henderson-2000-international journal of tourism research

War as a Tourist Attraction: the Case ofVietnamJoan C. Henderson*

Lecturer in Marketing and Tourism Management, Nanyang Technological University, Nanyang Avenue,Singapore 639798

ABSTRACT

This paper considers the challenges involvedin the presentation of war as a touristattraction, using the example of recentconicts in Vietnam and a particular sitethere to illustrate the issues which arise. Itbegins with a general discussion about warand tourism, and then moves on to examinethe development of tourism in Vietnam andthe place of wartime heritage. Variousaproaches to interpretation are identied andthe problems facing those responsible arehighlighted. The dilemma is one of achievinga satisfactory balance between education andentertainment while providing anappropriate experience for visitors who comewith different needs and expectations.Political circumstances represent an addedcomplication. Copyright# 2000 John Wiley& Sons, Ltd.

Received 16 October 1998; Revised 10 April 1999; Accepted 5May 1999

Keywords: interpretation and presentation;tourist attractions; Vietnam; wartime heritage.

INTRODUCTION

Wartime events and sites representimportant tourist attractions, draw-ing visitors to a diversity of loca-

tions such as those related to the Napoleonic

Wars, American Civil War, and First andSecond World Wars as well as more recentconicts. However, they pose a series ofchallenges with regard to presentation andinterpretation because of the sensitivity of thesubject matter. There is a potential conictbetween the functions of education and en-tertainment and the problem is compoundedwhen those affected by the circumstancesdepicted are still alive, leading Tunbridgeand Ashworth (1996) to comment that `livingmemory must expire before the question canbe dispassionately weighed' (p. 115).This paper considers the case of Vietnam,

which is making use of former wars indeveloping its range of visitor attractions,and raises questions about the appropriatenessof such an approach, responses to it and theethical dilemmas involved. The particularexample of the `Cu Chi Tunnels' site providesan illustration of the difculties faced. Thestudy is an exploratory one, but aims to offeran insight into the appeal and meaning ofwartime heritage attractions for both residentsand visitors, and the responsibilities of provi-ders in achieving integrity with regard topresentation and interpretation. The ndingsalso have implications for Vietnam's efforts todevelop and market its wartime heritagesuccessfully to international tourists.

THE ACADEMIC FRAMEWORK

The central role occupied by attractions in thetourism industry is apparent, Gunn (1994)describing them as constituting `the mostpowerful component on the supply side oftourism . . . the energising power unit of thetourism system' (p. 57) with purposes ofproviding visitor satisfaction, enticement andstimulating interest in travel. The size and

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TOURISM RESEARCHInt. J. Tourism Res. 2, 269280 (2000)

Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

* Correspondence to: Dr. Joan C. Henderson, Departmentof Marketing and Tourism Management, NanyangTechnological University, Nanyang Avenue, Singapore639798.E-mail: [email protected]

diversity of the sector makes classicationnecessary (Cooper et al., 1996) and has alsogenerated a series of studies on differentaspects of attractions, including their distribu-tion, appeal (Pearce, 1997) and management(Swarbrooke, 1995). Historical resources ofvarious types emerge as of great signicanceworld-wide, and the uses and abuses of historyby tourism have generated a literature of theirown.Hewison (1987) describes a process of

commodication and trivialisation, where his-tory has been replaced by a heritage industrythat presents a false view of the past. There ismore concern with providing opportunitiesand settings to satisfy contemporary societyand commercial interests than accuratelyportraying the realities and complexities ofhistorical gures, events and processess. Amajor concern has been with authenticity andits place in the tourist experience (MacCannell,1976), recent commentators claiming that thisis rarely found in any objective form andremains an articial construction or existentialconcept (Wang, 1999).These discussions touch on, and have

implications for, the choice of interpretationand presentation techniques used at attrac-tions, a subject explored by Nuryanti (1996),Boniface (1995) and Hall and McArthur (1993).The responses of visitors to sites and ways ofmeasuring and meeting their needs andexpectations also have been examined (Beehoand Prentice, 1997; Moscardo, 1996), withresults suggesting the importance of providingintellectual challenge and meaningful encoun-ters while also offering an enjoyable andentertaining time. How visitors experienceattractions is recognised as an area for furtherinvestigation, especially those that deal withdifcult and controversial themes such as war,and the whole question of war tourism can beviewed as a subeld of the study of heritageattractions. Seaton (1999) uses the term ofthanatourism to dene `travel to a locationwholly, or partially, motivated by the desirefor actual or symbolic encounters with death'(p. 131), although other motivations such as asearch for knowledge or something differentmay also result in visits to war-related sites.Smith (1996) discusses anthropological stu-

dies of warfare and the tourist attractions

based on it, dating attempts to `link war andthe pleasure periphery' to the mid-1990s andidentifying `warfare-tourism genres' as `theheroic past', `remember the fallen', `lest weforget', `when we were young' and `relivingthe past' (p. 205). Uzzell (1989) writes of thedilemmas of the interpretation of war andconict and Tunbridge and Ashworth (1996)analyse the relationship between heritagetourism and atrocities, including those takingplace during or as a result of war. Thedifculties of dealing with war and its out-comes are highlighted, alongside the almostinevitable tensions, with attention also given tomanagement decisions and options available.More recent articles have looked at war and

tourism within the context of Paris duringWorld War Two (Gordon, 1998) and NorthAmerica (Smith, 1998), again in the context ofthe Second World War and its aftermath.Smith explains how war can stimulate tourismas a consequence of technological advancesand demographic change, returning to theargument that `despite the horrors of deathand destruction (and also because of them), thememorabilia of warfare and allied productsprobably constitutes the largest single categoryof tourist attractions in the world' (p. 131).To date, the emphasis has tended to be on

European and North American cases, but theAsiaPacic is becoming a source of moreexamples, with Peleggi (1996) commenting onthe Second World War attractions beingdeveloped and promoted in North Thailandand Henderson (1997) on those of Singapore.The former uses the example of the bridge overthe River Kwai at Kanchanaburi, the construc-tion of which caused an estimated 106 000deaths in the Second World War, to illustratehow a location that is `testimony of a tragicpast can be neutralised as a sort of mini-rail ordisguised as a picturesque element of thelandscape' (p. 443). The approach evadesmany of the controversial issues arising frominterpreting the heritage of such a site, and alsomay stand in the way of visitors making senseof it. Smith (1996) cites the Vietnam War toillustrate the difculties for societies of bothcoming to terms with defeat and celebratingvictory, as represented by attractions andreactions to them.As more countries in the region, and South-

Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Tourism Res. 2, 269280 (2000)

270 J. C. Henderson

east Asia in particular, are turning to tourismas a vehicle for reconstruction and economicdevelopment and have identied periods ofturmoil and war as possible themes of appealto visitors, it would seem timely to extend thedebate to the Indochinese nations of Cambo-dia, Laos and Vietnam, which have beenseriously affected by violent conict in thiscentury. Here, circumstances in terms of stageof development, state of the tourism industry,and immediacy of the happenings commemo-rated are likely to be different to those of theWest and to yield a distinct set of challengesand possible solutions. Vietnam, as one of thecountries severely damaged by a war fromwhich it is still struggling to recover, wouldseem to be an appropriate location to focus onin pursuit of a better understanding of thesubject.The question of the attitudes of visitors and

residents to Asian wartime heritage sites hasbeen largely neglected to date and must betaken into account by both academics andpractitioners. Although a comprehensive sur-vey was beyond the scope of this preliminarystudy, some comments are made and it seemslikely that improved appreciation of visitorneeds would help the effective presentation ofmaterial and the successful management ofsites. These nations would thereby be assistedin their marketing and development effortsand a more sustainable use of resourcesencouraged.The case is based on eldwork conducted by

the author on a visit to Vietnam in 1998,supplemented by desk research and informa-tion provided by ofcial authorities. It hasproved difcult to access data, either becauserelevant statistics were not available or sourceswere unwilling to release material. It has notyet been possible to formally interview guidesor conduct a survey amongst visitors to the CuChi Tunnels complex, the particular attractionselected as an illustration. There is thus areliance on personal observation and informalconversations, and the limitations of thisapproach are acknowledged.

VIETNAM IN CONTEXT

Vietnam forms part of the Indochina peninsulawith Cambodia and Laos, running 1700 km

from north to south and 50 km from east towest with a total area of 330 341 km2. It islargely agricultural and forests and mountainsoccupy about 75% of the country, offeringattractive landscapes of wild mountains andtropical rainforests. Other natural featuresinclude an extensive coastline, beaches, la-goons, marine islands, rivers and deltas aswell as a rich diversity of plants and animals.The population of 75.1 million, a 1997 estimate,is expected to rise to 90 million by 2000(Jansen-Verbeke and Go, 1995) and mostreside in the Red River delta in the north andMekong River delta in the south. The climatevaries from north to south, but generallyconditions are hot, humid and dry except fortropical monsoons, which occur from May toOctober.The country has been recognised as having

considerable tourism potential (Cooper 1997)with its combination of natural resources andcultural heritage, which includes historic sites,colonial architecture, traditions and the way oflife of hill tribes in the remote north. Wartimeheritage and especially that relating to theconict with the USA and its allies is also animportant component, with possibilities fordevelopment identied in the current tourismMaster Plan.The realisation of such potential has, how-

ever, been frustrated by what an EconomistIntelligence Unit Report (1993) describes as`political instability, followed by partition,followed nally by an isolationist government'(p. 61). Circumstances began to change in 1986when the Sixth Party Congress of the rulingCommunist Party approved a policy of `doimoi' or economic restructuring, leading to alifting of private sector restrictions, newforeign investment laws, devaluation andbanking reforms. As a consequence, foreignvisitors were actively encouraged and touristarrivals began to increase from the 1986 levelof 54 353. By the beginning of the 1990s,international arrivals were growing by 4050% on average each year (Nguyen Van Binhand Le Van Minh, 1997).Tourist arrivals crossed the million mark in

1994 and reached 1.6 million in 1996. Mostvisitors travel for business and originate in theEast Asia and Pacic region, with France themajor long haul market, contributing about


War as a Tourist Attraction 271

10% of total arrivals, followed by the USA with4.3% and UK with 4.1% (Travel and TourismIntelligence, 1997). The country is seeking todevelop a range of tourism products for theleisure market relating to its culture andheritage as well as introducing sportingactivities, health tourism and wildlife adven-tures. A promotion campaign currently under-way aims to capitalise on both its ancient andcontemporary histories and includes the 2.7million American war veterans as a targetmarket.The government commitment to tourism is

reected in the 1995 Master Plan for TourismDevelopment produced in collaboration withthe World Tourism Organisation, which setsout a series of objectives and developmentstrategies. The country is divided into threemajor regions and plans are outlined until theyear 2010, with the American war dened as aprincipal development orientation and area oftourist activities. Considerable growth is an-ticipated, with a target of 3.5 million interna-tional arrivals in 2000 and 9 million in 2010.There is some doubt about whether suchtargets are realistic, given the constraints inoperation that are outlined in the Travel andTourism Intelligence report. The costs asso-ciated with rapid expansion will also have tobe met, including those to the environment(VietnamNational Administration of Tourism,1997), but the country would appear to beabout to enter a new phase as a touristdestination and eager to exploit its availabletourism resources.

VIETNAM'S WARTIME HISTORY

The Vietnam War with the USA has generatedcontinued debate since it ended in 1975 (Hess,1994) and an extensive literature on its causes,conduct and consequences, which it would beinappropriate to elaborate on. There wasconict before the American involvement,however, as Vietnam struggled to free itselffrom French colonial rule, and some key datesof the twentieth century (Hoskin, 1995) arenoted below to allow the subsequent accountof attractions to be placed in its historicalcontext.

1862 Cochinchina in the south created as a

French colony1883 Amman and Tonkin established as

French protectorates in central and northVietnam1924 Ho Chi Minh founded the Association

of Revolutionary Youth, later known as theIndochinese Communist Party, to opposecolonial rule1945 Ho Chi Minh declares himself presi-

dent of an independent Vietnam and theFrench refuse to give up their colonial posses-sions, leading to the First Indochina War1954 French defeat at Dien Bien Phu ends

colonial rule. Geneva agreement provisionallydivides the country at the 17th parallel. NgoDinh Diem takes power in South Vietnam,ending hopes for peaceful reunication1960 Formation of National Front for the

Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF) promptsincreased USA involvement and the start ofthe Second Indochina War1975 War ends with North victorious over

South. Reunication follows in 1976

A series of wars therefore has taken place inVietnam in the twentieth century, with theFrench rstly seeking to re-establish theirauthority at the end of the Second World Warand then facing resistance as a nationalliberation movement developed. It became anarena in which the Cold War powers of theUSA and the former USSR in an uneasyalliance with Communist China fought theirbattles, and nally was the scene of civil warbetween rival Vietnamese factions. Althoughthere was an interruption between the warwith the French, fought from 1946 to 1954, andthat waged against the Americans and alliedtroops such as Australians, lasting from 1965 to1975, the period as a whole was one ofdisturbance and uncertainty.Thus when Vietnam was united as an

independent and Communist state after thefall of Saigon in 1975, it had endured almostthree decades of violent conict, perhapsunprecedented in the annals of warfare. Ruane(1998) sums up the human cost as `anestimated half-a-million Vietnamese died dur-ing the French war . . . and anywhere betweentwo and three million indigenous combatantsand non-combatants during the later Amer-ican war; French and French Union losses


272 J. C. Henderson

amounted to 75 000; and by 1975, United Stateswar-dead had added a further 59 000 to thegrim reckoning' (p. 107). The period between1965 and 1968 saw over a million tons ofbombs dropped, after which Vietnam becamethe most bombed country in history. Much ofthe country was devastated by the bombingand other offensive techniques such as thewidespread use of herbicides to destroy cropsand defoliants to remove jungle and forestcover. The environmental, economic, politicaland socio-cultural legacies of the war stillpersist and continue to hinder Vietnam'sadvancement.The presentation of a war of such magnitude

as a tourist attraction and the ways in which itis received involves and affects government,the host community and visitors, and attentionnow turns to some of these considerations aftera review of sites that take the wartime heritageof the post-Second World War period as theirsubject. A distinction is made between the waragainst the French in the 1950s and against theAmericans in the 1960s and 1970s. Figure 1provides a map of the major centres.

WARTIME HERITAGE ATTRACTIONS

There are various approaches to classifyingVietnam's wartime heritage attractions, in-cluding that based on geographical locationand this is the method used by the VietnamNational Administration of Tourism (1995) inits Master Plan, which presents the three zonesof Northern Part, Northern Central Part, andSouth Central and Southern Part. Each of theseoffers sites of signicance related to the`heritage of standing up to USA and nationalsalvation' (p. 5). The pattern of distributionmight also be described in terms of nodes,individually or clustered, and the routes thatconnect them (Pearce, 1995). Both perspectivesare incorporated into the discussion below andthe three zones, which together represent anetwork of attractions linked by the theme ofwartime heritage, are used as a framework.Certain nodes, such as major cities, offer adiversity of features of interest to tourists inaddition to those related to wartime heritageand therefore exercise considerable power asattractors.The linking routes are clearly dened by air

and surface transport services and supportinginfrastructure, and determine the itineraries ofindividual travellers and organised groups. Itshould be noted, however, that poor commu-nications is a critical problem in parts ofVietnam and may impede progress towardsthe discovery and development of theseattractions, both individually and collectively.Shortages and standards of accommodation insecondary nodal sites and along connectingcorridors are further points of weakness,which the authorities are attempting to rectify.

Region of the Northern Part

The northern section comprises the major nodeof Hanoi and the secondary one of Dien BienPhu with several war-related attractions to befound on the route south to Hue, passing as itdoes through the old NorthSouth Vietnamborder and Demilitarised Zone. Hanoi plays awider role as the capital city with an assort-ment of attractions, as well as a range ofservices and facilities for tourists. It is also aprincipal gateway city.Hanoi was the capital of North Vietnam and

Figure 1. Vietnam tourism centres



the Long Bien Bridge, which crosses the RedRiver, was a strategic target during the Amer-ican war and was attacked on about 200occasions by bombers. The Vietnamese mana-ged to keep the bridge open and it came tosymbolise the ghting spirit of the people.Museums in Hanoi that give space to twentiethcentury conicts include the Army Museum,concerned with the resistance to foreigninvaders, the Museum of Independence,where Ho Chi Minh wrote the VietnameseDeclaration of Independence in 1945, and theMuseum of the Revolution, which describeshow the country gained its independence.Another location is the Hao Lo Prison, whichwas built by the French and then housedAmerican Prisoners of War. The site is likely tobe redeveloped, but the intention is to retainparts of the original building as a heritagecentre.Dien Bien Phu lies in the northeast of the

country, close to the Laos border, in a fairlyremote valley surrounded by mountains. Itwas established as a French base in 1954 withthe purpose of denying the Viet Minh access toLaos, and became the site of a decisive battlethat lasted for 57 days. The Viet Minhsurprised the French and laid seige to thegarrison, eventually forcing a French surren-der. Although there were heavy losses on bothsides, the battle was a turning point and led tothe nal withdrawal of the French from Indo-China. There is now a small museum to markthe battleeld and a French command postwas reconstructed in 1994 for the fortiethanniversary. There are still some vestiges ofthe engagement, such as bunkers and trenches,and separate memorials commemorate theFrench and Vietnamese who were killed.The former border on the 17th parallel and

Demilitarised Zone is a unique feature and theHien Luong bridge marks the frontier, with theDemilitarised Zone extending 5 km on eitherside. Several American bases were located tothe south including Khe Sanh, which wascontested over for 77 days in a battle that left500 Americans and 10 000 to 15 000 NorthVietnamese dead. Approximately 67 500 me-tric tons of bombs were dropped and there isstill a danger from those that lie buried andunexploded. The area as a whole is now givenover to rubber plantations, but remains hazar-

dous as a result of mines, artillery shells andbombs.

Region of the Northern Central Part

This region comprises the principal nodes ofHue and Da Nang, the former also an impor-tant historic centre and popular destination.The legacy of themore recent conicts includesa small Ho Chi Minh Museum and associa-tions with the Tet Offensive. North Vietnameseforces occupied the Citadel, the Imperial Cityof the Nguyen emperors, and other parts ofHue in 1968 and fought ercely with theAmericans and South Vietnamese for 26 daysbefore being defeated. Much of the ancient cityand its heritage was destroyed and the work ofrepair and restoration is continuing. Therewere also heavy casualties, with Americanestimates of 142 Americans, 384 South Vietna-mese and 5113 North Vietnamese plus ap-proximately 3000 civilians, some of whomwere executed by the Communist forces.Contributing to Hue's function as a nodal

centre is the nearby Pagoda of the HeavenlyLady (Thien Mu Pagoda), which is said to datefrom the seventeenth century and is a well-known Vietnamese landmark. Thic QuangDuc, a 73-year-old monk from the pagoda,set himself alight in Saigon as a protest againstofcial persecution of Buddhists in 1963. Theincident acted as a catalyst to the oppositionmovement and became the subject of a pressphotograph that was to become world famous.The car in which the monk drove south can beseen in the pagoda complex.Da Nang was where the rst American

military personnel landed on Vietnamese soilin 1965, transforming it into a large air andnaval base, which became an important enemytarget. Evidence of this period can be found inthe remains of military constructions, and thenearby China Beach was used for rest andrelaxation by the American troops.The hamlet of My Lai is situated in the

Central Highlands and was the scene of awartime massacre by American infantry unitson a search-and-destroy mission in 1968.Approximately 504 villagers were killed inthe attack despite offering no resistance, andthey are remembered by a memorial, somegraves and a small museum. Another second-


274 J. C. Henderson

ary attraction is the Ho Chi Minh Trail, whichcrosses part of this area. The Trail was a seriesof secret supply lines from North to SouthVietnam passing through Laos, which allowedthe transportation of equipment and goods tothe Communists in the south, and was asymbol of their determination to defeat theenemy. Notable features along the routeinclude a Buddhist monastery with a fencemade of cluster bomb casings and the wreck-age of a downed American helicopter.These secondary locations do not t easily

into the node and route model because of theirsmall scale, relative inaccessibility and com-paratively low visitor numbers. They do havean important contribution to make and com-plement other primary nodes, although thismay be limited if they are excluded fromclearly dened clusters.

Region of South Central and Southern Part

The main node here is Ho Chi Minh City, orSaigon, the capital of South Vietnam, whichdominates the south of the country and is itslargest city. It contains a series of attractionsrelated to the war, such as the Ho Chi MinhMuseum located in the ofces of the shippingcompany for which he worked, the Museum ofthe Revolution depicting the Communiststruggle and the War Crimes Museum dis-playing photographs of victims and othermaterial. There is also a War RemnantsMuseum, which presents an assortment ofwartime relics and considers the human costsof the American war.The Presidential Palace of 1975, made

famous by a photograph of a North Vietna-mese tank at the main gate during theirtakeover of Saigon, is now called ReunicationHall. The Hall provides tours of the variousapartments as they were in 1975 and a videopresentation describing the history of theindependence movement. The site of theformer United States Embassy, another well-known location from Press and televisionphotographs showing the nal days of SouthVietnam, is found near Reunication Hall. Thebuilding has now been demolished and theland is scheduled for redevelopment, butvisitors can still look into the compound anda plinth on the pavement outside remembers

some of the wartime events which took placethere.Close enough to Ho ChiMinh City for a half-

day visit are the Cu Chi Tunnels. The originaltunnels had been started by the Viet Minh inthe 1940s and then extended by the Viet Cong,as the Communist forces operating in thesouth came to be known, who excavated anetwork of about 200 km of passages andamenities to serve as an underground basevery near to the US Army's 25th InfantryDivision camp in the district. The Americanswere aware of the existence of the tunnels andmade every effort to destroy them, includingextensive ground bombing, but found itimpossible to do so. Short sections of thecomplex have been opened to visitors and itscharacteristics are commented on in greaterdetail later in this paper.Also making up this series of attractions is

Trang Bang, where a photograph of a younggirl running naked down the road after anapalm attack was taken in the American War.The image captured the attention of the media,was circulated around the world and is stillrecognised today. The settlement is included insome organised tours of the region.Further south lies the Mekong Delta, which

forms an extensive at plain crossed by theeight mouths of the river and a series of canals.It was a stronghold of the Viet Cong and thescene of some of the ercest ghting in the war,conducted under possibly the worst condi-tions. Little evidence of the conict survivesand the area has returned to being a majoragricultural producer. It cannot be consideredas a node and is relatively remote, but is stillassociated with the war for many Vietnameseand the international community.

WARTIME HERITAGE ATTRACTIONS: AREVIEW

This discussion suggests the applicability ofthe node and route model in analysingwartime heritage attractions in Vietnam. Itdoes not, however, allow for the smaller scaleattractions, which have a more limited appealor are difcult to access, and this suggests thatnodes may be of varying scales and levels ofimportance. However, if communications aregood and awareness exists, these minor sites



can be packaged and promoted collectively toestablish extended clusters and encouragedevelopment.There are other possible models to apply in

any such analysis. For example, in terms ofSmith's classication of war tourism, attrac-tions could be categorised as belonging to thegenres of heroic past, remembering the dead,and reminding existing generations of thehorrors of war and heavy loss of life. Thegenres entitled `when we were young' and`reliving the past' appear less applicable,although visits by former soldiers could tinto the former category. Battle re-enactmentswould appear to have little place in a situationwhere many participants are still living andmemories of pain, grief and suffering arestrong.Attractions might also be assessed according

to presentation and interpretation, which tendto be conned to conventional techniques, inthis case with museums, commemorativestones, graves and military relics conveyingthe history of the conict, which is also evidentin unmanaged forms such as battle sites,earthworks, constructions, atmosphere andsense of place, and environmental and socialdamage. Condition is another distinguishingfeature and although many sites in Vietnamare intact and in a fairly good state of repair, afuller inventory would provide a guide toinvestment required and the degree of urgencywith regard to conservation and preservation.Nevertheless, there is an argument that thecountry should not dwell too much on itsturbulent past and look to the future, witheconomic progress and commercial develop-ment taking priority in any decisions aboutland use and changes to the built environment.Heritage attractions in Vietnam and more

widely remain a highly political issue and theinuence of government policy cannot beignored, with recent history being used topromote a message of unity and solidarity,directed as much at the resident population asvisitors. Themes of a heroic struggle againstoutside invaders, the existence of a strongnational spirit and will to survive, the protec-tion of independence and the importance ofreunication as well as a desire for peace andhappiness are communicated at many of thesites. Wartime heritage can serve to legitimise

a government and suppress dissent, especiallyimportant for a regime ruling a country thathas a relatively short history as a unied state,and creating a further source of potentialconict over interpretation. This type ofagenda is not uncommon elsewhere anddecisions about heritage often remain rmlyin the hands of governments anxious topresent a version of the past that correspondswith their own interests and agenda (Barthel,1989). Wartime heritage attractions as propa-ganda represents perhaps another perspectivefrom which to approach their study, with acategorisation based upon the degree ofmanipulation and distortion.There is a danger of overemphasising the

current place of wartime heritage attractions inVietnam's overall tourism product and thetourism experience, but it has been identiedformally as a growth area. There is evidence ofa new enthusiasm for exploiting the war as atourist attraction, with ofcial interest asexpressed in the National Plan already dis-cussed, and the possibility of greater commer-cial activity. Many of the sites have a place intours of a general nature, and there are severalcompanies based in Vietnam that offer tripswith a wartime theme or are especiallydesigned for veterans from America, Austra-lia, France and Korea. The view of the Directorof the Tourism Department of Da Nang that`war tourism is big business' (Gluckman, 1997)would seem to be shared.The Cu Chi Tunnel complex was selected

to illustrate this shift in policy, reecting awillingness to invest and introduce moremodern tools of interpretation and presenta-tion. Its rapid growth is recorded by Kelsey(1994), who notes the change from 1992,when `the Cu Chi Tunnels have turned intoa tourist attraction, complete with T shirts,beer and soda, and video presentations', to1994 when `the transformation of Cu ChiTunnels into an amusement park was vir-tually complete'. It serves as an example of anew style heritage attraction or theme park inminiature, which seeks to both educatetourists and residents and entertain them,and thus helps to illustrate the conicts andconfusions that can arise in such venturesand determinants of successful presentationand management.


276 J. C. Henderson

THE CU CHI TUNNELS

Reference has been made already to thetunnels, and their history from an Americanpoint of view is well documented by Mangoldand Penycate (1985). They provided an under-ground base for the Viet Cong and allowedthem to continue ghting the American forces,despite the latter's superior air and landpower, and have now acquired a symbolicstatus. In the words of the promotionalbrochure, `The Cu Chi Tunnels represent thewill, intelligence and pride of the people of CuChi and symbolize the revolutionary heroismof Vietnam, Cu Chi has ofcially been cited asVietnam's land of steel and bastion of bronze.Foreign visitors to Vietnam are welcomed toCu Chi to understand the hard and protractedstruggle of the Vietnamese people as well astheir keen desire for everlasting peace, inde-pendence and happiness'.The excursion begins at the visitor centre,

which contains a small lecture theatre wherean introductory lm is shown, in a variety offoreign languages, describing the way inwhich the war disrupted traditional rural life,the Viet Cong's ght against the Americansand the important strategic role of the tunnels.Although some of the footage is original,certain sections depicting the rustic atmo-sphere and local heroes who were honouredas `Number One American Killers' appear tobe especially created propaganda material.The lm is followed by a brief lecture on thestructure of the tunnels, using a map andmodel to illustrate the different levels and theirposition near to the Saigon river whichafforded an escape route.Small groups are then shown a display of

booby traps by a guide who explains theirfunction, followed by a short trail on well-dened paths through tropical undergrowthand passing the remains of an American M-48tank destroyed by a landmine in 1972. Thestaff, dressed in khaki outts of a quasi-military nature, point out some tunnel en-trances and features, leading the party along asection of reconstructed tunnel, which hasbeen enlarged to accommodate tourists. Thegroup is shown a hospital, command post andmeeting room, where visitors are invited totake tea and cassava, described as the staple

diet of the original tunnel inhabitants. It ispossible, on request, to descend to the secondand third levels, where the tunnels remaintheir original size, although the experience isuncomfortable and requires a degree of agilitythat not all visitors possess.The tour ends at a gift shop, which has an

assortment of items for sale including warsouvenirs such as army helmets, dog tags,bullets fashioned into key rings and Zippolighters (both fake and `genuine'). Postcardsdepict daily life in the tunnels and the scenes ofdevastation above ground, and there is a smallpost ofce from which mail can be sent. Thereis also an adjacent ring range where visitorscan shoot replica AK-47 ries at varioustargets.The approach is thus one that combines

education with entertainment and seeks toserve both residents and international tourists,the former given reduced entry charges andoften visiting in school parties. The site aims toinform visitors about the construction, organi-sation and value of the tunnels as well aspromote understanding about the war and itsconsequences for rural life. At the same time, itoffers the novelty of tunnel life at rst handand the excitement of using a gun. There arealso opportunities to purchase souvenirs andrefreshments. In addition, there is a strongelement of propaganda, with villagers por-trayed as leading lives of bucolic charm beforethe war and becoming noble ghters forfreedom during it. The Viet Cong are heroesprepared to risk all for their country and theenemy are villains who deserve the harshest ofpunishments. This mix of propaganda, enter-tainment and education may prove an uneasyand sometimes confusing combination for thevisitor.There is little attempt to address the com-

plexities of the military and political history ofthe period and certain aspects of tunnel lifeand warfare are neglected or ignored. Forexample, questions might be asked aboutfatalities in the tunnels, the risks to villagersfrom booby traps and the fate of those whowere not Communist sympathisers. Also, it isnot always clear what is original at the site andwhat has been reproduced or on what basisany reconstruction has taken place.Critics could claim that warfare has been



turned into a game of hide and seek in a rusticand sanitised setting with a failure to commu-nicate effectively the horrors of the war yearsand the sufferings of the soldiers of both sidesand the local community. There are photo-graphs of victims on display by the boobytraps, but it is not always easy to make theconnection between the images and the con-traptions on show, which were described in alight-hearted and good humoured manner bythe guides during the author's visit.Some visitors appear to regard the various

features of the site as a series of unusualphotographic opportunities, offering thechance to capture friends and family disap-pearing down a tunnel, standing next to arusting plane or tank and nearly being impaledon bamboo spikes. In such an atmosphere, it isdifcult to respond with the feelings ofsolemnity and quiet reection, which it couldbe argued the circumstances warrant. The stateof `mindfulness' described by Moscardo (1996)as a measure of the effectiveness of the visitorexperience at a heritage site is perhaps indanger of becoming one of `mindlessness'.The appropriateness of the presentation

therefore can be queried in view of thesensitivity of the subject matter and the needto show respect for the dead and injured,common concerns about the use of war as atourist attraction and especially a war wheremany of those involved are still alive. Never-theless, the guides failed to acknowledge anysuch problems when asked, claiming that thewar was in the past and that vistors, includingAmerican veterans, found the excursion inter-esting and enjoyable. As already stated, it wasnot possible to conduct a proper survey oftourists at the site, but those Westerners towhom the author spoke concured in this view.A few did nd the strident anti-American toneof some of the material unconvincing andrefused to take photographs of the booby trapsbecause it `just did not seem right' to do so.The subject of responses to the material and

its presentation is a priority for furtherresearch, assessing the reaction of touristsand especially American and other partici-pants in the war, as well as considering localperceptions. The author is not aware of anyheritage groups that oppose the developmentof the tunnels, but freedom of expression

remains constrained and political and culturalbarriers may frustrate an accurate assessmentof popular opinion.

SOME CONCLUSIONS

The Cu Chi Tunnels have established them-selves as a destination for many touristsvisiting Vietnam, and their proximity to HoChi Minh City means that they form part of itsnodal cluster of attractions. They also repre-sent a test of the appropriateness of the style ofinterpretation and presentation adopted andits suitability for the international tourists,which Vietnam must continue to attract if itis to maintain themomentum of recent growth.This paper has raised doubts about the effec-tiveness of the approach used, which is heavyhanded in its use of propaganda in theintroductory lecture and video, thus under-mining its educative function, and concen-trates on entertaining the audience during theguided tour.Here, and regarding Vietnam's wartime

heritage in general, there is considerable scopefor what Tunbridge and Ashworth (1996)describe as heritage dissonance, with eachparty having their own sets of values, attitudesand experiences, which they bring to the sites.Satisfying the demands of Vietnamese visitorswho lived through the war years, the youngergeneration, returning veterans of variousnationalities and curious tourists from over-seas while retaining authenticity and integrityremains a difcult and perhaps impossiblechallenge for the interpreter working withinthe connes of a particular political system.Establishing a form of communication that is

tting and acceptable remains problematic andmuch depends upon the background, circum-stances and viewpoint of participants. Uzellwrites of the need for `hot' interpretation incertain cases, which will provide a type ofcatharsis, shocking and moving, so that thevisitor is challenged and changed as a result ofexposure to the often harsh realities andcruelties of past events. Such a methoddemands courage and is not always in har-mony with the commercial objectives of sitemanagers, and political imperatives may in-uence messages and the ways in which theseare articulated.


278 J. C. Henderson

Assuming that the pursuit of accuracy andhistorical truth should not be sacriced, it canbe argued that there is rarely one single truthand often many different ways of perceiving it.Conditions of war and its aftermath com-pound the problem, as reected in the dictumthat truth is the rst casualty of war; thedanger is that wartime heritage becomesanother casualty vulnerable to exploitationfor economic and political gain as well asother distortions arising from a confusion ofstandpoints and meanings.Given these difculties, the question of how

such sites should be managed and presented isa topic for continuing debate, with disagree-ments likely amongst the various stakeholders.What would seem important is the need forhonesty and veracity, avoiding the situationwhere commercial imperatives or politicalexpediency dictate decisions. If handled withcare and sensitivity, atrocity and war sites canplay a vital role in improving understandingand raising awareness of human cruelty andsuffering and perhaps help to avoid its repeti-tion. In this way, wartime heritage attractionscan help tourism to pursue its often quoted,but frequently derided, vision of being a forcefor world peace. To achieve these objectives,however, attractions require a degree of free-dom from political interference and also thenecessary public funding, conditions that areperhaps incompatible and unrealistic andcompromises might therefore have to be madeif wartime heritage attractions are to surviveand function effectively in the modern world.This paper has thus attempted to explore

some of the key issues involved in turning warinto a tourist attraction and offers an insightinto both the pitfalls and opportunities of thisprocess. Clearly this is an area for continuedresearch, with important questions to beaddressed about whose history is being de-picted, in what ways and how it is judged bydifferent visitors. The response of Vietnamesenationals is of special interest, given theconcerns about tourism's power to colonise,commercialise and trivialise the past, althoughthe collection of such information involvesovercoming several practical and politicalproblems. The attitudes of former combatantsis another area for study, as are operationalmatters of site management, marketing and

funding. These represent a challenging re-search agenda, but the results will help toinform decision making in the future, hope-fully assisting Vietnam in its efforts to marketwartime heritage in an effective, appropriateand sustainable manner.

REFERENCES

Barthel, D. (1989), Attitudes towards History: thePreservation Movement in America. Humanityand Society, 18, 195212.

Beeho, A. J. and Prentice, R. C. (1997), Conceptua-lising the experiences of heritage tourists. TourismManagement, 18, 2, 7587.

Boniface, P. (1995), Managing Quality Cultural Tour-ism, London: Routledge.

Cooper, C., Fletcher, J., Gilbert, D., Shepherd, R. andWanhill, S. (1998), Tourism: Principles and Practice,New York: Addison Wesley Longman.

Cooper, M. (1997), Tourism planning and educationin Vietnam: a prole 19952010. Pacic TourismReview, 1, 5763.

Economist Intelligence Unit (1993), IndochinaViet-nam, Cambodia and Laos. EIU International Tour-ism Reports, Number 2. London: The EconomistIntelligence Unit.

Gluckman, R. (1997), Back to China Beach. WallStreet Journal, September. http://design.gateway.net.hk/giuck/ChinaBeach.Vietnam.htm

Gordon, B. M. (1998), Warfare and tourism. Paris inWorld War II. Annals of Tourism Research, 25, 3,616638.

Gunn, C. (1994), Tourism Planning: Basics, Concepts,Cases. Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis

Hall, C. M. and McArthur, S. (1993), HeritageManagement in New Zealand and Australia. Oxford:Oxford University Press.

Henderson, J. C. (1997), Singapore's WartimeHeritage Attractions. Journal of Tourism Research,8, 2, 3949.

Hess, G. (1994), The unending debate: historiansand the Vietnam War. Diplomatic History, 18, 2,239264.

Hewison, R. (1987), The Heritage Industry: Britain in aClimate of Decline. London: Methuen.

Hoskin, J. (1995), Vietnam. London: New Holland.Jansen-Verbeke, M. and Go, F. (1995), Tourismdevelopments in Vietnam. Tourism Management,16, 4, 315325.

Kelsey, A. (1994), The Road to Tay Ninh. http://grunt.space.swri.edu/annk94.

MacCannell, D. (1976), The Tourist. New York:Schocken Books.



Mangold, T. and Penycate, J. (1985), The Tunnels ofCu Chi. New York: Random House.

Moscardo, G. (1996), Mindful visitors: heritage andtourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 3, 2, 376397.

Nguyen Van Binh and Le Van Minh (1997),Vietnam tourism: current state and prospects.Pacic Tourism Review, 1, 173175.

Nuryanti, W. (1996), Heritage and post moderntourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 3, 2, 249259.

Pearce, D. (1997), Tourism Development. Longman:London.

Pearce, D. (1995), Tourism Today: A GeographicalAnalysis. London: Longman.

Peleggi, M. (1996), National heritage and globaltourism in Thailand. Annals of Tourism Research,23, 2, 432448.

Ruane, K. (1998), War and Revolution in Vietnam:19301978. London: UCL Press.

Seaton, A. V. (1999), War and thanatourism: Water-loo 18151914. Annals of Tourism Research, 26, 1,130158.

Smith, V. (1996), War and its tourist attractions, inPizam, A. and Manseld, Y. (Editors), Tourism,Crime and International Security Issues. Chichester:John Wiley and Sons.

Smith, V. (1998), War and tourism: an American

ethnography. Annals of Tourism Research, 25, 1,202227.

Swarbrooke, J. (1995), The Development and Manage-ment of Visitor Attractions. London: ButterworthHeinemann.

Travel and Tourism Intelligence (1997), Vietnam:International Tourism Reports, Number 2. London:Travel and Tourism Intelligence.

Tunbridge, J. E. and Ashworth, G. J. (1996),Dissonant Heritage. Chichester: John Wiley andSons.

Uzzell, D. L. (1989), Heritage Interpretation, Vol. 1,London and New York: Belhaven Press.

Vietnam National Administration of Tourism(1995),Master Plan of Vietnam Tourism Developmentperiod 19952010. Hanoi: Vietnam National Ad-ministration of Tourism.

Vietnam National Administration of Tourism/Hans Seidel Foundation (1997), Sustainable Tour-ism Development in Vietnam. Proceedings ofInternational Conference, Hue, 2223 May. Hanoi:Vietnam National Administration of Tourism.

Wang, N. (1999), Rethinking authenticity in tourismexperience. Annals of Tourism Research, 26, 2, 349370.


280 J. C. Henderson

henderson-2000-international journal of tourism research

Documents