biomass was affected by the soil tillage system. Significantly higher dry weight was measured in RT1 and RT2 than in CT. Higher weed dry biomass under reduced tillage systems is in agreement with the results of Gill and Arshad (1995). Abdin et al. (2000) stated generally higher weed biomass in the rows than between the rows probably due to interrow cultivation. Our way of sampling with maize row in the middle of the square avoided this difference.

Table 6. Weed dry mater (g m-2) of total population under three tillage systems in maize for the years 1994–2000

Tillage systems Crop rotation CT RT1 RT2 Average S1 46.9 153.4 113.4 104.56 a S2 76.7 203.4 185.6 155.23 a S3 89.2 128.1 140.2 119.17 a S4 113.3 163.1 186.4 154.27 a Mean 81.5 a 162 b 156.4 b

Means within columns or rows followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 0.05 probability level using the LDS-test

The insignificant differences between weed dry biomass in evaluated crop rotation have been revealed (Table 6), but we noted tendency of less weed dry biomass in maize growing in monoculture and in the crop sequences of common pea – winter wheat – maize. Spring barley decreases the competitiveness of crop rotation to weeds (S2 and S4) with comparison to maize growing in monoculture (S1) and maize growing in three crop sequences (S3).

52


53

The data about weed dry biomass in evaluated years are summarized in table 7. Table 7. Weed dry biomass (g m-2) of the total population under the three tillage systems in the years 1994–2000

Tillage systems Years CT RT1 RT2

1994 38.5 90.2 116.8 1995 1.3 34.3 16.9 1996 107.0 179.7 171.1 1997 88.0 300.7 163.3 1998 48.8 101.0 126.3 1999 17.2 86.6 144.5 2000 201.0 243.7 240.5 Average 71.2 a 148.0 b 139.9 b

Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 0.01 probability level using the LDS–test

Significantly less weed dry biomass was achieved in conventional treatment with mouldboard ploughing with comparison to reduced tillage by offset disc ploughing or shallow loosening.

In conclusion, tillage system was more important than crop rotations in affecting the composition of the weed flora, weed density and diversity, weed biomass and maize yields. In summary, as in previous studies (Swanton et al., 1999; Shrestha et al., 2002), this study also demonstrated that the process that determines weed shifts, composition, density, diversity and weed biomass are very complex issue. Long–term changes in weed composition will be driven by the interaction of disturbance (tillage management), environment (soil type and soil moisture), crop rotation and timing and type of weed management practice. Acknowledgement The paper has been supported by VEGA Project 1/1343/4 Integrated management of production and ecological function in the Danube Lowland Agriculture.

References ABDIN, O.A., ZHOU, X.M., CLOUTIER, D., COULMAN, D.C., FARIS, M.A., SMITH, D.L.

(2000): Cover crops and interrow tillage for weed control in short season maize (Zea mays). European Journal. of Agronomy, 12, 93–102.

BARBERI, P., SILVESTRI, N., BONARI,E. (1997): Weed communities of winter wheat as influenced by input level and rotation. Weed Res., 37, 301–313. ISSN 0043–1737.


BIRKÁS, M., SZALAI, T., GYURICZA, C., GECSE, M., BORDÁS, K. (2002): Effects of disk tillage on soil condition, crop yield and weed infestation. Rostlinná výroba, 48, 20–26.

BLACKSHAW, R.E.LARNEY, F.O., LINDWALL, C.W., KOZUB, G.C. (1994): Crop Rotation and Tillage Effects on Weed Populations on the Semi-Arid Canadian Prairies. Weed Technology, 8, 231–237.

BUHLER, D.D. (1995): Influence of tillage systems on weed population dynamics and management in corn and soybean production in the central USA. Corn Sci., 35, 1247–1257.

CLEMENTS, D.R., WISE, S.F., SWANTON, C.J. (1994): Integrated weed management and weed species diversity. Phytoprotection, 75, 1–18.

DOUCET, C., WEAVER, S.E., HAMILL, A.S., ZHANG, J. (1999): Separating the effects of crop rotation from weed management on weed density and diversity. Weed Science, 47, 729–735

FARKAS, A. (2006): Soil management and tillage possibilities in weed control. Herbologia, Vol. 7, No. 1, 9–23.

FROUD–WILLIAMS, R.J., CHANCELLOR, R.J., DRENNAN, D.S.H. (1981): Potential changes in weed floras associated with reduced- cultivation systems for cereal production in temperate regions. Weed Res., 21, 99–109.

GILL, K.S., ARSHAD, M.A. (1995): Weed flora in the early growth period of spring crops under conventional, reduced, and zero tillage systems on a clay soil in northern Alberta, Canada. Soil & Tillage Research, 33, 65–79.

KNEŽEVIĆ, M., DURKIĆ, M., KNEŽEVIĆ, I., LONČARIĆ, Z. (2003): Effects of pre-and post-emergence weed control on weed population and maize yield in different tillage systems. Plant Soil Envir., 49, 223–229.

MACÁK, M., DEMJANOVÁ, E. KOVÁČ, K. (2005): Accompanying weed biodiversity in intensive agroecosystem. In Proceeding from Traditional Agroecosystems – 1st International Conference, September 19-21, Nitra, FAO, 2005, p. 4–8.

MAGURRAN, A.E. (1988): Ecological Diversity and its Measurement. Sydney, Australia: Croom Helm, pp. 7–45.

PERRON, F., LEGERE, A. (2000): Effects of crop management practices on Echinochloa crus-gali and Chenopodium album seed production in a maize/soyabean rotation. Weed Res., 40, 55–547.

SHRESTHA, A., KNEŽEVIĆ, S.Z., ROY,R.C., BALL-COELHO, B.R., SWANTON, C.J. (2002): Effect of tillage, cover crop and crop rotation on the composition of weed flora in a sandy soil. Weed Res., 42, 76–87.

STEVENSON, F.C., LÉGERE, A., SIMARD, R.R., ANGERS, D.A., PAGEAU, D., LAFOND, J. (1997): Weed species diversity in spring barley varies with crop rotation and tillage, but not with nutrient source. Weed Sci. 45, 798–806.

STREIT, B., RIEGER, S.B., STAMP, P., RICHNER, W. (2003): Weed populations in winter wheat as affected by crop sequence, intensity of tillage and time of herbicide application in cool and humid climate. Weed Res., 43, 20–32.

SWANTON, C.J. SHRESTHA, A., KNEŽEVIĆ, S.Z., ROY,R.C., BALL-COELHO, B.R. (1999): Effect of tillage systems, N, and cover crop on the composition of weed flora. Weed Science, 47, 454–461.

TEASDALE, J.R. (1995): Influence of narrow row/high population corn (Zea mays) on weed control and light transmittance. Weed Technol. 9, 113–118.

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TEASDALE, J.R., BESTE, C.E, POTTS, W.E. (1991): Response of Weeds to Tillage and Cover Crop Residue. Weed Science, 39, 195–199.

TOLIMIR, M., VESKOVIĆ, M., KOMLJENOVIĆ, I., DJALOVIĆ, I. STIPEŠEVIĆ, B. (2006): Influences of soil tillage and fertilization on maize yield and weed infestation. Cereal Res. Communications, 34, 323–326 part I.

TÝR, Š., L.–BARTOŠOVÁ, M. (2006): Weed infestation and weed management in integrated and ecological agricultural crops systems. Herbologia, Vol. 7, No. 2, 2006.

TYŠER, L. HAMOUZ, P. NOVÁKOVÁ, K., BRANT, V. (2005): Species richness and weed composition of agrophytocenoses in selected agricultural companies with conventional and organic agricultural farming systems. Herbologia, Vol. 6, No. 3, 2005, ISSN 1840–0809.

WILSON, R.G. (1993): Effect of preplant tillage, post-plant cultivation and herbicides on weed density in corn. Weed Technol. 7, 728–734.

WRUCKE, M.A., ARNOLD, W.E. (1985): Weed species distribution as influenced by tillage and herbicides. Weed Science, 33, 853–856.


MORE RECENT POSSIBILITIES OF CORRECTIVE WEED CONTROL IN MAIZE, SUNFLOWER AND SOYBEAN

Branko Konstantinović, Maja Meseldžija

Faculty of Agriculture, Trg Dositeja Obradovica 8, Novi Sad, Serbia E-mail: [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract

Weed control in soybean, sunflower and maize crops represent very

complex task, for it implies use of correct combination of cultivation practice and chemical measures. Use of post-emergence herbicides is interesting in the regions with low precipitation in which high level of weed infestation is expected. With the aim of finding solutions in corrective weed control in row crops, studies of herbicide flumioxazin were carried out. In the period 2004-2005, herbicide flumioxazin, under trade name Pledge was studied in soybean, sunflower and maize. The studies referred to application time after emergence of crops and weeds. Studies were run in randomized blocks design, according to standard EPPO/OEPP (1998) method at localities Backi Maglic and Sremski Karlovci. With the aim of studying efficiency, in all crops the herbicide flumioxazin was used in recommended rates of 30 and 40 g a.i.ha-1. Phytotoxicity to cultivated plants was evaluated upon applied quantity of 80 g a.i.ha-1. In soybean crop the referent herbicide was Gamit 4-EC (a.i. clomazone) (360 g.i.ha-1), in sunflower Raft (a.i. oxadiargyl) (320 g a.i. ha-1), and in maize crop Banvel 480-S (a.i. dicamba) (240 g a.i.ha-1). The results were statistically processed by application of LSD test. During the two-year studies, the herbicide Pledge in soybean, sunflower and maize crops, applied after emergence of crops and weeds showed high efficiency against broad-leaved weed species. The herbicide flumioxazin showed good efficiency in controlling weed species Amaranthus retroflexus, Chenopodium hybridum, Datura stramonium, Hibiscus trionum, and Solanum nigrum. It showed satisfactory efficiency in control of Chenopodium album. During the two-year studies in sunflower crop, due to larger quantity of precipitation, flumioxazin showed signs of temporary phytotoxicity (EPPO, 1999). In soybean and maize crops, the studied herbicide did not cause any symptoms of phytotoxicity. Keywords: maize, sunflower, soybean, weeds, control, flumioxazin, Pledge



Branko Konstatinović and Maja Maseldžija

Introduction

Maize, sunflower and soybean weed community that is floristically rich and diverse in our country has about 150 weed species and it is for the most part composed of termophilic species, predominantly of late spring and perennial weeds (Konstantinovic et al., 2005). Weed control in soybean, sunflower and maize represent extremely complex task, for it implies use of adequate combination of cultural practices and chemical measures (Konstantinovic, 1999). Herbicide use after shooting of crops is interesting for regions that are deficient in precipitation in which high level of weediness is expected. In the following several years, tendency of European Union is to ban certain herbicides such as triazines, some acetanilidaines and imazethapyr that have been used for weed control in row crops. Flumioxazin, N-(7-fluoro-3,4-dihydro-3-oxo-4-prop-2-ynyl-2H-1,4-benzoxazin-6-yl)cyclohex-1-ene-1,2-dicarboxamide, an N- phenylphthalimide herbicide, is a relatively new herbicide controlling many broad-leaved weeds and some annual grasses in soybean, peanuts and orchards (Tomlin, 2003; Niekamp and Johnson, 2001; Grey et al., 2002). It controls many weeds by inhibiting protoporhyrinogen oxidase to induce massive accumalation of porphyrins and to enhance peroxidation of membrane lipids, which leads to irreversible damage of the membrane function and structure of susceptible plants (WSSA, 2002; Jucai et al., 2002). With the aim of finding sollutions in corrective weed control in maize, sunflower and soybean crops, studies of the herbicide flumioxazin had been perfomed.


In the period 2004-2005 in soybean, sunflower and maize crops herbicide flumioxazin (Pledge 500g a.i.kg-1, Sumitomo) applied after shooting crops and weeds had been studied. Studies were perfomed in random block design according to the standard EPPO/OEPP (1998) methods at localities Backi Maglic and Sremski Karlovci. Trial plot was 5x5m in size, and all treatments were done in four replications. With the aim of efficiency evaluation in all crops herbicide flumioxazin was applied in recomended rates of 30 and 40 g ha-1. At a rate of 80 g ha-1 phytotoxicity to the crop was evaluated. As referent herbicide in soybean clomazone (Gamit 4/EC 480 ga.i. L-1, FMC) at a rate of 360 g ha-1 was applied, in soybean crop oxadiargyl (Raft 400 g a.i. L-1, Bayer CropScience) at a rate of 320 g ha-1 and in maize dicamba (Banvel 480/S 480 g a.i.L-1) at a rate of 240 g ha-1 were applied (Mitic, 2004). All treatments were perfomed by portable sprinkler ''Solo'' with blue ICI jet nozzle and water

58

More recent possibilities of corrective weed control in maize, sunflower and soybean

59

consumption was 300 lha-1. 14 and 28 days after treatment evaluations of herbicide efficiency by numbering of weeds per m2 were perfomed. Efficacy coefficient was evaluated. Results were statistically processed by application of LSD test.

Weather conditions during studies

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

March April May Jun July

Prec

ipita

tion

(mm

)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Tem

pera

ture

(*C

)

Precipitation (mm) Temperature

Graph 1. Mean values of precipitation and temperatures in 2004


0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Mart April May Jun July

Prec

ipita

tion

(mm

)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Tem

pera

ture

(*C

)

Precipitation (mm) Temperature

Graph 2. Mean values of precipitation and temperatures in 2005

The last rain before herbicide treatment in maize fell 7 days earlier in the quantity of 2.0 mm. During treatment the weather was sunny and dry with the average daily temperature up to 20.30C. The first rain after the treatment fell a day later in the quantity of 3.0 mm. The last rain before herbicide treatment in sunflower fell 4 days earlier in the quantity of 3.3 mm. During treatment the weather was sunny and dry with the average daily temperature up to 20.60C. The first rain after the treatment fell a 15 days later in the quantity of 1.0 mm. The last rain before herbicide treatment in soybean a day earlier in the quantity of 2.0 mm. During treatment the weather was cloudy and dry with the average daily temperature up to 11.50C. The first rain after the treatment fell a day later in the quantity of 3.0 mm.

Results Results of maize, sunflower and soybean crop weediness during 2004

and 2005, as well as efficacy of the applied herbicides are presented in tables 1-6.

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61

Table 1. The average number of weeds immediate before treatment in maize crop.

The average no. of weeds

Weed species flumioxazin30 g ha-1

flumioxazin40 g ha-1

dicamba 240 g ha-1 Control

Amaranthus retroflexus 2.25 3.25 2.50 3.75 Chenopodium hybridum 4.25 4.00 3.50 3.75 Datura stramonium 5.50 4.75 4.25 4.50 Hibiscus trionum 3.25 3.75 4.00 3.50 Polygonum convolvulus 4.50 3.50 3.75 4.25 Polygonum persicaria 4.25 4.00 3.75 3.75 Solanum nigrum 2.25 3.50 4.00 3.75 Sorghum halepense -from seed

3.25 3.00 2.25 2.75

Sorghum halepense -from rhizomes

4.75 5.00 5.50 5.25

Xanthium strumarium 3.75 4.00 4.25 4.00 Total no. of weeds per m2 38.00 38.75 37.75 39.25 Table 2. Efficiency of herbicides applied in maize crop (average of two evaluations)

Efficiency of the studied herbicides flumioxazin 30 g ha-1

flumioxazin 40 g ha-1

dicamba 240 g ha-1

Control Weed species

x Kef x Kef x Kef x Amaranthus retroflexus

- 100 - 100 0.25 94.44 4.50

Chenopodium hybridum

0.25 93.33 - 100 - 100 3.75

Datura stramonium - 100 - 100 0.75 81.25 4.00 Hibiscus trionum 0.25 93.33 - 100 - 100 3.75 Polygonum convolvulus

0.50 85.71 0.25 92.85 0.75 78.57 3.50

Polygonum persicaria 0.25 92.85 - 100 - 100 3.50 Solanum nigrum 0.25 94.11 - 100 - 100 4.25


Sorghum halepense -from seed

1.50 50.00 1.00 66.66 1.75 41.66 3.00


3.00 42.85 2.75 47.61 3.50 33.33 5.25

Xanthium strumarium 0.50 88.88 0.25 94.44 0.25 94.44 4.50 Total no. of weeds per m2

6.50 4.25 7.25 40.00

Total efficiency (Kef%)

83.75 89.37 81.87 -

Table 3. The average number of weeds immediate before treatment in sunflower crop

The average no. of weeds Weed species flumioxazin

30 g ha-1flumioxazin40 g ha-1

oxadiargyl 320 g ha-1

Control

Amaranthus retroflexus 1.25 3.00 4.25 2.75 Amaranthus blitoides 2.25 2.00 4.0 3.25 Chenopodium album 4.5 4.75 3.25 3.50 Chenopodium hybridum 3.25 2.75 2.50 3.00 Hibiscus trionum 4.25 4.00 3.75 3.50 Polygonum aviculare 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00 Solanum nigrum 2.25 3.00 2.75 2.50 Sorghum halepense -from seed

2.75 3.00 3.50 4.00


9.75 6.25 8.50 5.75

Xanthium strumarium 3.25 3.00 3.50 2.75 Total no. of weeds per m2 36.75 35.25 39.75 35.00

Table 4 Efficiency of herbicides applied in sunflower crop (average of two evaluations)

Efficiency of the studied herbicides



oxadiargyl 320 g ha-1


x Kef x Kef x Kef x Amaranthus - 100 - 100 - 100 4.75

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63

retroflexus Amaranthus blitoides 0.25 93.75 - 100 0.25 93.75 4.25 Chenopodium album 0.75 81.25 0.50 87.50 0.50 87.50 4.00 Chenopodium hybridum

- 100 - 100 - 100 3.75

Hibiscus trionum 0.25 94.11 - 100 0.25 94.11 4.25 Polygonum aviculare 0.50 88.88 0.25 94.44 0.25 94.44 4.50 Solanum nigrum 0.25 91.66 - 100 - 100 3.00 Sorghum halepense -from seed

1.25 66.66 1.00 73.33 0.75 0.80 3.75


4.25 54.05 4.00 56.75 5.50 43.24 9.25

Xanthium strumarium 0.50 86.66 0.25 93.33 0.75 80.00 3.75 Total no. of weeds perm

8.00 2

6.00 8.25 45.25

Total efficiency (Kef%)

82.32 86.74 81.76 -

Table 5. The average number of weeds immediate before treatment in soybean crop

The average no. of weeds

Weed species flumioxazin30 g ha-1


clomazone 360 g ha-1

Control

Amaranthus retroflexus 3.75 3.50 4.00 4.50 Chenopodium album 4.00 4.25 3.75 4.50 Datura stramonium 7.75 6.40 5.25 6.75 Euphorbia cyparissias 3.00 3.25 4.00 3.50 Hibiscus trionum 6.25 4.25 4.00 4.50 Polygonum persicaria 3.50 3.75 4.00 4.25 Solanum nigrum 4.50 3.50 3.75 4.25 Stachys annua 3.25 3.00 3.50 3.25 Xanthium strumarium 4.50 5.00 5.25 4.75 Total no. of weeds perm

40.5 2

36.9 37.5 40.25


Table 6. Efficiency of herbicides applied in soybean crop (average of two evaluations)

Efficiency of the studied herbicides flumioxazin 30 g ha-1


clomazone 360 g ha-1


x Kef x Kef x Kef x Amaranthus retroflexus - 100 - 100 0.7 82.3 4.2 Chenopodium album 0.75 83.3 0.5 88.8 - 100 4.5 Datura stramonium - 100 - 100 1.0 81.8 5.5 Euphorbia cyparissias - 100 - 100 - 100 3.2 Hibiscus trionum 0.50 90.4 0.2 95.2 0.5 90.4 5.2 Polygonum persicaria 0.25 94.4 - 100 0.7 83.3 4.5 Solanum nigrum - 100 - 100 0.2 94.7 4.7 Stachys annua - 100 - 100 - 100 3.0 Xanthium strumarium 0.75 83.3 0.5 88.8 0.5 88.8 4.5 Total no. of weeds per m2 2.25 1.25 3.7 39.5 Total efficiency (Kef%) 94.3 96.8 90.5 -

Discussion

During the two-year study, herbicide flumioxazin in soybean, sunflower and maize crops applied after shooting of crops and weeds showed high efficiency to the present broad-leaved weed species. Herbicide flumioxazin showed good efficiency at both of the applied rates to the weed species Amaranthus retroflexus, Amaranthus blitoides, Chenopodium hybridum, Euphorbia cyparissias, Datura stramonium, Hibiscus trionum, Polygonum persicaria, Solanum nigrum and Stachys annua. It showed good efficiency to weed species Polygonum convolvulus and Xanthium strumarium applied at higher rate of 40 g ha-1 only. For the weed species Chenopodium album, satisfactory efficiency was determined for the both of the applied rates. In soybean, maize and sunflower crops there were no signs of phytotoxicity. Herbicide flumioxazin shows extremely good efficiency in subsequent times of application, i.e. in maize in the phase of 4-5 leaves, in suflower in the phase of 4 leaves and in soybean crop in the phase of the developed third trifoliate leaf, without any sings of phytotoxicity. Simultaneously, it shows high efficiency to weed species used after the phase of 4 developed leaves of dicotiledoneas weeds.

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References GREY, TL., BRIDGES, DC., EASTIN, EF., MACDONALD, GE. (2002): Influence of

flumioxazin rate and herbicide combinations on weed control in peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) Peanut Sciences 29: 24-29.

JUCAI, H.,HUIPING, L., PINGYI, G., CI, H. (2002): Weed control in summer-sown soybean with flumioxazin plus acetochlor and flumiclorac-pentyl plus clethodim. Weed Biology Management, Vol.2, pp 120-126.

KONSTANTINOVIĆ,B. (1999): Poznavanje i suzbijanje korova. Poljoprivredni fakultet, Novi Sad.

KONSTANTINOVIĆ,B., STOJANOVIĆ, SLOBODANKA, MESELDŽIJA, MAJA, (2005): Biologija, ekologija i suzbijanje korova. Poljoprivredni fakultet, Novi Sad.

MITIĆ,N. 2004: Pesticidi u poljoprivredi i šumarstvu u Jugoslaviji. Društvo za zaštitu bilja Srbije. Beograd.

NIEKAMP, JW., JOHNSON, WG. (2001): Weed management with sulfentrazone and flumioxazin in no-tillage soybean (Glycine max). Crop Protection 20: 215-220.

OEPP. (1998): Guideline for the efficacy evaluation of herbicides (Weeds in maize), OEPP/EPPO Standards for the efficacy evaluation of plant protection products, Herbicides and Plant Growth Regulators, Vol.4,6-10.

OEPP. (1998): Guideline for the efficacy evaluation of herbicides (Weeds in sunflower), OEPP/EPPO Standards for the efficacy evaluation of plant protection products, Herbicides and Plant Growth Regulators, Vol.4,30-34.

OEPP. (1998): Guideline for the efficacy evaluation of herbicides (Weeds in forage legumes), OEPP/EPPO Standards for the efficacy evaluation of plant protection products, Herbicides and Plant Growth Regulators, Vol.4,42-46.

OEPP. (1999): Guideline for the efficacy evaluation of plant protection products, Phytotoxicity assessment, Introduction, General and Miscellaneous Guidelines, New and Revised Gudeilines, Vol.1,31-36.

TOMLIN CDS, (2003): The pesticide manual, 13th edn, British Crop Protection Council, Farnham, Surrey, UK.

WEED SCIENCE SOCIETY OF AMERICA (WSSA). (2002): Herbicide handbook, 8th ed, Weed Science Society of America, Lawrence, KS, pp 1999-201.


TESTING OF EFFICACY OF SOME HERBICIDES COMBINATIONS IN MAIZE

Divna Marić

Agricultural Station, Kovin, Serbia [email protected]

Abstract

The efficacy of herbicides and their combinations in maize under the environmental conditions of southern Banat (Serbia) was examined during 2005 and 2006. The applied herbicides and their combinations showed satisfactory or high efficacy in reducing the number of weed species, number of plants and weed mass per unit of area. The highest efficacy was achieved by the herbicides combinations nicolufuron+dicamba (Nikosulfuron 60 SC + Banvel 480) in 2005 as well as rimsulfuron+mesotrione (Tarot 25 WG + Callisto) in 2006. Depressive effects on the crop plants were not noticed, except the ephemeral change of the maize colour after the herbicide izoxaflutole application. In all variants of herbicides application, the achieved yields were on the level of the control plots. High effects of herbicides on weeds enabled high crop yield without inter-row tillage during the growing season.. Keywords: corn, herbicides, weeds

Introduction

A great number of weeds with different life cycles and trait grow in the maize crop. Weed control in maize in Serbia is mainly performed by herbicides application; besides the intensive and timely performed cropping practices, herbicides are widely used in the maize crops weed control (Šinžar et al., 1998; Videnović & Stefanović, 1994; Chisaka, 1977)). In the near future, the use of herbicides is expected to remain an indispensable part of an integrated system of crop production.

The choice of herbicides in maize is done individually for each plot according to the most harmful weeds. Because of that, it is useful to know by which herbicide particular weed species could be controlled. Long-term use of the same herbicides brought about the expansion of some species, especially Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. At the same time some resistant broad-leaved


Divna Marić

species appeared and spread (Konstantinović, 1999,). Among them, of great importance are perennial weeds, as well as the species from the Poacae family that are especially present in the row crop. The herbicide sulfonylurea enabled their post-emergence control. Sulfonilurea herbicides are featured by low quantity application, excellent crop resistance and low toxic effects on mammals ( Ray, 1985; Janjić, 2002).

The aim of this investigation was testing and selecting herbicides and their combinations for weed control in maize under the environmental conditions of southern Banat (Serbia). These study included the efficacy and spectrum of herbicides action as well as their effects on the grown crop.


Two-year field experiments were carried out at the experimental field

of the Agricultural Station of Kovin (Serbia), on the chernozem soil type. Weather conditions during the experiments are given in the Table 1. Maize was sown at optimal time by a pneumatic six-row corn planter. The experiment involved fifteen variants of the herbicides application in 2005, twelve variants in 2006 plus the control, all in four replications. The size of the basic plots was 25 m2. Pre-emergence herbicides were applied after the sowing, while the post-emergence ones was done when the crop was in the phase of 3-5 leaves. Quantities of the products and the phase of maize development at the time of application are shown in Tables 2 and 3. Herbicides application was carried out by a knapsack-type sprayer with the fanlike jet. Water consumption in all treatments was 400 l/ha.

The herbicides efficacy was evaluated twenty eighth days after their application by counting the total number of weed plants per 1 m2. Experiments also included the control variant without herbicide application. Herbicides efficacy on the maize plants was evaluated visually. The preceding crop at the experimental plot in both years was sunflower. Table 1. Meteorological conditions during the experiment

Amount of rainfall (mm) Air temperature (0C) Month 2005 2006 2005 2006 April 66 96 11.0 13.3 May 49 49 15.4 17.5 June 78 131 19.1 20.5 July 98 12 22.5 24.7 August 141 114 20.8 21.5

68

Testing of efficacy of some herbicides combinations in maize

69

Table 2. Variants of herbicides in 2005 Rate per ha Vari

ants Herbicide applied Product

a.i. g product kg, l Timing

1 S-metolachlor (Syngenta) Dual gold 960-EC 960 1.4 PE* 2 dimetenamid –P (BASF) +

atrazine (Galenika) Frontier super + Atrazin 50 SC

720 500

1.2+ 1.5

PE

3 izoxaflutol (Bayer Crop Science)

Merlin 75 WG 750 0.135 PE

4 atrazine ( Galenika) Atrazin 50 SC 500 2.0 PE 5 acetochlor (Galenika) Acetogal 900 2.0 PE 6 2-ethyl hexyl ester 2.4-D

(Nufarm) Lentemul– D 678 0.6 POE*

7 dicamba (RD care) Record 422.63 0.5 POE 8 rimsulfuron (DuPont) Tarot 25 WG 250 0.05 POE 9 rimsulfuron (DuPont) +

mesotrione ((Syngenta) Tarot 25 WG + Callisto

250 480

0.05 + 0.25 POE

10 dicamba (Syngenta) Banvel 480 480 0.5 POE 11 nicosulfuron (DuPont) Motivell 40 1.0 POE 12 rimsulfuron (DuPont)+

dicamba (Syngenta) Tarot 25 WG + Banvel 480

250 480

0.05 + 0.5

POE

13 dicamba (CNCCJC) Bevecamba 480 0.5 POE

14 atrazine (Galenika) + rimsulfuron (DuPont)

Atrazin + Tarot 25 WG

500 250

1 + 0.05

POE

15 nicosulfuron (BASF) Nikosulfuron 60 SC

60 0.75 POE

16 nicosulfuron (BASF) + dicamba (Syngenta)

Nikosulfuron 60 SC + Banvel 480

60 480

0.5+ 0.5

POE

17 Control variant PE*- pre-emergence POE*- post-emergence of crops and weeds Table 3. Variants of herbicides in 2006

Rate per ha Vari-ant

Herbicides applied Product

a.i. g product kg, l

Tim-ing

acetochlor (Delta-M) + atrazine (Galenika)

Deltacet plus + Primazin 50SC

800 500

2 + 1.0

PE*

1 2-ethyl hexyl ester 2.4-D (Nufarm)

Lentemul D

678

0.7

POE*

acetochlor (Delta-M) Deltacet plus 800 1.8 PE

2 2-ethyl hexyl ester 2.4-D (Nufarm) + atrazine (Stockton Chemical Corp.)

Lentemul D + Primazin 50 SC

678 500

0.8+ 1

POE

3 acetochlor (Delta-M) Deltacet plus 800 2.2 PE

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dicamba (Syngenta) Banvel 480 480 0.6 POE acetochlor (Delta-M) Deltacet plus 800 2

4 Dicamba (Syngenta)+ bentazon (Delta-M)

Banvel 480 + Deltazon

480 480

0.4+ 1.4

POE

acetochlor (Delta-M) Deltacet plus 800 2.0 PE 5 dicamba (Syngenta) +

atrazine (Galenika) Banvel 480 + Primazin 50SC

480 500

0.5+ 1.0

POE

6 Rimsulfuron + thifensulfuron methyl (DuPont)+ atrazine (Galenika)

Grid 75 WG + Atrazin 50SC

500 250 500

0.025+ 1

POE

7

Rimsulfuron +thifensulfuron methyl (Dupont) + mesotrione (Syngenta)

Grid 75 WG + Callisto

500 250 480

0.025+ 0.2

POE

8 rimsulfuron (DuPont) + prosulfuron (Syngenta)

Tarot 25 WG + Peak 75 wg

250 750

0.03 + 0.02

POE

9 rimsulfuron (DuPont) Tarot 25 WG 250 0.03+

0.03 POE

10

S-metolahlor + terbutilazin +mesotrione (Syngenta) + rimsulfuron (DuPont)

Lumax Tarot 25 WG

375+125+ 37.5+250

3.5+ 0.05

POE

11 rimsulfuron (DuPont)+ mesotrione (Syngenta)

Tarot 25 WG + Callisto

250 480

0.05+ 0.25

POE

12

nikosulfuron (BASF) + florasulam +2-ethyl hexyl ester 2,4–D (Dow)

Motivell + Mustang

40+ 6.25+ 300

0.5+0.5 POE

13 Control variant PE*-herbicide applied pre-emergence POE*-herbicide applied post-emergence of crops and weeds


Analyzing the achieved results of the efficacy of applied herbicides and their combinations, it can be stated that all products showed from satisfactory to high effectiveness. This was achieved by reducing the number of weed species and plants, as well the weed mass per unit of area.

Weed community in maize on the experimental field is made of the species characteristic for broad-row crops. Among them, the most numerous are annual broad-leaved plants. However, as the number of them is concerned, in 2006, the most numerous were Abutilon theophrasti, Sorghum halepense, Setaria viridis, and Chenopodium album. In 2005, the most numerous weed

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species were Abutilon theophrasti, Xanthium strumarium, and Erigeron Canadensis.

Herbicides significantly reduced the number of weed species (Tables 4 and 5). Precipitation amount, at the time of sowing and maize emergence, as can be seen in the Table, can be considered satisfactory for weed emergence and for high herbicide effect . The obtained results in 2005 showed that the greatest weed control was obtained with the combination Nikosulfuron 60 SC + Banvel 480 (nicosulfuron + dicamba), by then Tarot 25 WG + Callisto (rimsulfuron+mesothrione), Tarot 25 WG + Banvel 480 and Atrazin + Tarot 25 WG with the combinations of sulfonillurea and herbicides with broad-leaved spectrum effect. Other herbicides and their combinations also showed good efficacy according to the spectrum effect on the present weeds.

In 2006, best results were achieved by the combination Tarot 25 WG + Callisto (rimsulfuron +mesothrione), then by Tarot 25 WG + Lumax (S-metolahlor + terbuthylazine +mesotrione + rimsulfuron), Motivell + Mustang (nicosufuron + 2ethyl-hexyl ester 2,4-D). By analyzing the efficacy of the herbicides and their combinations it can be concluded that they showed a satisfactory to high efficacy (Tables 4 and 5). The coefficient of efficacy was from 73 with the combination number I to 95% with the combination XI.

The obtained results in 2005 also showed satisfactory to high efficacy of the applied herbicides and their combinations. The coefficients of efficacy were from 71 with the combination Dual gold (S-metolachlor) to 98% with the combination Nikosulfuron 60 SC + Banvel 480 (nicosulfuron +dicamba). It is evident that, by reducing the number of weed plants, the weed mass per a unit of area was also reduced. The greatest efficacy, regarding the reduction of weed species number and their plants, was achieved with post-emergence treatments.

There was no difference in corn growth height and habit in all applied variants, The tested herbicides and their combinations did not have a negative effect on crop plants. The herbicide izoxaflutole showed a great efficacy on the weed flora, but is also it affected the maize crop during the first phases of growth changing its colour (white leaves). Later, this white colour disappeared without decreasing maize growth and yield. Soil-applied herbicides showed good effect, but not good enough on weed plants. Maize in the control variant (without herbicides), had weaker growth and smaller height because of weed competition. It was shown that high maize yields can be achieved with reduced cropping practices wen herbicides are applied, especially those from the sulfonil uree group which have wide spectrum of effect on weeds in combination with herbicides with the main effect on the broad-leaved weed species.

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Table 4. Efficiency of herbicides in 2005 Variants Number of weeds/m2Weed

species 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 1Abutilon theophrasti 0 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.2 0 0 0.2 0 0 0.2 0 0 0 4

Ambrosia artemisiifolia 0.2 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.5 0 0.2 0 2

Amaranthus retroflexus 0 0.2 0 1 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0 2

Cirsium arvense 1 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0 0 1

Chenopodium album 0.5 0.2 0 0.5 0.2 0.5 0 0.2 0.2 0.2 0 0 0.5 0.5 0,2 0.2 2

Convolvulus arvensis 2.2 1.2 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0 0 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.2 0

Datura stramonium 0 0.5 0 0.5 0.2 0.5 0.2 0 0.2 0 0 0 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.2 1

Erigeron canadensis 0.2 0.5 0 0.5 0 0 1 0.2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0.2 0 1

Hibiscus trionum 0 0 0 0 0.2 0.2 0 0 0 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 3

Matricaria chamomilla 1.2 0 0.5 0 0.5 0.5 0 0.5 0 0.5 0.2 0 0.5 0 0.5 0 3

Miosotus arvensis 0.5 0.2 0 0.5 0.2 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 2

Polygonum persicaria 2 2 0.5 1.2 2 1.5 0 0.5 0 0.5 0 0 0.5 0 0.5 0 3

Rorippa sylvestris 0.2 0.2 0 0 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2

Setaria. verticiliata 1.2 1.5 1.2 0.7 0.7 0.7 1.2 1.2 0.2 1.5 1.2 0.2 1.5 0 0.2 0.2 2

Sorghum halepense 1 1 1.2 1.2 1 0 2.2 1.2 0.2 2.2 1.2 0.2 2.2 0 0.2 0 2

Sonchus arvensis 0 0 0 0 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4

Veronica persica 0.2 0.2 0 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

Xanhtium strumarium 2 0.2 0.2 1.5 1.5 1 0.2 0 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.5 0 0 0 0 4

Total weeds/m2 12 8.8 4.8 9 9.5 7.3 6.3 4.7 1.4 5.9 3.4 2 8.3 1.9 2.6 0.8 4

HE*, % 71 79 89 79 78 83 85 89 97 86 92 95 80 95 93 98 HE*- herbicidal efficacy Table 5. Efficiency of herbicides in 2006

V a r i a n t s Number of weds/m2Weed species 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Abutilon theophrasti 2 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.5 1.5 0.2 0.7 0 0 0.2 13 Ambrosia artemisiifolia

2 0.5 1.5 1.5 1 1.2 0.7 1 0.7 0 0.5 0.5 6

Amaranthus retroflexus

2 1.7 0.5 0.5 1.2 1 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.2 4.7

Cirsium arvense 1.5 0 0 0.2 1 0.5 1.5 0.5 0 0.5 0.5 0 3.2 Chenopodium album 1.5 1 1 0 0.5 0.5 0 0 0 0.2 0.7 0.2 7.0

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Chenopodium hybridum

0 1.2 0.5 0 1.7 0 0 0 0.5 0 0 0 4.2

Convolvulus arvensis 1.2 2 0.7 0.5 1.7 0.7 1.7 1.2 2.2 0.5 0.2 0.2 6.5 Datura stramonium 0 0 0 0.2 0.2 0 0 0.2 0 0 0 0 5.2 Echinochloa crus- galli

4.7 4.2 5.7 4.7 4.0 2.2 0.7 0.2 3.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 6.7

Galium aparine 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0.7 0 0 0 1.5 Sinapis arvensis 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.7 Solanum nigrum 1.7 0.7 0 0.2 0 0.2 4.7 0.7 0.5 4.7 1.0 4 7.2 Sorghum halepense 0.5 4 4.0 4.2 2.7 1.7 0.2 1.2 5.0 0 0.2 0.5 10 Setaria verticiliata 3.7 4.2 5.2 2.2 2.7 2.0 0.5 1.2 3.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 9.5 Xanthium strumarium

1.7 1.2 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.5 0 0 0.2 5.5

Polygonum aviculare 0 0 0 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.7 Polygonum persicaria

4 2 1.7 2.2 1.5 0.7 1.5 1.2 2 0 0.5 0 4.2

Total number of weeds per 1 m2

26.5

23.9

23.3

18.6

20.4

12.9

15.2

8.8 19.9

6.8 4.5 6.4 98

HE* , % 73 76 78 76 77 80 84 91 79 94 95 93 HE*- herbicidal efficacy Table 6. Coefficients of efficacy of herbicides, two-year average

Herbicides applied Coefficient of efficacy %

S-metolachlor (Syngenta) 71 dimetenamid – P (BASF) +atrazine (Galenika) 79 izoxaflutol (Bayer Crop Science) 89 atrazine ( Galenika) 79 acetochlor (Galenika) 78 2-ethyl hexyl ester 2.4-D (Nufarm) 83 dicamba (RD care) 85 rimsulfuron (DuPont) 89 rimsulfuron (DuPont) + mesotrione ((Syngenta) 97 dicamba (Syngenta) 86 nicosulfuron (DuPont) 92 rimsulfuron (DuPont)+ dicamba (Syngenta) 95 dicamba (CNCCJC) 80 atrazine (Galenika) + rimsulfuron (DuPont) 96 nicosulfuron (BASF) 94 nicosulfuron (BASF) + dicamba (Syngenta) 98 acetochlor (Delta-M) + atrazine (Galenika) 2-ethyl hexyl ester 2.4-D (Nufarm)

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acetochlor (Delta-M) 2-ethyl hexyl ester 2.4-D (Nufarm) + atrazine (Stockton Chemical Corp.) 76

acetochlor (Delta-M) 78

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dicamba (Syngenta) acetochlor (Delta-M) dicamba (Syngenta)+ bentazon (Delta-M) 76

acetochlor (Delta-M) dicamba (Syngenta) +atrazine (Galenika)

77

Rimsulfuron +thifensulfuron methyl (DuPont)+ atrazine (Galenika) 80 Rimsulfuron +thifensulfuron methyl (Dupont) +mesotrione (Syngenta) 84 rimsulfuron (DuPont) + prosulfuron (Syngenta) 91 rimsulfuron (DuPont) 79 S-metolahlor + terbutilazin +mesotrione (Syngenta) + rimsulfuron (DuPont) 94 rimsulfuron (DuPont)+mesotrione (Syngenta) 95 nikosulfuron (BASF) + florasulam +2-ethyl hexyl ester 2,4–D (Dow) 93 Coefficient of efficacy % 85

Conclusion

Two-year field experiments showed that pre-emergence and post-

emergence herbicides and their combinations had satisfactory to high efficacy on wide spectrum of weed species. The highest efficacy was obtained by izoxaflutole applied after maize sowing and post-emergence nicosulfuron and rimsulfuron in combinations with herbicides for broad-leaved weeds. Other herbicide combinations showed various efficacy.

References CHISAKA, H. (1977): Weed damage to crops: yield loss due to weed competition. In:

Integrated Contol of Weeds (eds J.D.Fryer & H. Matsunaka). University of Tokyo press, Tokyo, 1-16

JANJIĆ, V. (2002): Sulfoniluree. Institut za istraživanja u poljoprivredi Srbija i Akademija nauka i umjetnosti Republike Srpske, Beograd, 1-89.

KONSTANTINOVIĆ, B. (1999): Poznavanje i suzbijanje korova. Univerzitet u Novom Sadu, Poljoprivredni fakultet, Novi Sad, 175-191

RAY, T. B. (1985 ): The site of action of sulfonylurea herbicides. PROCEDINGS FROM BRITISH CROP PROTECTION CONFERENCE-WEEDS, BRIGHTON, BCPC PUBLICATIONS 1, 131- 138,.

ŠINŽAR, B., STEFANOVIĆ, L., STANOJEVIĆ, M. (1998): Promene korovske flore i vegetacije kukuruza pri višegodišnjoj primeni herbicida. Pesticidi, vol.13,No 2, Beograd, str. 119-130.

VIDENOVIC, Ž., STEFANOVIĆ, L. (1994): Uticaj mera gajenja na pojavu korova u kukuruzu. Savremena poljoprivvreda Vol.42,3,97-105.

74


INVESTIGATION OF EFFICACY OF SOME HERBICIDES COMBINATIONS IN SOYBEAN

Divna Marić

Agricultural Station, Kovin, Serbia [email protected]

Abstract

The efficacy of herbicides and their combinations in soybean under the enviromental conditions of southern Banat (Serbia) was examined during 2005 and 2006. The tested herbicides and their combinations showed some differences in efficacy of weeds control by reducing the number of species, number of weed plants and weed mass per unit of area. The highest efficacy in weeds control was achieved by the herbicides combination oxasulfuron + imazethapyr + thifensulfuron methyl (Dynam 75 WG + Pivot 100 + Harmony 75 WG) in 2005. The same combination showed a great degree of efficacy in 2006 too. Keywords: soybean, herbicides, weeds

Introduction

Since recently, soybean takes a significant place among the field crops. In the area of southern Banat, it has been sowing on 12-15% of the total arable land. As a broad-row crop, soybean suffers significant reduction of its yield because of weeds. It is found that the soybean yield is reduced from 24 to 30% with the late weed elimination. However, the application of herbicides gives satisfactory results, which, in practice, has the priority over the mechanical measures (Konstantinović et al., 1994; Foloni and Christoffoleti, 1999). Weeds also make the soybean harvest more difficult and reduce the quality of grain. So herbicide application becomes a neccessary measure in weed control (Stanković et al., 2004). The choice of herbicides according to the composition of the weed community is of primary importance, regarding the different efficacy of herbicides on particular weed species. Another characteristic of herbicides application may be their depressive effect on soybean. Having considered these both moments in herbicides selection, the requirements of herbicides efficacy and selectivity must be satisfied. Conventional herbicide method required application of two or more different herbicides. In addition, conventional herbicide programme is tightly connected with crop and weed


Divna Marić

growth stages as well as with ecological conditions (weather and soil). Taking into consideration all these factors, possibility of potential crop injury is high (Hanson et al., 2002)

Not long ago, there were a small number of herbicides that could satisfactory solve the problem of the economically significant weed species in this crop. Today, there are products that can, alone or in combinations, control important weed species in soybean, such as Xanthium strumarium, Datura stramonium, Cirsium atvense, Solanum nigrum.

The aim of this study is finding out the integral system of weed control in soybean. In that aim, herbicides efficacy in soybean was tested. The main object of the work was to find out the degree of efficacy and spectrum of the effect of some mostly used herbicides in soybean.


Two-year field experiments were carried out at the experimental field of the Agricultural Station in Kovin (Serbia), on the marshy blask soil type. Weather conditions during the experiment are given in the Table 1. The experiment involved eight variants of the herbicides applied in 2005 and 2006. Data on the variants of herbicides and their quantity are given in Tables 2 and 3. Cropping practices, including fertilizing and sowing were done in a suitable way for this crop. The results of the efficacy of herbicides are given in Tables 4 and 5. The experiment was carried out on the basic plots of 25 m2 in four replications. Herbicides were applied by a knapsack-type sprayer with the fanlike jet. Water consumption in all treatments was 300 l/ha.

The herbicides efficacy was evaluated twenty eighth days after their application by couting the number of weed plants per 1 m2. Experiments also included the control variant without herbicide application. The preceding crop at the experimental plot in both years was maize.

Table 1. Weather conditions during the experiment Amount of rainfall

(mm) Air temperature (0C)

Month 2005 2006 2005 2006

April 66 96 11 13.3 May 49 49 15.4 17.5 June 78 131 19.1 20.5 July 98 12 22.5 24.7

August 141 114 20.8 21.5

76

Investigation of efficacy of some herbicides combinations in soybean

77

Table 2. Variants of herbicides in 2005 Rate per ha Vari

ant Herbicides applied Trade name a. i. g product kg, l

Timing

1 bentazon (BASF) Basagran 480 4 POE 2 imazethapyr (BASF) Pivot 100 100 1 POE 3 imazamox (BaSF) Pulsar 40 40 1 POE 4 oxasulfuron (Syngenta )+

imazethapyr (BASF) Dynam 75WG + Pivot 100

750+ 100

0.05+ 0.4

POE

5 oxasulfuron (Syngenta) + imazamox (BASF)

Dynam 75WG + Pulsar 40

750+ 40

0.05+ 0.4

POE

6 imazamox (BASF) + bentazon (BASF)

Pulsar 40 + Basagran

750+ 480

0.05+ 2

POE

7 oxasulfuron (Syngenta) + imazethapyr (BASF) + thifensulfuron methyl (DuPont)

Dynam 75WG + Pivot 100 + Harmony 75WG

750+ 100+ 750

0.05+ 0.04+ 0.008

POE

8 oxasulfuron (Syngenta )+ imazamox (BASF) +

thifensulfuron methyl (DuPont)

Dynam 75 WG + Pulsar 40 + Harmony 75 WG

750+ 40+ 750

0.05+ 0.04+ 0.008

POE

9 Control variant Table 3. Variants of herbicides in 2006

Rate per ha Variant Herbicides applied Trade name

a. i. g product kg,l Timing

1 imazethapyr (BASF) Pivot 100 100 1 POE 2 bentazon (BASF) Basagran 480 4 POE 3 oxasulfuron (Syngenta) +

imazethapyr (BASF) Dynam 75 WG+ Pivot 100

750+ 100

0.05+ 0.4

POE

4 imazethapyr (BASF) + bentazon (BASF)

Pivot 100 + Basagran

100+ 480

0.4+ 2

POE

5 oxasulfuron (BASF )+ imazamox (BASF)

Dynam 75 WG + Pulsar 40

750+ 40

0.05+ 0.4

POE

6 oxasulfuron (Syngenta) + imazethapyr (BASF)+ thifensulfuron methyl (DuPont)

Dynam 75WG+ Pivot 100+ Harmony 75 WG

750+ 100+ 750

0.05+ 0.04+ 0.008

POE

7 imazamox (PASF)+ Pulsar 40 + 40+ 0.4+ POE

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bentazon (BASF) Basagran 480 2 8 imazamox (BASF) Pulsar 40 40 0.7 POE 9 Control variant


Analysing the achieved results of the efficacy of applied herbicides and their combinations, it can be stated that all products showed from satisfactory to high effectiveness. This was achieved by reducing the number of weed species and plants, as well the mass per unit of area.

By the two-year analysis of the weed infestation, it can be stated that the weed community in soybean wss composed mostly of annual broad-leaved plants. Precipitation amount, as can be seen in the Table, can be considered satisfactory for weed emergence and high herbicide effect. During 2005 there were nineteen and in 2006 twenty weed species. As the number of plants is concerned, the most numerous were: Chenopodium album, Datura stramonium, Amaranthus retroflexu,s and Xanthium strumarium. Of the grassy weed species the following were present: Sorghum halepense, Setaria viridis and Echinochloa crus-galli.

The results in 2005 showed that the greatest weed control was obtained with the oxasulfuron + imazethapyr + thifensulfuron methyl (Dynam 75 WG + Pivot 100 + Harmony 75 WG), then by oxasulfuron + imazamox + thifensulfuron methyl (Dynam 75 WG + Pulsar 40 + Harmony 75 WG).

By analyzing the efficacy of the herbicides and their combinations it can be concluded that they showed a satisfatory to high efficacy. The coefficients of efficacy was from 77% in the variant Basagran (bentazon) with combination Dynam 75 WG + Pivot 100 + Harmony 75WG (oxasulfuron+imazethapyr+thifensulfuron methyl) to 97%.

In 2006, best results were achieved by the combination oxasulfuron + imazethapyr + thifensulfuron methyl (Dynam 75 WG + Pivot 100 + Harmony 75 WG), then by oxasulfuron + imazamox (Dynam 75 WG + Pulsar 40). The coefficients of efficacy were from 66 with the combination Basgran (bentazon) to 95% with the combination Dynam + Pivot+ Harmony (oxasulfuron + imazethapyr + thifensulfuron methyl). It is evident that, by reducing the number of weed plants, the weed mass per unit of area was also reduced. Application of the mentioned herbicides combination eliminated 16 weed species in 2005 and 13 species in 2006.

The applied herbicide variants have shown a good efficacy on annual broad-leaved species.

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Table 4. Efficiency of herbicides in 2005 Variants Weeds/m2

Weed species 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Abutilon theophrasti 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.2 Adonis aestivalis 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.5 Ambrosia artemisiifolia 0.2 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.5 Amaranthus retroflexus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.2 Chenopodium album 0.7 0.5 0 0.2 0 0.5 0 0 6.7 Capsella bursa-pastoris 1.2 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.2 Cirsium arvense 1 0.7 0 1.7 1.5 1.2 0.5 1 2 Convolvulus arvensis 1.5 1.2 2.2 1.7 1.7 1.2 0.5 1 2.7 Datura stramonium 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.7 Echinochloa crus-galli 3 0.2 0 0 0 0.5 0 0 3.7 Hibiscus trionum 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.7 Mentha arvensis 0.5 0.2 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 3.2 Polygonum persicaria 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.5 1 0 0 4.2 Polygonum lapathifolum 0.7 1 1 1 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 3.7 Solanum nigrum 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.7 Sonchus oleraceus 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.2 0 0 0 0 2.7 Sinapis arvensis 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 Sorghum halepense 4 2 0.5 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 Setaria viridis 4 0 3.7 0 0 0 0 0 4.2 Xanthium strumarium 1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0 0.5 0 0 5.2 Total weeds 20 7.7 8.5 6.2 4.9 6.6 2.7 3.7 85 Efficacy of herbicides % 77 91 90 81 93 92 97 96

Table 4. Efficiency of herbicides in 2006

Variants Weeds/m2Weed species 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Abutilon theophrasti 1 1 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 3.2 Ambrosia artemisiifolia 1.2 0.5 0.7 0 0.2 0 0 0 5.2 Amaranthus retroflexus 1.2 0 0.2 0 0 0 0 0.5 5.2 Adonis aestivalis 0 0 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 2 Chenopodium album 0.5 0.7 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 4.2 Capsela bursa-pastoris 0.2 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.2 Cirsium arvense 1.2 2 1.2 2 1.2 0.7 0 2.2 1.2 Convolvulus arvensis 1.5 2.2 0.7 2 0.7 0.5 0.7 2.2 4.5

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Datura stramonium 0.5 2.5 0 0 0.5 0 0 0 7.2 Echinochloa crus -galli 1 0.7 0 0 0 0 0 2 0.2 Hibiscus trionum 0 0.2 0.5 0 0.5 0 0 0 2.5 Mentha arvensis 1.2 1.5 0.7 0.5 0 0 0.2 0 2.2 Polygonum persicaria 1 1.7 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.5 3.7 Solanum nigrum 0.5 0.5 0 0.2 0 0 0 0 2.7 Sonchus oleraceus 1 1.2 0.2 0.2 0 0.2 0.5 0.7 0.5 Sinapis arvensis 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.7 Sorghum halepense 4.2 3 1.7 2 1.7 1.2 0.5 2 4.5 Setaria viridis 0.5 2 0.5 0 0 0 3.7 2.2 5.2 Xanthium strumarium 2.2 1.7 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.2 1.2 4.5 Total weeds per 1 m2 18.9 21.9 7.8 8.4 5.8 3 6 13.5 64.6 EH * % 71 66 88 87 91 95 91 79 EH*-herbicidal efficacy Table 6. Coefficients of efficacy, two-year average

Herbicides applied Coefficient of efficacy %

bentazon (BASF) 71 imazethapyr (BASF) 81 imazamox (BaSF) 84 oxasulfuron (Syngenta ) + imazethapyr (BASF) 84 oxasulfuron (Syngenta) + imazamox (BASF) 92 imazamox (BASF) + bentazon (BASF) 91 imazethapyr (BASF) +bentazon (BASF) 87 oxasulfuron (Syngenta) + imazethapyr (BASF) + thifensulfuron methyl (DuPont) 96 oxasulfuron (Syngenta ) + imazamox (BASF) +thifensulfuron methyl (DuPont) 96

Conclusion

Two-year field experiments showed that post-emergence herbicides

and their combinations had satisfactory to high efficacy on wide spectrum of weed species. The highest efficacy was obtained by oxasulfuron + imazethapyr + thifensulfuron methyl applied post-emergence. Other herbicide variants showed various efficacy.

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References

CHRISTOFFOLETI, P, J., FOLONI,I,L. (1999): Chemical weed control in soybeans in Brazil using new herbicides and mixtures, proceedings Brighton Crop Conference-weeds, 315-318

HANSON, D.E., BALL,D.A.,MALLORY-SMITH, C.A. (2002): Herbicide Resistance in Jointed Goat

grass (Aegilops cylindrical): simulated responses to Agronomic Practices. Weed Technology, 16,1: 156-163

JOHNSTON, G.B., WEBB, F.J. (1986): Evaluation of several new herbicides for Broadleaf Weed control in Soybeans. Proc.40 the annual meeting of the North- eastern Weed Science Society pp.63.

KONSTANTINOVIĆ, B. (1999): Poznavanje i suzbijanje korova. Univerzitet u Novom Sadu, Poljoprivredni fakultet, Novi Sad, 198-208

KONSTATINOVIĆ, B.. VIDIĆ, M., GOVEDARICA, M. (1994): Suzbijanje korova u soji upotrebom herbicida u različitim rokovima primene. Zbornik radova. Poljoprivredni fakultet Univerziteta u Novom Sadu, Institut za ratarstvo i povrtarstvo, Novi Sad, sveska 22, str. 251-258.

KONSTANTINOVIĆ, B., MESELDžIJA, M. (2001): Korovi u okopavinama i suzbijanje primenom herbicida. Biljni lekar 2, str.125-131.

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THE SYNTAXONOMY OF WEED VEGETATION AT THE CONTINENTAL DINARIC ALPS (W. BALKAN)

Sulejman Redžić

Centre of Ecology and Natural Resources of the Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo, 71 000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina; Tel./fax: +387. 33 649 196;

E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected]

Abstract

The study area is located between 43° 30' and 44° 30' N and 17° 30' and 19° E. It covers geographic region that belongs to the Continental Dinaric Alps (Mt. Vlašić, Mt. Zvijezda and Mt. Ozren near Sarajevo). A high level of weed vegetation diversity was determined using modified method of the Zürich-Montpellier school. From syntaxonomical standpoint, weed vegetation in this area is organized in 6 classes, 10 orders, 14 alliances and 37 associations. Main reasons for high both vegetation and syntaxonomic diversity are geographical and ecological position of the continental Dinaric Alps, their direction, as well as diversity of bedrock type, soil types, water regime of the stands, and a very high level of floristic diversity of climatic vegetation.

In terms of ecology, weed vegetation is being differentiated in five types: Weed vegetation on gley and trampled soils of the mountainous and upland belt; Weed vegetation on humid and trampled soil of peripannonian and mountainous belt; Weed vegetation on humid and nitrified soil of peripannonian and mountainous belt; Weed vegetation on moderately humid and moderately nitrified soil of stubbles; Weed vegetation on moderately humid and moderately nitrified soil of arable crops. The most important weed communities of the entire biodiversity of Continental Dinaric Alps are Associations of the classes of Secalietea and Stellarietea mediae. Keywords: vegetation diversity, weed vegetation, phytocoenology, classification, vegetation science, habitat categorization, Bosnia and Herzegovina Nomenclature: Tutin et al. (1964-1980); Hayek (1927-1933)


Sulejman Redžić

Introduction

Investigations of the weed vegetation in Dinaric geographic regions

still have pronounced trend and the need, considering various aspects, such as classification, understanding of their structure and dynamics, and modern investigations of syntaxonomy (Oberdorfer, 1983; Mucina, 1993; Wilmanns, 1993; Ellenberg, 1996; Hovi, 1996; Haveman et al., 1998; Borhidi, 1996; Dessaint et al., 1997; Wezel, 2000; Chytry et al., 2002; Kobayashi et al., 2003; Lososova, 2003; Lososova et al., 2003; Aquilar et al. 2003; Romero et al., 2005). Particular attention has been paid to the modern synthetic investigations and syntaxonomical revision and objectification of certain types of weed vegetation, or vegetation complexes in both narrow and wider geographical regions (Kropač et al. 1971; Holzner, 1979; Krippelova & Mucina, 1988; Korotkov et al., 1991; Stevanović et al., 1995; Solomakha, 1996; Čarni et al., 2002; Lososova et al., 2004).

Particular attention in previous investigations in phytogeography and classification of weed vegetation has been paid to the western Balkan (Batinica et al., 1967-1979; Marković, 1979; Hulina, 1979; Topić, 1982; Horvat et al. 1974; Blečić & Lakušić, 1976; Jovanović et al. 1986; Pavlović, 1987; Pavlović-Muratspahić, 1995).

There were several attempts of phytogeographical differentiation and analysis of weed vegetation in previous phytocoenological investigations in the region of the western Balkan, and even the whole Balkan Peninsula (Horvat, 1960; 1962; Horvat et al., 1974; Kojić, 1975; Dizdarević et al., 1979; Lakušić et al., 1979; Kojić & Pejčinović, 1982 ; Šumatić, 1997; Kojić et al., 2005).

The results obtained through the investigation of weed vegetation play major role in terms of its prevention and development of sustainable agricultural practice, as well as in ecological based combat against dominant weed species and getting better insight in ecology of alien species and their rational management, furthermore it is obligatory part of biodiversity evaluation of certain area (Lososova et al., 2003; Lososova et al., 2004 ). Weed vegetation plays an important role in entire ecological and biological diversity of any area, that is why it has been payed special care and attention to it (Mucina, 1997; Čarni et al., 2002; Hulina, 2002; Rodwell et al., 2002; Šilc, 2005; Lososova et al., 2006; Redžić, 2006).

Many weed species are being threatened or extinct, representing true genes pool rarity both on the territory of the Dinaric Alps and entire Bosnia and Herzegovina. The species Agrostema githago that used to be quite common in

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The syntaxonomy of weed vegetation at the continental dinaric alps (W. Balkan)

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the past in our crops, today is extremely rare. It has been recorded lately in the crop fields of Secale cereale L. on the Glamocko polje. Similar situation relates to Ajuga chamaepitys, Legousia speculum-veneris, Legousia hybrida, Kickxia spuria, and some others. Therefore, it is very important to investigate syntaxonomy weed vegetation as a reliable indicator of ecological diversity in this area - the central part of the Continental Dinaric Alps, and particularly northern slopes of Mt. Vlašić, Mt. Zvijezda, and Mt. Ozren which is located north-eastern from the city of Sarajevo (Redžić et al., 2000, 2002). Main objectives of this paper are:

To carry out syntaxonomical classification of weed vegetation types on both vertical and horizontal profile on the mountains of continental Dinaric Alps (Mt. Vlašić, Mt. Zvijezda, and Mt. Ozren near Sarajevo) on the basis of previous investigations in the light of modern methodology of the Zürich-Montpellier school; To carry out syntaxonomic revision of complex and problematic weed vegetation types and certain syntaxa, and in the light of modern investigations and contemporary trends in the science of vegetation, as well as the needs for categorisation and classification of habitats and sustainable biodiversity management. . General characteristics of the investigated area

The study area is located between 43° 30' and 44° 30' N and 17° 30' and 19° E. Geology. The continental Dinaric Alps are heterogeneous, regarding geological and petrography characteristics.

Mesozoic limestone sediments play a dominant role in the whole region. In some parts, Paleocene sediments cover large areas, while in the hilly and mountain belt towards northern part of the region dominant role play Jurassic and Triassic sediments. Paleozoic sediments occur sporadically, as well as basic and ultra basic eruptives (Čičić et Panić, 1977). The largest part of the Balkans was not under the influence of the last glaciations, except for the peaks of the highest mountains. However, there are sporadic indirect glacial influences, e.g. at Mt. Vlašić (Katzer, 1926). Orography. The continental Dinaric Alps mountains have direction northwest - southeast. The region is intersected by numerous river valleys with a direction north - south. The vertical profile from the Adriatic sea towards the peaks in those mountains is to the highest peak on the Mt. Romanija 1654 m – Crvene

Sulejman Redžić

stijene, Mt. Vlašić, 1933 m – Opaljenik; Mt. Ozren 1454 m including Bukovik and Mt. Zvjezda. As a result there are clearly differentiated the following belts: hilly belt, mountain belt and sub alpine belt. Hydrology. The Vlašić-Ozren region has very scarce water resources, besides certain springs and smaller rivers in the foothills. Investigated area belongs to the two river basins: the largest part of Mt. Vlašić, to the river Vrbas basin; the Mt. Ozren, Mt. Zvijezda, and the eastern slopes of Mt. Vlašić, as well as the eastern slopes of Mt. Ozren to the river Drina basin. Ecoclimate. As regards the climate, the region is very heterogeneous and dynamic. Mean annual temperatures are (Lakušić 1975; 1981): Hilly region 11° - 8°C Mountainous belt 7° - 4°C Sub-alpine belt 3° - 0°C

The wind is most frequently from the southwest and this wind has also a strong influence on the formation of vegetation cover.

Ecoclimate is moderate-continental, with the strong influence of the continental climate from the north-east, and mountain climate from mountain peaks (Milosavljević, 1973). According to Gračanin (1950), cit. Redžić (1990), ecoclimate is moderate warm and moderate humid. There is no arid period even during summer season. Humidity is present throughout the year. Soil conditions. In this area soils are very heterogeneous. Different types of calcareous and silicates terrestrial soils are dominant ((Lakušić et al., 1982; Redžić, 1990; Redžić et al., 2000; 2002). During the long past time natural soils have been much changed by human activity. Now, dominate anthropogenic soils, mostly different kind of hortisols with variable of deepness and profile. Phytogeography. Considering phytogeography, investigated area belongs to two regions: Eurosiberian-Boreamerican with Moesian and Illyrian province, and Alpine-High-Nordic region with High-dinaric province (Adamović, 1907; Lakušić, 1969).

Moesian province is distinguishes presence of climatogenous vegetation of thermophile forests from association Quercetum farnetto-cerris in hilly belt, forests of sessile and Turkey oak Quercetum petraeae-cerris in the upper part of hilly belt, and acidophilus forests of sessile oak Quercetum petraeae in montane belt (Stefanović et al., 1983; Jovanović et al., 1986).

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Illyrian province is distinguished by climatogenous forests of fir and spruce from alliance Piceion abietis, and beech forests Fagion illyricum s.lat (Lakušić et al., 1978). Alpine-High-Nordic region, High Dinaric province is distinguished by the presence of turfs on limestone from alliances Festucion bosniacae, Seslerion juncifoliae, and Gentiano-Crepidion dinaricae (Redžić, 1990, 1999; 2003).


More than 500 relevees made in various ecosystems on both horizontal and vertical profile on the region of continental Dinaric Alps during long term vegetation investigations using modern European methodology by Braun-Blanquet (1964) has been analysed. Determination of weed communities was carried out on the basis of the results from analytic and synthetic phytocoenological tables, and in accordance with the Code of phytosociological nomenclature (Weber et al., 2000). Besides determination of floristic composition and assessement of quantitative distribution and forms of distributions for each registered species, for each relevé have been also determined the following habitat attributes: coordinates, altitude, aspect, slope, bedrock and soil type, general vegetation coverage.

The previously published data relevant for this area (Horvat, 1960; Batinica et al., 1967-1970; Lakušić et al., 1978, 1979; 1982; Dizdarević et al., 1979; Redžić, 1990, 1999; 2003; 2006) have been used in analysis of syntaxonomic weed diversity. Syntaxonomic overview includes determination of syntaxa at the level of class, order, alliance (suballiance), and association and subassociation in certain cases. The nomenclature for the most taxa at the class level is after Conspectus of classes of European vegetation (Mucina, 1997), and after „The diversity of European vegetation“ (Rodwell et al., 2002), and for some after Oberdorfer (1983).


Syntaxonomic overview of the vegetation

Intensive comparative investigations of ecological and floristic differentiation of vegetation of weed communities on continental Dinaric Alps it was found out 37 communities on the level of association, sub association, 14 alliances, 10 orders and 6 classes.

Sulejman Redžić

(Classes have been presented with uppercases and bold, orders with uppercases and bold italic, alliances with lowercases and associations with ordinary cases). Weed vegetation in the Continental Dinaric has been differentiated at the five types. Those are: Weed vegetation on gley and trampled soil of mountainous and upland belt; Weed vegetation on humid and trampled soil of peri pannonian and mountainous belt; Weed vegetation on humid and nitrified soil of peripannonian and mountainous belt; Weed vegetation on moderately humid and moderately nitrified soil of stubbles; Weed vegetation on moderately humid and moderately nitrified soil of arable crops.

On the basis of the results, and their revision in the context of modern investigations in vegetation science, the following syntaxonomic differentiation of the weed vegetation on continental Dinaric Alps is proposed: 1. Weed vegetation on humid and trampled soil of peripannonian and mountainous belt; Class: PLANTAGINETEA MAJORIS Tüxen et Preising in Tüxen 1950 (Syn.: POLYGONO-POETEA ANNUAE Rivas-Martinez 1975 corr. Rivas-Martinez et al. 1991 p.p.) Order: PLANTAGINETALIA MAJORIS R.Tx. 1950 Alliance: Polygonion avicularis Br.-Bl. 1931 ex Aich. 1933 Ass.: Poetum pumillae Lakušć et al. 1982 Ass.: Poetum annuae Lakušć et al. 1975 Class: AGROPYRETEA INTERMEDII-REPENTIS (Oberd. et al. 1967) Müll. & Görs 1969 (Syn.: AGROPYRETEA REPENTIS Oberdorfer et al. 1967) Order: AGROPYRETALIA INTERMEDII-REPENTIS (Oberd. et al. 1967) Müll. & Görs Alliance: Convovulo-Agropyron Görs Ass.: Convolvulo arvensis-Agropyretum repentis Felf. 43 2. Weed vegetation on humid and trampled soil of peripannonian and mountainous belt;

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Class: AGROSTIETEA STOLONIFERAE Oberd. & Müll. ex Goers 1968 Order: AGROSTIETALIA STOLONIFERAE Oberd. in Oberd. et al. 1967 Alliance: Agropyro-Rumicion Nordh. 1940 em. R. Tx. 1950 (Incl. Agrostion stolonifereae Goers 1966) Ass.: Potentillo repentis-Rorippetum silvestris Redžić 1990 Ass.: Ranunculetum repentis Knapp 1944 Ass.: Agropyretum repentis Auct. 3. Weed vegetation on humid and nitrified soil of peripannonian and mountainous belt; Class: BIDENTETEA TRIPARTITI R. Tx. et al. ex von Rochow 1951 Order: BIDENTETALIA TRIPARTITI Br. - Bl. & R. Tx. 1943 Alliance: Bidention Nordh.1940 Ass.: Polygono-Bidentetum tripartitis W. Koch 1926 Ass.: Agrostideto-Polygonetum hydropiperi Babić 1971 4. Weed vegetation on moderately humid and moderately nitrified soil of stubbles; Class: SECALIETEA Br..Bl. in Br.-Bl. et al. 1952 Order:SECALETALIA Br.-Bl. 1931 em. Br.-Bl. 1936 (Incl.: APERETALIA SPICA-VENTI (R. Tx. 1953) J. & R. Tx. ) Alliance: Panico-Setarion Sissingh in Westhoff et al. 1946 Ass.: Setarietum viridis Lakušić et al. 1975 Ass.: Erigerono-Setarietum glaucae Šumatić 1991 Ass.:Papaveretum rhoeadis Redžić ass.nova hoc loco Alliance: Scleranthion annui (Kruseman & Vlieger 1939) Sissingh. in Westhoff et al. 1946 (Incl.: Aperion spica-venti R. Tx. in Oberdorfer 1949; Ass.: Aphano arvensi-Matriaietum recucitae (R.Tx. 1937) Redzic nom.nov hoc loco (Syn.: Alchemillo arvensis-Matricarietum chamomillae R. Tx., 1937) Ass.: Lathyro-Aperetum R. Tx. 1950 Ass.: Scleranthetum annui Redžić ass. nova prov. hoc loco Ass.: Vulpietum myuris Lakušić et al. 1975 Order: CENTAURETALIA CYANI R.Tx., Lohm. & Prsg. in R.Tx. 1950 Alliance: Caucalidion lapulae R. Tx. ex von Rocher 1951 (Caucalion) Ass.: Stachydetum annuae Redžić ass. nova prov. hoc loco Ass.: Anthemis-Consolida orientalis Slavnić 1944

Sulejman Redžić

Ass.:Veronica hederifolia-Veronica triphyllos Slavnić 1944 Ass.: Stachys-Ajuga chamaepytis Slavnić 1944 Ass.: Cirsietum arvensis Redžić ass. nova prov. hoc loco Alliance: Centaurion cyani Redžić all. nova prov. hoc loco Ass.: Agrostemo-Centauretum cyani Redžić 1980 Ass.: Centauretum cyani Redžić ass. nova prov.hoc loco Alliance: Scherardion arvensis Ass.:Kickxietum spuriae Krus. & Vlieg. 1939 Alliance: Galeopsidion speciosae-pubescentis Kojić 1972 Ass.: Galeopsi-Calystegietum sepii Stepić 1984 Ass.:Erigerono-Setarietum glaucae Šumatić 1991 Ass.:Cirsio-Stachyetum palustris Šugar 1972 5. Weed vegetation in crops on moderately humid and moderately nitrified soils Class:STELLARIETEA MEDIAE R. Tx. et al. Ex von Rochow 1951 (STELARIETEA MEDIAE (Br.-Bl. 1932) R. Tx. Lohm. Prsg. 1950 (Syn.:CHENOPODIETEA p.p.) Order: POLYGONO-CHENOPODIETALIA J. Tx. 1961 (Incl.: CHENOPODIETALIA ALBI Alliance: Polygono-Chenopodion polyspermi Koch 1962 em. Sissingh. 1946 Ass.:Panico-Galnisogietum R. Tx. ex Becker 1942 Ass.:Stelarietum mediae Prov. Dragana Ass.:Setaria-Heliotropium europaeum Slavnić 1944 Ass.:Panicum-Portulaca oleracea Slavnić 1944 Ass.:Galeopsido-Chenopodietum polyspermi Oberdorfer Ass.:Setario-Stachyetum arvensis Oberdorefer 1957 Alliance: Digitario-Setarienion Oberdorfer 1957 Ass.: Setario-Galinsogietum parfiflorae R. Tx. em. Muller & Oberdorfer Alliance: Fumario-Euphorbion Mull. ex Gors 1966 Ass.:Setario-Veronicetum pollitae Oberdorfer 1957 Ass.:Fumarietum officinalis Redžić ass. nova prov. hoc loco Ass.:Stellario-Veronicetum tournefortti Redžić ass. nova prov.hoc loco. Order: ERAGROSTETALIA J.Tx. ex Poli 1966 Alliance: Eragrostion R. Tx. in Slavnić 1944

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Ass.:Panico-Eragrostidetum R. Tx. 1950 Ass.:Eragrostis maior-Eragrostis minor Slavnić 1944 Ass.:Aristolochio-Convolvuletum arvensis Ubrizsy 1967

Discussion

From a syntaxonomic standpoint, plant coverage of this area could be divided into 6 classes, 10 orders, 14 alliances and 37 communities of the level of association (Table 1). Table 1. Numerical structure of syntaxa of weed vegetation

Class Number of orders

Number of alliances

Number of associations

Plantaginetea majoris 1 1 1 Agropyrtea intermedii-repentis 1 1 1 Agrostietea stoloniferae 1 1 3 Bidentetea tripartiti 1 1 2 Secalietea 2 6 17 Stellerietea mediae 2 4 13 Total: 10 14 37

The syntaxonomy is very complex and uneven which is confirmed by

many relevant authors in the field of vegetation science, both classic and modern ones (Braun-Blanquet, 1946; Oberdorfer, 1983; Rodwell et al. 2002). Due to changing pattern of habitat's conditions which is very extreme, this vegetation type is subject to swift dynamics followed by transformations because of which there are different approaches and opinions regarding its classification.

Comparative ecological and sytaxonomic research of weed vegetation on horizontal and vertical profile of BetH Dinaric Alps that has been conducted over the last 30 years (Batinica et al. Redžić, 1977; Lakušić et al., 1978; , Pavlović, 1987; Pavlović-Muratspahić, 1985; Redžić, 1990; Šumatić, 1989; Redžić et al., 2000, 2002), has shown need for revision of its contemporary syntaxonomy and for development of new syntaxonomy patterns. New approach should be based upon ecological character of habitat ( hydrothermic regime, intensity and forms of anthropogenous impact ), as well as floristic composition of the community.

Sulejman Redžić

Within so called tertiary vegetation, weed vegetation is the most liable to changes (weed and vegetation of abandoned places). Thus, these investigations point out the importance of forms and intensity of anthropogenous impacts onto weed vegetation's habitat which is directly related to floristic assembly of certain communities and their syntaxonomic status. Modern literature on diversity of European vegetation (Roodwell et al., 2002) placed entire weed vegetation into single class Stellarietea mediae. Same approach had Mucina (1997) making conspectus of European vegetation's classes.

In the sense of these investigations, weed vegetation on Dinaric Alps is being clearly differentiated into two classes : Secalinetea and Stellarietea mediae. First one encompasses weed communities of stubbles and the second one of arable crops. We also believe that class Chenopodietea isn't completely synonimous to class Stellarietea mediae and that it encompasses communities of tertiary vegetation on both moderately humid and moderately warm abandoned places. Apart from these two classes there are certain communities developing on humid and milde nitrified soil, in zone of the alliance Salicion albae which is mainly in Posavina area (northern Bosnia) , that belong to the class Bidentetea, while on more drainaged soil developed are communities that belong to the class Polygono-Poetea annuae.

Conclusions

On the basis of investigation of syntaxonomic diversity on the weed vegetation of continental Dinaric Alps (Mt. Vlašić, Mt. Zvijezda, and Mt. Ozren) in the western part of the Balkans it could be concluded that:

Weed vegetation has still been relative poorly investigated; On current research level, it has been determined relatively high

syntaxonomic diversity which is the result of high ecological diversity in the area;

In order to determine the most adequate position of weed vegetation from the area in the European weed vegetation system, and to define its clear syntaxonomic position , it would be neccessary to make more detailed ecological and vegetation reserach in near future;

Climax vegetation; Compared with the other types of weed vegetation in Europe, it has

been detected high level of floristic diversity. There are still many endangered or almost extinct weed plants that inhabit this places, and make priceless gen pool.

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Acknowledgement This work is a part of the investigations carried out within the project «Patterns of ecological diversity on Mt. Vranica in Bosnia and Herzegovina» funded by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

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Instruction to Authors in Herbologia

One copy of manuscript in English should be submitted by e-mail or as

a hard (paper) copy and a compact disc. Manuscripts should be computer typed in MS Word, single spaced, on

the page (paper) format of B5, font of Times New Roman, font size 12 (address of the autors, keywords and list of references with font size 10). The text lines should be justified. The length of the paper can be up to eight pages.

The paper should start with the title of the article, the names of each author, his/her institution, address and e-mail address.

Abstract would not exceed 300 words or 20 lines. Keywords, up to two lines long, should be listed below the abstract.

Main text includes intruduction, materials and methods, results and discussion. Footnotes should be avoided. SI units should be used. Reference list should be ordered alphabetically. Examples: AUTHOR, X.Y. & Z.Q. AUTHOR, 2001: Title of article, Journal title in Italics, 12, 78-84. Or: AUTHOR, A., B. AUTHOR, 1998: Book title (ed. GH Editor). Publisher, Place, Country.

Figures and tables should be numbered consecutively and should have an appropriate caption or legend.

Scientific names and latin words et al. should be in italic. When a plant name is repeated, it can be abbreviated, e.g. C. album. For crop plants, common English names are used, but the scientific name can be given in parentheses at the first mention in the main text, e.g. oats (Avena sativa). Both British and American forms of common names can be used (e.g. corn and maize, alfalfa and lucerne etc.), up to the choice of the author. For herbicides and other chemicals, in Materials and methods, one should state common approved names and trade names, e.g. glyphosate (Roundup 360 a.i. L-1, Monsanto), and thereafter only trade names. Dose of herbicides should be expressed in terms of active ingredient (e.g. a.i. ha-1).

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