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LEARNING TO TEACH IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

Aninvestigationintotheinfluencesofinstitutionalcontextonthe

professionallearningofacademicsintheirrolesasteachers

VersionforHELTASAWebsite

17November2016

ProducedbytheStructure,CultureandAgencyResearchProjectTeam

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Forinformationcontact:brendal@uj.ac.zaAuthorsBrendaLeibowitz UniversityofJohannesburgVivienneBozalek UniversityoftheWesternCapeJamesGarraway CapePeninsulaUniversityofTechnologyNicolineHerman StellenboschUniversityJeffJawitz UniversityofCapeTownPatriciaMuhuro UniversityofFortHareCleverNdebele NorthWestUniversityLynnQuinn RhodesUniversitySusanvanSchalkwyk StellenboschUniversityJo-AnneVorster RhodesUniversityChrisWinberg CapePeninsulaUniversityofTechnologyAbbreviationsAD AcademicDevelopmentCHE CouncilonHigherEducationDoE DepartmentofEducationDVC DeputyViceChancellorDHET DepartmentofHigherEducationandTrainingHAUs HistoricallyAdvantagedUniversitiesHDUs HistoricallyDisadvantagedUniversitiesHE HigherEducationHELTASA HigherEducationLearningandTeachingAssociationofSouthernAfricaHESA HigherEducationSouthAfricaICTs InformationandCommunicationTechnologiesNRF NationalResearchFoundationPGDIP(HE) PostGraduateDiplomainHigherEducationQEP QualityEnhancementProgrammeSES Socio-economicstatusSOTL ScholarshipofTeachingandLearningTDG TeachingDevelopmentGrantUSAf UniversitiesSouthAfricaUOT UniversityofTechnologyVC Vice-ChancellorGlossaryThisglossaryprovidesdefinitionsofphrasesastheyareusedinthisdocument.Academicdevelopment–allaspectsofsupportforhighereducationlearningandteaching,includingprofessionallearningandstudentlearningAgency-thepowerofindividualsorgroupstochangetheirconditionsortheircontexts

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Culture-thenorms,valuesandideasthatresidewithinaspecificcontextFormal learning - professional learning that takesplace throughorganisedworkshops andprogrammes,lunchhourseminars,teachingconferences,shortcoursesandqualificationsInformallearning-happensthroughdaytodayinteractionswithcolleaguesandpeersintheDepartment.Lecturersalsolearnbydoing,continuedpracticeandexperimentation.Institutional context – the university context, that is influenced by systemic and macroforces,andthatinturninfluencestheworkingconditionsofacademicsStructure - to the social arrangements, power relations and resources available in anycontext.Teaching – engagement with learners to enable their understanding and application ofknowledge, concepts and processes. It includes design, content selection, delivery,assessmentandreflectionLearningtoteach,professionaldevelopmentandprofessionallearning–allrefertolecturerslearningtoteachinformalorinformalsettingsTeaching and Learning Centre –a catch-all phrase to denote units responsible to supportteachingandlearningenhancement,includingprofessionallearning.BionotesVivienneBozalekisaProfessorandDirectorofTeachingandLearningattheUniversityoftheWesternCape.Shehasengagedwithprofessionaldevelopmentofacademicstaffbothataninstitutionalandcross-institutional level. Shehas ledandbeen involvedwithanumberofcollaborative research projects on innovative and socially just pedagogical practices andparticipatorymethodologiesinhighereducation. James Garraway is an Associate Professor and Acting Director of the Centre for HigherEducationat theCapePeninsulaUniversityof Technology.He is involvedwith formal andinformal staff development initiatives for theWestern Cape region, aswell as within theuniversityitself,withaparticularfocusontransitions,whichisalsohisR&Dfocus.Nicoline Herman is the Deputy Director of the Centre for Teaching and Learning atStellenbosch University and is responsible for the institutional professional learningprogramme for newly appointed academics. She completedher PhD studies entitledTherole of context in decisionmaking about professional learning by lecturers at a research-intensiveuniversity,asastudentonthisproject. JeffJawitzisanAssociateProfessorintheCentreforInnovationinLearningandTeachingatthe University of Cape Town. He has played a central role in the development of a

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programmefornewacademicsaswellasinestablishingthePGdipandMastersprogrammeinHigherEducationStudiesatUCT.Brenda Leibowitz has a Chair in Teaching and Learning in the Faculty of Education at theUniversity of Johannesburg. She researches andmanages several projects at the nationallevelandattheUniversityonteachingandlearning,professionallearning,thescholarshipofteachingandlearningandsocialjustice. PatriciaMuhuro isasenioracademicdeveloperintheTeachingandLearningCentreattheUniversityof FortHare. She teachersaswell as coordinates thePostgraduateDiploma inhighereducationand trainingprogramme.Her research interests centrearoundacademicprofessional learning and student retention programmes, particularly those that usetechnologytoenhanceteachingandlearning.CleverNdebele isanAssociateProfessorintheEducationFacultyatNorthWestUniversity.His research interestsare inacademicprofessionaldevelopmentandstudent success. HehasworkedinthefieldofacademicprofessionaldevelopmentpreviouslyattheUniversitiesofVendaandFortHare. Lynn Quinn is Associate Professor and head of department of the Centre for HigherEducation Research, Teaching and Learning at Rhodes University. Shewas integral in thedevelopment of a Postgraduate Diploma in Higher Education for lectures and one foracademic developer. Her interest is in all aspects of academic staff development andbuildingthefieldofacademicdevelopment.SusanvanSchalkwykisProfessorinHealthProfessionsEducationandDirectoroftheCentrefor Health Professions Education in the Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences atStellenboschUniversity.Apart fromher academicdevelopmentwork, shehas aparticularinterest in doctoral education, academicwriting and thementoring of young researchersthroughcollaborativeendeavours.Jo-AnneVorster isa senior lecturer in theCentre forHigherEducationResearch,Teachingand Learning (CHERTL) at Rhodes University. She was involved in conceptualising andteaches on a range of modules on the PGDip (HE) for lecturers and the PGDip (HE) foracademicdevelopers.HercurrentresearchinterestsincludeprocessesforbuildingthefieldofacademicdevelopmentandcurriculumdevelopmentinHE. ChrisWinbergholdsaSouthAfricanResearchChair inWork-integratedLearningand leadstheWork-integratedLearningResearchUnitattheCapePeninsulaUniversityofTechnology.Chris’ research focus is professional and vocational education, with a particular focus onengineering education, the professional development of university teachers and technicalcommunication. ListoffiguresandtablesFigure2.1:Universitytypesbyresearch/PhDsandconcomitanttrends(afterCooper,2015)Figure3.1:Acontinuumofprofessionaldevelopmentandprofessionallearningactivities

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Table2.1:SummaryofparticipatinginstitutionsTable5.1:Organisationoffindingsin5.1Table6.1:SummaryofobjectivesandoutcomesTable8.1:SummaryofrecommendationsAcknowledgementsThankyoutotheresearchersandfield-workerswhocontributedtothedatagatheringandotheraspectsoftheresearch:ChrissieBoughey,JeanFarmer,WendyMcMillan,GitaMistri,JunePym,LindaSheckle,KevinWilliams,JennieWright.Wepay tribute to the contributionofWendyMcMillan,whowas an avidmember of theprojectandwhopassedaway,sadly,on23December2015.FundingfortheprojectwasreceivedfromtheNRFintheformoftwograntsoverasix-yearperiod:2011–2013: Structure,cultureandagency Grantnumber74003.2014–2016: Interplay of structure, culture and agency: A study on professional developmentinhighereducation Grantnumber90353.We are grateful to the participating universities for sanctioning the participation of theirstaffintheresearch,toallintervieweesforagreeingtobeinterviewed,aswellasthosewhofilledinthequestionnaire.

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included three rural institutions, and there were also three ‘research-led’ institutions. Amulti-level and embedded multi-case study was undertaken in order to investigate thesupportforqualityteachingandtheprofessionaldevelopmentofacademicsfromavarietyof perspectives across and in varied institutional contexts. The research approach wascollaborative,participatoryandpractitioner-led,acrossfivedifferentphases.

PhaseoneAtthenationalleveladesktopstudyinvestigatedrelevantnationalpolicies,theinfluenceofnationalorganizationsandassociationsandnationaltrends.

PhasetwoAt each of the participating institutions a series of documents were compiled by teammembersusingjointlydesignedresearchinstruments.Theseincluded:abriefdescriptionoftheinstitutionintermsofsize,shape,geographicalsetting,resourcing,studentpopulation;adiscussionofhowteachingandprofessionaldevelopmentisdescribedinpublicallyavailabledocumentssuchaspoliciesandmissionandvisionstatements;andareflectivediscussionofthe conditions, activities and impact of the professional development unit/centre forteaching and learning (compiled by the head of the relevant unit/centre). In addition,institutionalpolicydocumentsrelatedtoteachingandlearningwerecollated.

PhasethreeAn electronic survey with closed and open questions was distributed to all permanentlyemployedteachingacademicsatalleightparticipatinginstitutionsin2012(n=735).

PhasefourAudio-recorded interviews were conducted by project team members with a range ofacademicsateachparticipatinginstitution(n=116).PhasefiveAt the end of years one, three and six of the project, each researcher wrote a shortreflectionontheirparticipationandtheworkingsoftheproject.Thenationalleveldataandtheinstitutionaldocumentscollectedduringphasesoneandtwowere analysed by sub-groups within the research team. The open answers in thequestionnaires (phase three) and the transcriptions of the interviews (phase four), wereanalysed by project members from each participating institution. Data from the openquestionsinthequestionnairesandtheinterviewswereanalysedaccordingtothefollowingsetofthemes,whichwerearrivedatbytheteamviaathematicanalysis:1. Howgoodteachingisunderstood–itwasfeltthatbeforeonecanunderstandhow good teaching is promoted, it is necessary to describe how this is defined at an institution,andwhetherthereisasharedunderstanding.2.Thestatureofteaching–itsrelativestatusinrelationtoresearch,administrationand communityinteraction;thesignificanceoftheactivityofteachingforacademics.3. How teaching is promoted at the institution – how professional development is

understood to occur, how it is described as being promoted; and how individualsbelieveitshouldbepromoted.

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4. Howindividualsdescribetheirownrolesintheirlearningtoteach.Theresearchfindingsaresummarisedasfollows:1. The role of centres for teaching and learning are acknowledged and academic

developmentstaffareappreciated.Inmanyinstancestheprofessionalconditionsintermsofjobsecurityandabilitytodevelopprofessionallyareunsatisfactory.

2. There is an important role for formal learning opportunities, most notably thePostgraduate Diploma in Higher Education. There is equally, an important role forlearningfrominformalopportunities,forexamplefromcolleaguesinthetearoom,orfrom reflection on one’s own practice. Both forms have strength and limitations.Ideallybothshouldcomplementeachother,ina‘virtuouscycle’.

3. Professional learningwas found to be influenced by the overt valuing, leadership,formalprogrammesandpolicymessagingaboutgoodteaching.Itwasalsofoundtobe influencedby the general qualityof leadership, interpersonal relationships, andinfrastructuralandmaterialconditionsinacademics’professionalsettings.

4. The valuing of the research function over the teaching function is an overridingtensionacrossalltheinstitutionsinthestudy.

5. Where thereare formalor informalnetworksandcollegial relationship focusedonteachingenhancement,theseareperceivedtoplayanextremelysignificantroleformembersof suchnetworks.Manyacademics incontextswhere thesedonotexist,reportameasureofisolationanddiscouragement.

6. Professional learningwas found to be influenced by the overt valuing, leadership,formalprogrammesandpolicymessagingaboutgoodteaching,butitwasalsofoundtobeinfluencedbythegeneralqualityofleadership,interpersonalrelationships,andinfrastructuralandmaterialconditionsinacademics’professionalsettings.

7.Rurality,asitintersectswithdisadvantage,featuresmoreovertlyasasocio-economicindicator than appears to be mentioned in the literature on inequality and social(in)justice.

8. Where thereare formalor informalnetworksandcollegial relationship focusedonteachingenhancement,theseareperceivedtoplayanextremelysignificantroleformembersof suchnetworks.Manyacademics incontextswhere thesedonotexist,reportameasureofisolationanddiscouragement.

9. Individual and group agency influences participation in opportunities to learn toteach.Motivation, anaspectof agency, is influencedby the structural and culturalfeatures in an institution. Institutional structural and cultural affordances are anadditional dimension influencing teaching quality. Equity of teaching and learningopportunitiesarethusinfluencedbyamongstotherfactors,institutionalsettings.

10. Group agency, collegiality and academic leadership are important features thatencourageprofessionallearning,andcanbeconsciouslydeveloped.

11. Collaborative research is an important methodology to generate findings acrosssocio-economic and institutional contexts and to build research capacity.Arrangements internal to the collaboration, as well as external to it, for example,from the institutions where the collaborators work, have an influence on theworkingsoftheproject.

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Thestudyendorsestheconceptof‘professionallearning’thatisbroaderthanthenotionofprofessional development, and is lifelong and agentic. A key finding is that there is acontinuum from formal learning opportunities, more ad hoc and informal learningopportunities, to themost informal of all, ie. learning from one’s own ongoing practice.These are all important. The relationship between these dimensions of learning iscomplementaryandmutuallyreinforcing.Afurthersalientfindingisthevaluingofresearchand/overandaboveteaching,signaledatalleightoftheinstitutions.ThisiscompoundedinespeciallysomeoftheHDIs,wherethereisaconcomitantpressureforacademicstoobtainpostgraduatequalifications in theirdisciplines.An importantarea for further researchandstrategizing in South Africa, as well as other higher education contexts where there arecompetingprioritiesfortheenhancementofscholarshipandcapacitationishowacademicscan enhance their capabilities in amore holistic or integratedmanner, than is at presentmadefeasible.The domain of culture has been shown in the study to be extremely significant inreproducing and transforming dominant ideas about teaching and learning in highereducation. This domain is salient at all institutions, historically advantaged anddisadvantaged. The study equally endorses the view that agency is significant. Acontribution of this project is the suggestion derived from the findings that agency andreflexivity, promote the negotiation of obstacles. Further investigations into how lesscommittedteacherscanbeencouragedtolearntoteach,requiresfurtherconsideration.Finally, the study suggests that inter-institutional large-scale collaborative researchwithinthe South African higher education setting is feasible, but challenging. There are fewguidelines for how to ensure successful collaborative research environments. Suchinformationwould go a longway to support this burgeoning approach. Finally, this studyprocess also points to the interrelationship between research, learning, professionalpractice,thushowvariousformsofscholarshipareinterlinked.A number of recommendations emerged from thiswork relating to issues of professionallearningandmethodology. Insum, theactionssuggestedby thisdocument for immediateattentionatthenationallevelare:1. thatapolicyonprofessional learningwithregardtotheteachingrole(orachapter

within a broader policy document on the professionalization of the HE academiccohort)bewrittendrawingonsomeofthekeyfindingstoemergefromthiswork;

2. that a good practice guide for institutions, academic developers and facultymanagementbecommissioned;

3. thatthelessonsfromthisresearchbeincorporatedintofundingpoliciesoftheDHET(for example, support for good teaching might require focused funding, but inaddition,isdependentonfundingandfunctionalityoftheHEsystemasawholeandonfundingandfunctionalityofindividualinstitutions).

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TABLEOFCONTENTS1 INTRODUCTION1.1 Background1.2 Rationaleandproblemstatement1.3 Focus1.4 Aimsandobjectives2 NATIONALCONTEXT2.1 Introduction2.2 Policydocumentsandimplications2.3 Nationalandprofessionalorganizations2.4 Socio-economicpositioningofSouthAfricanhighereducationinstitutions3 LOCATINGTHESTUDYINTHELITERATURE3.1 Introduction3.2 Formalandinformalprofessionallearningopportunities3.3 Principlesunderpinningtheprovisionofprofessionalacademicdevelopment3.4 TheSouthAfricancontext3.5 Socialrealistaccountofchange3.6 Collaborativeresearch4 RESEARCHDESIGN4.1 Researchapproach4.2 Researchstrategy4.3 Analysisofdata4.4 Parallelstudies5 FINDINGS5.1 Theinterplayofstructure,cultureandagency5.1.1 Opportunitiesforprofessionallearningattheeightinstitutions5.1.2 Beliefsaboutteachingandaboutprofessionallearning5.1.2.1Statusofteaching5.1.2.2Conceptionsofgoodteaching5.1.2.3Beliefsaboutprofessionallearning5.1.3 Conduciveenvironmentforprofessionallearning5.1.4 Lecturers’responsestotheirenvironments5.2 Collaborativeresearch6 DISCUSSION6.1 Introduction6.2 Professionallearning6.3 Institutionalcontextfromasocialrealistperspective6.4 Collaborativeresearch6.5 Strengthsandlimitationsoftheresearchdesign7 SUMMARYOFRESEARCHFINDINGS

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8 RECOMMENDATIONSAppendixOne: PublicationsemanatingfromtheprojectAppendixTwo: QuestionnaireAppendixThree: TemplateforinstitutionalreportsAppendixFourA: ScheduleforinterviewswithlecturersAppendixFourB: ScheduleforinterviewswithVice-Chancellors,DeputyVice- ChancellorsandDeansAppendixFive: Promptsforreflectiveresponsesonresearchprocess

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1 CHAPTERONE:INTRODUCTION1.1 BackgroundThisreportformspartoftheNationalResearchFoundation(NRF)–fundedprojectentitled“The interplay of structure, culture and agency: contextual influences on the professionaldevelopment of academics as teachers in higher education in South Africa” which wasundertakenbyresearchersateightuniversitiesfrom2011to2013,withasecondtrancheoffundingfromtheNRFfrom2014to2016.The project emerged out of a call from the NRF in 2010 for educational research to beundertaken collaboratively, by researchers from at least three institutions, of which oneshould be rural. A team of 18 researchers working in the field of professional academicdevelopment were motivated to become involved in this project as they all worked toenhance teaching and learning in their universities. The team saw this project as anopportunity to reflect on their own institutional contexts andonquality teaching and thewayprofessionallearningwithregardtotheteachingroleissupportedattheirinstitutionsandtheiracademicdevelopmentunits.The project is an investigation into contextual influences on the professional learning ofacademicsasteachers inhighereducationinSouthAfrica. It isbasedonananalysisofthenational context and eight case studies at public higher education institutions. The eightinstitutionsandsitesforthecasestudiesare:CapePeninsulaUniversityofTechnologyDurbanUniversityofTechnologyFortHareUniversityRhodesUniversityStellenboschUniversityUniversityofCapeTownUniversityofVendaUniversityoftheWesternCape.The lead research institution for 2011 – 2013was StellenboschUniversity and for 2014 –2016itwastheUniversityofJohannesburg.1.2 RationaleandproblemstatementThe researchwasundertaken inorder to investigate conditions thatenableand constraintheprofessionallearningofacademicsintheirroleasteachersandhowacademicsrespondto these conditions, in a range of different South African higher education institutionalsettings.Theroleofacademicsasteachers,isbroadlyunderstoodtoencompassteachingasdelivery, programme design, evaluation and the scholarship of teaching. The conditionswhichenableandconstraintheprofessionallearningofacademicsintheirroleasteachers,have notreceivedseriousattention inSouthAfrica.Theefficacyofvariousapproachesto

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academicstaffdevelopmentthroughtheuseofcertifiedcourses,workshops,collaborativeresearchprojectsorgrantsand symbolicawards,hasnotbeen studiedextensively,nor incomparativeprojectsacrosshighereducationsettings.TherehasbeenonlyonepublishedimpactstudyonprofessionaldevelopmentinaSouthAfricanhighereducationcontextthattheauthorsof thisproposal areawareof (Cilliers&Herman,2010). That study concludeswithanendorsementoffurtherresearchthatwillfacilitateunderstandingofthefactorsthatfacilitate and constrain the success of professional development initiatives. Whilstcomparative studies on the efficacy of professional development approaches have beenundertaken inEuropeandAustralia (seeforexampleGibbs&Coffee2004;Postareffetal.2008; Prosser et al. 2006; Weurlander & Stenfors-Hayes 2008), no comparative, inter-institutional study has been conducted in South Africa. Furthermore, findings generatedfrom studies in settings in the global North cannot be applied to contexts such as SouthAfrica,without further investigationand interpretation.Thisstudyseeksto investigatetheroleofinstitutionalcontextinacademics’learningtoteachinSouthAfrica,usingthenotionof the interplaybetween the systemic featuresof structureand culture, and individualorgroupagency.Furthermore, academic developers, ie those who support the professional learning ofacademics, requirea researchbaseandacapacity toundertakeresearchandreflection intheirfieldofwork.Animportantmeanstoextendthisresearchbaseandcapacityisthroughthesharingofexpertise,andoneway toencourage this is throughcollaborative research.Thusitisusefultounderstandthepotentialofthisactivity,aswellasthecontextualfeaturesthatenableandconstrainthis.1.3 FocusWhenthefirstgrantproposal for this researchwaswritten, thefocusof theresearchwasacademics’participationin‘professionaldevelopment’activities.Atthetimeofwritingthisreportagreatersenseofwhatisunderstoodby‘professionaldevelopment’withregardtothe teaching role exists. As will be discussed in the literature review in chapter 3,‘professionaldevelopment’appliestoparticipationinformalprogrammesandopportunitiesthatareprovidedbyacademicdevelopers.Thistermiscontestedbythosewhoadvocatetheuse of the term ‘professional learning’, arguing that ‘professional learning’ emphasises amore life-long,agenticandself-directedapproachto learning. It includesformalaswellasinformalopportunities to learn. ‘Learningtoteach’ isa further termthat isappliedtothisactivity. ‘Professional learning’and‘learningtoteach’drawattentiontotheways inwhichlearning to teachoccursnotonlyviaacquiring theoryand ideasabout teaching incoursesand workshops, but also via ongoing practice, reflection and attention to detail andenhancement. These processes are supported by the social interaction and materialconditions at departmental, faculty and institutional level. Furthermore, as is discussed inthestudy,thereisastronginterrelationshipbetweenmotivationtolearntoteachandthematerialandsocialconditionsthatpromotethismotivation.Thusvarioustermsareusedinthestudy:academicdevelopment,whichisthegenerictermgiven,especiallyinSouthAfrica,tothefieldof teachingand learningsupportandenhancement;professionaldevelopment,when the focus is on the formal opportunities academics have access to; professionallearningor learningtoteach,whenthefocus isontheroleofthe lectureras learner;andteaching,whenthefocusisonconditionsthatenableandconstraingoodteaching-andthus

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indirectly, learning to teach well. ‘Professional learning’ connotes a broader range ofactivities than ‘learning to teach’. It suggests that teaching is a profession, with regularpractices, standards, associations and networks – even though these are not uniformlyupheldandacknowledgedinsociety.Thefocusofthestudyisnotsolelyontheconditionswhichpromotelearningtoteach,butinaddition,theroleoflecturersandhowtheyrespondtotheseconditions.Thefocusofthestudyistheperiodwhendatawascollected(2011–2012)althoughsomeofthestatisticaldatareflectearlieryears,forexampleHEMISdatafrom2009.Thechapteronthe South African higher education setting has an ‘updated’ chapter, as thiswould be ofmoreinterestandvaluetothereaders.Itisevidentthatatmanyoftheuniversitiesspecificconditionshavechanged.Howeverthegeneralstructuralandculturalconditionsattheeightuniversitiesremainsimilartowhattheywerein2011–2012,otherthantheconditionoftheemergenceofthe#Rhodesmustfalland#Feesmustfallcampaigns.Afinaldimensionofthefocusistheoutput,processandexperiencesoftheresearchersinthislargenationalstudy.Thetimescaleforthisis2011–2016.1.4 AimsandobjectivesTheaimsandobjectivesoftheresearchwere:1. to make suggestions about how to enhance professional development/professional

learning1withregardtoteachingateachoftheeightparticipatinginstitutions;2. tomakesuggestionsatthenationallevelforappropriateandcontext-sensitivepolicyto

enhanceteachingandlearninginSouthAfrica;3. tocontribute to the internationaldebatesonprofessionaldevelopmentwith regard to

teachingand learningwithspecificreferencetotheconceptsof ‘structure,cultureandagency’asdevelopedintheworkofsocialrealistMargaretArcher;

4. tocontributetotheinternationaldebatesoncollaborativeresearch;5. tomake suggestionsat thenational level regarding collaborative researchon teaching

andlearningandabouthowtosupportthis2.This report covers the background to the study, the national setting, theoreticalunderpinnings, theresearchdesign,thefindingsanddiscussionof issuesarisingoutofthefindings, and concludeswith recommendations for policy andpractice at various levels ofSouthAfricanhighereducation(HE)asasystem.ThereportcontinuesinChapterTwowithadescription of the structures at the macro level, primarily the regulatory and policyframework affecting teaching development, and thenmoves on to how these disparitiesaffectprofessionallearning,usingtheeightcasesasexamples.1Thechangeofterminologyfrom‘professionaldevelopment’to‘professionallearning’occurredaftertheoriginalfundingproposalwaswritten,asaresultofdebatewithintheresearchteamandtheimplicationsoftheresearchfindings.2Thelasttwoaimswereintroducedinthesecondphaseoftheresearch.

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2 CHAPTERTWO:NATIONALCONTEXT2.1 IntroductionThischapterprovidesabackgroundforthestudy,andanoverviewofnationalpolicy,highereducationorganisationsandsocio-economictrendswhichimpactonhighereducation.One of the assumptions of the project is that the national policy context (amongst otherfactors) has direct implications for professional learning, both across institutions, withininstitutions and within faculties and departments. Therefore it is not possible to look atindividualinstitutionsanddepartmentsasifthesearedistinctorautonomous-notonlyaretheseHE institutions interconnected,but theyare interrelatedwithother spheres suchasprimaryandsecondaryinstitutions(Bozalek&Boughey,2012)3.TheHE landscape inSAhaschangedconsiderablysince the1994 transition todemocracy.Thesechangesimplementedatthelevelofpolicy,legislation,enrolmentsandthenumbersofinstitutions,havefocusedonthedevelopmentofacoherenthighereducationsystemtoprovide a quality learning experience for all – staff and students. Thediversity that existsacross the system is significant, resulting in many national imperatives playing out quitedifferentlyontheground.Thisinstitutionaldifferentiationandthehistoricallegacyinfluencetheemergenceofopportunitiesfortheprofessionallearningofacademics.

In2011studentenrolmentsinhighereducationinSouthAfricastoodat938200,supportedby16935academicstaff(DHET2013).Thefigureforacademicstaffhasremainedrelativelystatic and has not kept pacewith student enrolments, an observationwhich has obviousimplications for conditions related to teaching and learning. In 2012 only 35% of allpermanentacademicstaffmemberswereinpossessionofadoctorate(Cloete,Sheppard&Bailey2013).Theimplicationsoftheincreasingstudentnumbersontheonehandandtherelatively small percentage of academics who can take on the full range of teachingresponsibilities, including the responsibility of doctoral supervision, are considerable. Theneedformorestafftoqualifyathigherlevelshasimplicationsforthedevelopmentoftheirrolesaseducators since theneed todevelop the researcherand the teachercapacityandidentitycanconflictandimpactontimeavailableforeach.

2.2 PolicydevelopmentsandimplicationsThis chapter is based on an overview of policy documents and the regulatory frameworkaffecting higher education in South Africa. The information is complemented by theexperiencesofresearchteammembers,whoworkinthissector.Themostsignificantshiftsatthe levelofpolicywereheraldedbythepassingoftheSouthAfrican Qualifications Authority (SAQA) Act 85 of 1995 which brought into existence theNationalQualificationsFramework(NQF)andtheSouthAfricanQualificationsAuthorityasa‘guardian’ of the framework. The adoption of an outcomes based education (OBE)

3Theideathathighereducationuniversitiesare‘entangled’–boundtotheotherin‘relationsofobligation’(Barad,2010:265)issuggestedbyseveraloftheinterviewswithVCs,anddevelopedatmorelengthinthechapterbyBozalekandMcMillan(inpress,–listedinAppendixOne).

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frameworkhadandcontinues tohave implications foracademicswhohad to learnanew‘language’ to describe their work and had to master a new set of principles informingcurriculum design and assessment. Assessment had to be designed using criterion-basedreferencingandacademicswereexpectedtoengagecriticallywiththenewrequirementsforcurriculumdevelopment.Workshopswereheldthroughoutthecountrytoassistacademicswith thisnewkindofworkbutno formal requirementswere laiddown for academics. In1997 theWhite Paper on Higher Education expanded the brief of the higher educationsectorbylistingitspurposeasbeing:

● to meet the learning needs and aspirations of individuals through thedevelopment of their intellectual abilities and aptitudes throughout theirlives;

● toaddressthedevelopmentneedsofsocietyandprovidethelabourmarket...withtheever-changinghigh-levelcompetenciesandexpertisenecessaryforthegrowthandprosperityofamoderneconomy;

● to contribute to the socialisation of enlightened, responsible andconstructivelycriticalcitizens;

● tocontributetothecreation,sharingandevaluationofknowledge.(p.7-8)

Thesepurposesrequiredachangeinthewayhighereducationingeneralwasunderstoodaswell as theway individual institutionsunderstood their roles. The idea, forexample, thathighereducationshouldprovidegraduatesforthelabourmarkethadinthepastnotbeenacentral concern for the traditional universities. The White Paper signalled the need foracademics to engage with their educator roles at a level above the technical concernsrelated to the development of curricula or the facilitation and assessment of studentlearning.Assuch,ithadprofoundimplicationsforstaffdevelopment.

TheWhitePaperof1997alsoprovided for the introductionofqualityassurance inhighereducationthroughtheestablishmentoftheHigherEducationQualityCommittee(HEQC)asapermanentcommitteeoftheCouncilofHigherEducation(CHE).TheHEQCisresponsiblefor several quality related functions including i) institutional reviews ii) programmeaccreditationiii)nationalreviewsandiv)capacitydevelopment.

The criteria for institutional reviews included one specifically devoted to teaching andlearning. ThefirstroundofinstitutionalauditswasconductedbytheHEQCbetween2004and 2011 (http://www.che.ac.za/media_and_publications/other/audit-status-all-audited-institutions-january-2014).Allinstitutionswererequired,forthefirsttime,toreportonthearrangementstheyhadinplacetoassurethequalityofteachingandlearning,includingthedevelopment of academic staff as educators. The second round of audits was notimplemented as originally conceived and instead the HEQC launched the qualityenhancementprogramme(QEP)whichbeganin2016andfocussedonthedevelopmentofqualitysystemsofteaching.

The1998SkillsDevelopmentActestablishedSectorEducationTrainingAuthorities(SETAs)inanumberofareas. OnesuchSETAisresponsibleforEducationTrainingandDevelopmentPractices.TheSkillsDevelopmentLeviesActof1999establishedaskillsdevelopmentlevytobepaidbyallemployerstoprovidefundingforaNationalSkillsFundadministeredbySETAs.Some universities have used this funding for the development of academic staff as

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educators,whilstatothers the fundshavebeenabsorbed into thegeneralbudgetsof theuniversities.

TheNationalPlanforHigherEducationof2002 ledthewaytoarestructuringoftheSouthAfrican higher education system, through a series of mergers and incorporations thatreduced the number of institutions from 36 to 23,4 clustered in three institutional types:traditional research universities, universities of technology (UoTs) and comprehensiveuniversities.Thisrestructuringhadprofoundimplicationsforacademicsinrelationtotheirteachingroles.EachInstitutionwasrequiredtodevelopasuiteofprogrammeswhichwouldallow them to achieve the mission and vision that had been identified and successfullygraduatestudentsfromtheirsetsofprogrammes.

The so-called ‘research intensive’ universities which were relatively unaffected by therestructuringneededtoconsiderhowtheprivilegingofresearchrelatedtoundergraduateteaching. In a similar fashion, UoTs developed from former Technikons needed to helpacademic staff undergird their curriculawithmore theory on knowledge, technology andsociety.Finally,withininstitutionswhichmovedfrom‘traditional’to‘comprehensive’statusthere were staff who needed to develop the capacity to develop vocationally basedprogrammes.

A newFundingModel forHigher Education introduced in 2003 allocated state funding topublicuniversitiesonthebasisofacademicactivities intheformofteachingandresearchoutputs. The model consisted of two components: i) undesignated block grants and (ii)earmarked grants (Ministry of Education, 2003). The allocation of block grants wasdetermined by institutional research outputs (publication units and researchMasters anddoctoralgraduates),teachingoutputs(completednon-researchdegreesanddiplomas)andteaching inputs (full-time equivalent student enrolments). Block grants also contained adevelopment component related to research and teachingneeds. TeachingDevelopmentGrants(TDGs)wereallocatedwhereoutputsdidnotmeetnationalnorms.Earmarkedgrantswereusedtosupportspecificpurposes,forexample,thefundingofthefoundationphaseofExtendedCurriculumProgrammes(ECPs).

The 2003 Funding Model had profound implications for teaching and learning, not leastbecauseoftherewardswhichwereperceivedtoaccruetoresearch. Insomeinstitutions,the attainment of research outputs became a priority which was managed by means ofperformance appraisal and othermechanisms. This put pressure on staff to research andarguablyjeopardisedtheamountoftimeavailableforteachingandforprofessionallearning.Thepursuitofresearchoutputshasalsoputpressureonstafftocompletehigherdegrees,mostnotably thedoctoraldegree.Again, this impactedon the timeavailable for teachingandforteachingdevelopment.

In principle, TDGs were intended to foster a focus on the enhancement of teaching andcurriculumdesign.Intheinitialyearsthesegrantswerenotlimitedtothispurposeandwerelooselymonitored.Inmanyinstitutionsfewgainsweremadeasaresult.In2008,aWorkingGroupwasestablishedtoreviewtheuseofTDGsandrecommended,amongstotherthingsthat all institutions should be eligible for one regardless of their performance against

4In2016thereare26institutionsaccordingtotheUSAfwebsitehttp://www.universitiessa.ac.za/.

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nationalnorms. Onceagain, theavailabilityofpotential fundinghad implications forstaffdevelopment activities. In some cases it projectivised spending on teaching development,tying it to activities that could be shown to require fundingwithin a three-year cycle, orallocatingmoremoney(andthuscontrol)toteachingandlearningunitsspecifically.Insomecasesitfreedupfundingforcreativeinitiativesinfacultiesandliftedthevisibilityandstatusof teachingdevelopment.At the timeofwriting thisdocument theDHEThas circulatedaproposal for changing the way in which earmarked grants are to be allocated to highereducationinstitutionsfrom2017.ItisproposedthatUniversityCapacityDevelopmentGrantwill now be a combination of the Teaching Development Grant and the ResearchDevelopmentGrants.Itremainstobeseenhowthisnewproposalwillbeimplementedandhow it will impact on teaching and learning. It could reduce the polarisation betweenteachingandresearch,ontheonehand,or itcould increasethecompetitionbetweenthetworoles,especiallyifthesearerepresentedbydifferentrole-playersintheuniversity.

2.3 NationalandprofessionalorganisationsHigherEducationSouthAfrica(HESA),formedin2005,representedthe23Vice-Chancellorsof all South African public universities. Its mandate was to facilitate the development ofpublic policy on higher education and to encourage cooperation among universities,government, industry and other sectors of society. HESA’s strategic plan and framework(2010-2020)madebroad reference to sustaining quality throughout theuniversity systemincludingteachingandlearning,andresearch.Theorganisationchangeditsnamein2015toUniversitiesSouthAfrica(http://www.universitiessa.ac.za/).

A HESA (2011) proposal for growing of the next generation of academic staff highlightedmanyofthekeychallengesfacingthesector.Theseincludedanumberofissuesrelevanttothis research including the inequality across the sector, the very limited ‘postgraduatepipeline’, prevailing cultures in the different institutions, as well as factors relating toacademicssuchasremuneration,mobility,andtheageprofile.Theproposalalsoprovidedastrongrationaleandsubstantialrecommendationsfordevelopingteachingcapacityamongstthenextgenerationofacademics.ThepotentialforthefindingsofthisresearchtosupporttheendeavoursoftheHESAproposalstrengthenedtherationaleforthisstudy.

In 2006 the South African Technology network (SATN) was established to promote theparticular interests of the fiveUniversities of Technologywith sub-committees to addressissues related to teaching and learning, such as assessment andwork-integrated learning.Themandate of the committeeswas to enhance teaching and learning across the sectorthroughsharingpractices.

The Higher Education Learning and Teaching Association of Southern Africa (HELTASA),initiated in 2005, is a professional association for educators and other role-players in thetertiary sector building on the work of its predecessor, the South African Association forAcademic Development (SAAAD). HELTASA encourages collaborative work betweenacademicsandpolicy-makers,statutorybodiesandotherprofessionalassociationswithaninterestinhighereducation.WithinandacrossinstitutionsHELTASAendeavourstopromotenetworkingbetweenstaffincentralunitsresponsibleforenhancingeducationalqualityandfaculty-basedacademicstaffwithascholarlyinterestinteachingandlearning.Assuchithas

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thepotentialtoserveasanimportantdriverintheworktowardsenhancingtheprofessionallearning of academics in their teaching role. In 2009 HELTASA launched the NationalTeaching Excellence Awards in collaboration with the CHE. This initiative served toacknowledge and publicise the concept of teaching excellence. Its function wascomplemented in 2015 by an additional teaching excellence scheme, the TeachingAdvancementatUniversity(TAU)Fellowshipsprogramme,alsoundertheaegisofHELTASA.

HELTASA’smainforumisanannualconferencewhichprovidesopportunitiesfornetworkingand sharing research and experiences. HELTASA also endeavours to support the sectorthrough a range of special interest groups (SIGs). The Professional Development SIG wasformed in 2007 with the goal of establishing a support network for addressing the keychallenges in the professional development of academics. The Academic Developmentleaders SIG supports member in providing leadership for learning and teaching,implementing strategic direction of their institutions and engaging in and promotingresearch in learning and teaching. The remaining SIGs have focussed on FoundationProgrammes, Tutoring and Mentoring, Access and Admissions, E-learning and WritingCentres.

HELTASA therefore, provides a range of enabling opportunities both for the professionaldevelopmentofacademicsintheirteachingroleaswellasforADpractitionerswhoseworkistofacilitatesuchprofessionaldevelopment.Howevertheimpactofthisworkappearstobelimitedtothecommunityofacademicdevelopmentpractitioners.Areviewofthe2011HELTASAmembership listsuggeststhatfewdisciplinaryacademicssawtheorganisationastheirhome(http://www0.sun.ac.za/heltasa/mod/resource/view.php?id=28,2011).

Furtherconferencesfocusingentirelyorinpartonteachingandlearninginhighereducationemerged in the decades after 2000: the South African Educational Research Association(SAERA), which is linked to the American Educational Research Association (AERA) andpromotes researchonhighereducation; and theUniversityofKwa-ZuluNatal’sUniversityTeaching and Learning in Higher Education conference. This has been in addition to theemergenceofseveraluniversities’partiallyin-houseteachingandlearningconferencesandsymposia.

A number of discipline-based national organisations in South Africa focus on aspects ofteachingandlearninginhighereducation.TheSouthAfricanAssociationofHealthEducators(SAAHE)hostsanannualconferencethatattractsADpractitionersandacademicsteachinginthehealthsciences.TheSouthernAfricanAssociationforResearchinMathematics,ScienceandTechnologyEducation(SAARMSTE)hasitsownjournalandprovidessupportforcapacitybuilding in this field. The research-focussed Centre for Research in Engineering Education(CREE) at UCT helped to establish the Society for Engineering Education in South Africa(SEESA)in2011.EachoftheseorganisationscontributestothemosaicthatmakesuptheSAhighereducationlandscapeandinfluencesthepracticeofindividualsacrossthesystem.

Several of the statutory professional bodies in South Africa play a role in the highereducationcontextincluding interaliatheEngineeringCouncilofSA,theHealthProfessionsCouncil of South Africa, the South African Institute for Chartered Accountants, the SouthAfricanCouncilforSocialServiceProfessionsandothers.Manyoftheseprofessionalbodiesrequire that theirmembersearncontinuingprofessionaldevelopment (CPD)pointsand in

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some instances, recognise training in areas of teaching and learning as being appropriateCPDevents.

Thischapterhasshownthatdevelopmentsduringtheprevioustwodecadeshavefocussedontheconstructionofasingleuniformhighereducationsystemtoprovidequalityeducationfor all. Various legislative, financial, governance and infrastructural initiatives have beenundertakentobuildandsteerthenewsystem.Effortstobuildanetworkofopportunitiesfor professional learning of academics have been supported in part by a number ofprofessionalandvoluntaryassociations.

2.4 Socio-economicpositioningofSouthAfricanhighereducationinstitutions

This chapter of the report discusses structural as well as cultural conditions at highereducation institutions.ThechaptermakesuseofCooper’s (2015)divisionofSouthAfricanuniversities into threemain categories or bands, based largely on their research outputs,PhDandMgraduatesandtheirratiosofundergraduatetopostgraduateenrolledstudents.Theeightuniversities inthisstudy,cuttingacrossthespectrumofuniversitytypes (exceptforcomprehensives),providedthebackdropfortheresearchintoenablingandconstrainingconditions for the uptake of professional development offerings. The eight institutionsparticipatinginthestudy,viatheirinstitutionalreports,alsoserveasexamplesofthepointsbeingmadeaboutthesocio-economicdisparitiesbetweeninstitutionsandinstitutiontypes.TheissueraisedisthatSouthAfricanuniversitiesoperatefromanuneventerrain,andthatthismay influencethepotential foruptakeofstaffdevelopment initiatives.Furtherdetailsabout each of the participating institutions, that provide indicators of socio-economicconditions,areprovidedinTable2.1.

An adapted version of Cooper’s (2015) division is provided in Figure 2.1. Two of theuniversitiesinthisstudyfalleachintotheBands1and2,andfouruniversitiesfallinBand3.AccordingtoFigure2.1 there isanupperbandof research-intensiveuniversities,amiddleband of universities with a moderate to good research profile and a lower band ofuniversitieswithaconcomitantlowresearchprofile(Figure2.1).

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Figure2.1:Universitytypesbyresearch/PhD’sandconcomitanttrends(afterCooper,2015)

Interestingly,asCooper (2015)observes, thegreatestburdenof lowsocioeconomicstatus(SES)studentsremainspredominantlywithinthelowerbandofuniversities,wherestudentswouldbeexpected to require themosthelpwith their studies, and so teaching staffmayfacegreater challenges. Furthermore, there isageneral trendofdecreasing staff: studentratios as one moves down the bands (see, in addition, Table 1). In the two upper banduniversitiesinthisstudytherehasnotbeenanincreaseinAfricanstudentsoverthepastfewyears(inonecase,adrop)but,moreimportantlymanyofthesesamestudentsaresecondgeneration university students. The situation is contrasted with the bottom band wherestudentsaremorelikelytobefirstgenerationandgenerallypredominantlyAfrican(see,forexample,thefeederschoolprofilesinTable1).Secondgenerationstudentshaveadistinctadvantage in undertaking university studies as compared to their first generation peers.Furthermore,thoseuniversitiesinthelowerbandsweremorelikelytohavebeenaffectedby themergers, which can, in some cases, create unstable conditions for academic staff.Jansen (2003,p.43,) forexample,notedhow ‘the impactofmergersonstaff, inallcases,hasbeendevastatingfortheemotionalandprofessionallivesofallstaff,atalllevels’.5

5Commentsontheimpactofthemergersarealsorecordedinachapterarisingoutoftheresearch,BozalekandMcMillan(inpress)–listedinAppendixOne.

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Table2.1:SummaryofParticipatingInstitutions6

Institutiontype No. Location Focus Merged Studentpopulation No. ofcampuses

Student/Staffratio(SAIRR2012)

HAIs

1 Urban Research

Eliteschools 3 19to1

2 Urban Research

Eliteschools 4 23to1

3 Rural Research

Eliteschools 1 19to1

HDIs

4 Urban Teaching

andresearch

Disadvantagedschools

3 27to1

5 Rural Teaching Merged Disadvantaged

schools3 34to1

6 Rural Teaching

Disadvantagedschools

1 33to1

UoTs

7 Urban Teaching Merged Disadvantaged

schools8 34to1

8 Urban Teaching Merged Disadvantaged

schools8 41to1

Band1

6Thistablewaspreparedforapaperonthedatacontainedintheinstitutionalreports(Leibowitz,Bozalek,vanSchalkwykandWinberg,2015,listedinAppendixOne).

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Band1,includingHAUs1and2,representsmediumsized,urbanuniversitieswhichtendtobe characterised as ‘top’ universities in the country, as indicated by their high levels ofresearch outputs and their general reputational legitimacy. For example, places in theuniversity are strongly contested for by candidates and many of the feeder schools arerecognisedasbeingthe‘bestinthecountry’.Asaresult,HAUs1and2areabletoattracthighlyqualifiedstaffandenrolthehighestachievingschoolleaversintotheirprogrammes.The staff:student ratio is relatively low, at about 1:21. Although such students mayexperience economic, social and learning difficulties, these are relatively small in numberwhencomparedtothoseofstudentsattheHDUs.

These HAUs have not been subject to any form of merger. They are not, however,historically and culturally equivalent. The one has a long history of student support,particularly,forlowerSESstudentsandwastheforefrontinthecountryinthedevelopmentof alternative admissions and innovative teaching practices, even though thesemay havebeen contested terrains within the university (Kloot, 2009). The other ‘top’ university,though currently more strongly engaged in teaching and learning, does not have thishistorically developed culture, and academic development staff hold predominantly non-academicpositions.

Band2

ThesecondgroupofuniversitiesinFigure2.1fallswithinthemiddle,averageresearchandPhDgraduateband.ThisisrepresentedinthestudybyHAU3andHDU4.

Thefirstuniversitywithinthisstratification,HAU3,isasmalluniversitysituatedawayfromeconomichubsyetwhichpridesitselfonbothitsstrongresearchandteachingandlearningfocusdespiteitssemi-ruralpositioning.In2010thisuniversityhadthebestthroughputrateinSouthAfricaandthisstillremainshigh,withfurthermoreafavourableandcomparativelylow staff student ratio of 1: 19 (Table 2.1) alongsidemore elite feeder schools. It is alsocharacterised by a strong, academically-employed and orientated teaching and learningcentre,isabletoattractwellqualifiedstaffandstudentsfromtheupperechelonsofschoolleavers. Theuniversityhas,throughjudiciousemploymentofwell-qualifiedacademicstaffin their teaching and learning centre taken something of a central role in the field ofacademicstaffdevelopment.Furthermore,theteachingand learningcentrehashadmuchsuccess in taking theirdevelopmentalmessage toa significant groupof academic staff, inpart made possible through the commitment of senior management over time to thisproject.

Theseconduniversity inthismiddleband,HDU4, isthatofamediumsizedHDUinaperi-urban area. This university has a long and proud tradition of activism and resistance todiscrimination in society and in education. Though predominantly a ‘coloured’ universitythestudentpopulationisbecomingincreasinglyAfrican,withcolouredstudentsonlymakingupabout47%ofthestudentbodybetween2012and2016asopposedtoover80%before1994 (Cooper, 2015). Theuniversity appears to beon a rapid growth curve in developingitself as a research university, and recently moved into the more top group of researchuniversities,ratherthanbeingsituatedwiththelessresearchintensiveHDUs.Despitethis,the renewed focus on research does not seem to have been at the expense of acommitment to improving teaching, and staff tend to be active in their engagementwithteachingand learningopportunities,eventhoughthere isarelativelyhighstaff tostudentratioof1:30.Notwithstanding this, the teachingand learningcentrecomprisesonesenior

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staff member and a small cohort of faculty teaching and learning specialists distributedacross theuniversity rather thanbeinghoused in a central unit. Therewas in thepast alarge and vibrant unit thatwas effectively closed bymanagementwithmany of the stafftakingonleadingpositionsinteachingandlearningunitsinotheruniversities.Thisservestoemphasisethepointoftenmadeaboutacademicdevelopmentcentres inSouthAfricaandelsewhere,thatis,thattheyareoftenvulnerableandsubjecttorestructuring(Palmer,Holt&Challis,2011;Gosling,2009A;B).

Band3

SituatedinBand3areUoTs7and8andHDIs5and6.InexaminingFigure2.1andTable1,itappearsthatuniversitiesinBand3areinsomewhatofadoublebind.Theyare,firstly,oftenburdenedwith large numbers of studentswhomay requiremore significant support andtimedevotedtoteachingthanisthecasewiththemoreeliteuniversities.Atthesametimethereisapushinsomeoftheseuniversitiesforstafftoimprovetheirresearchoutputs,yettheystartfromalowbaseofresearchexpertiserequiringmuchefforttonavigatethisgap.Consequently, such staff may experience difficulty in finding time for staff developmentinitiatives,eventhoughtheremaybeagreatneedforsuchsupport.Inadditiontothisthereare less resources at these lower band institutions for both students and staff due tohistoricallegaciesofprivilege(Bozalek&Boughey,2012).

UoTs7and8,fall intothelowestresearchband.Thesearebothmergedinstitutions. Pre-merger the then-Technikons consisted of regional, minority black (indian and coloured)establishments and predominately white establishments. Post 1994, the ratio of Africansincreasedtoover60%,upfromanearlierfigureofapproximately10%.Therehasthusbeenasubstantiveshiftindemographics.Furthermore,theseuniversities,inpartbecauseoftheirlowerentrancerequirementsandfeesandtheirperceivedclosenesstothejobmarket,tendtoattractmorelowersocio-economicstatus(SES)students(Cooper,2015).

TheUoTsarelargetomediumsizedinstitutionshavingstudent:staffratiosofapproximately40:1 (seeTable2.1). In the institutional reports itwas reported thatat theseUoTs teachmore intensively and hence find less time for staff development than lecturers in otheruniversities.

BoththeUoTshighlightedtheimportanceoffocussingoninnovativetechnologicalsolutionsinsociety.However,theyarealsoincreasinglyunderpressuretoraisetheirresearchprofilesand outputs so as to be seen to bemore on parwith the research intensive universities,though this may be more of a focus and mission from management rather than agroundswell,cultural issuewithintheuniversity.Consequently,aswiththemoreresearch-intensive universities, finding time and opportunity for academic development may beconstrained.

In respect of the merger, tensions still simmer around a plethora of unresolved mergerissues;forexample,differentconditionsofservice,salariesandaccesstopromotionaswellas larger issues ofmerging different cultures, a concern thatwas never adequately dealtwithatthetimeofthemergers(Reddy,2007).Theseissueswerehighlightedinrecentstaffdisruptions (EyeWitnessNews, 20/4/2016) at oneof theseuniversities,which resulted inthecessationofteaching.Thedisruptionsweredirectlyattributedtothesehumanresource(HR) and cultural differences. These issuesare furtherdiscussed later in this reportunderthechapter‘conduciveenvironmentforprofessionallearning’.

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Despite thesedifficulties,both institutionscurrentlysupport teachingand learningcentreswith staff employed on academic contracts, rather than their being seen as simplyservice/administrative staff, as is the case at several other institutions. Thus despite thecontradictions and difficulties academic staffmay experiencewith taking up teaching andlearning development opportunities, the universities themselves seem to value academicdevelopmentstaffbyaffordingthemsuchstatus.

Within this lower band research group, there are two medium-sized, rural, historicallydisadvantageduniversities, (HDUs5and6),relativelydistallysituatedfromeconomichubsandotheruniversities.Oneoftheseuniversitieshasbeenmerged.Theseuniversities,alongwiththeUoTs,attractmore lowerSES,oftenAfricanstudentsanddonotnecessarilyhavetheacademichistoricalreputationtoattractthemostqualifiedacademicstaffascomparedtothetopuniversities.Furthermore,ithasbeenobserved,thatstaffturnoverintheseruralareas is higher than in urban areas and thismakes less effective initiatives aimed at staffdevelopmentwhere there is not necessarily amore permanent and substantive group of‘trained’ staff.Despite this theyhave vibrant teaching and learning initiatives and centrespopulated by staff on academic contracts and, at least in one case, strong reputationalcachetasauniversitythathasdevelopedfutureleadershipinSouthAfrica.

Boththeseuniversitieshavelowerstaff:studentratiosthantheUoTs,butstillrelativelyhighat 1:32 (Table 2.1),which, it can be suggested, has an impact on opportunities (time) forstaffdevelopment. Theyalsoexperienceupwardpressure to increase researchoutputs toimproveresearchrankings.

Inconcludingthischapter, it ispossibleto identifypatternsofuniversitytypes(Figure2.1)and trends (Figure 2.1 and Table 2.1) which accord with these general patterns.Furthermore, these trends appearmatched todistinct difficultieswhich staff in the lowerresearchintensiveuniversitiesarelikelytoencounterintheirteaching;and,byassociation,whetherandwhatsortsofacademicdevelopmenttheyarelikelytoengagewith.However,as has emerged in this chapter, this is only one side of the story. A more fine-grainedunderstandingofthecontextsandhistoriesoftheindividualuniversitiesisalsonecessaryinorder to understand what may enhance or hold back staff’s take-up of academicdevelopmentopportunities.

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3 CHAPTERTHREE:LOCATINGTHESTUDYINTHELITERATURE

3.1 IntroductionThis chapter comprises a review of three bodies of literature informing the study:professional learning; a social realist approach to change and context; and collaborativeresearch.The idea that academic staffmight benefit fromeducational development enteredhighereducation in the 1960s, coinciding with the massification of higher education, rapidtechnologychanges,pressurestopublish,andchangesinthinkingabouttheroleandnatureof higher education (Grant et al. 2009). In South Africa, the arrival of democracy andincreased access to higher education shifted understandings of the role of universityteachersfromstudentdevelopment(the‘underprepared’student)toteacherdevelopment(the ‘underprepared’ teacher and, by implication, the ‘underserved’ student) (Volbrecht2004;Boughey2007).Theagendaforstaffdevelopmenthasstruggledtofindcoherenceinthepost-apartheidcontextwith its increasingpressuresof teaching, research,publication,institutional transformation, community engagement and systems of ‘hard’management.There is subsequently little shared understanding between academic developmentpractitioners and university managers of the priorities for academic staff development.Practices have, at times, been contradictory: discourses of social justice blend withdiscourses of student deficit, while modernist approaches to development persist, evenwhile it is acknowledged that these approaches fail to address key issues (Bozalek &Boughey, 2012; Bozalek & Dison, 2012). Global trends have influenced academic staffdevelopmentinSouthAfrica,althoughthelocalcontexthasplayedacriticalroleinshapingits meaning and scope; there are thus important differences between South Africanunderstandingsofprofessionallearninganddominantinternationalversions(Gosling2009AandB).Thischaptercontainsanoverviewoftheliteratureontheprofessionallearningofacademicstaffintheirteachingroles.Itbeginswithasurveyoftheinternationalliteratureonformaland informal provision, then explores some of the underpinning principles on which thisprovision is based, and finally looksmore closely at the importance of the South Africancontext inwhichprofessionalacademicdevelopment issituated.The literature is followed

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bytheconceptualframeworkthatguidesourownunderstandingofprofessionallearningofuniversityteachers.3.2 FormalandinformalprofessionallearningTheinternationalliteraturedescribesawiderangeofprofessionaldevelopmentactivitiesinsupportofacademicstaffintheirteachingroles:seminars(Boud1999),workshops(Steinertet al. 2006), formal programmes (Butcher & Stoncel 2012), educational research grants(Brew2012),teachingacademies(Olsson&Roxå2013),departmental‘workgroups’(Trowler2008),collegialnetworks–bothface-to-face(Walker2001;Vogel2009)andonline(Duncan-Howell 2009), consultations and peer review processes (Sachs & Parself 2014), such asteaching awards (Wright et al. 2004) and teaching portfolios for ad hominem promotion(Seldin2004;Trowler&Bamber2005).Anumberoftermshaveevolvedtodescribethesepractices, such as ‘academic staff development’ (Ballantyne, Borthwick & Packer 2000);‘educational development’ (Amundsen & Wilson 2012; Cilliers & Herman 2010),‘professional academic development’ (Quinn 2012), ‘professional development’ (Guskey2002)and‘professionallearning’(Boud2005;Knight,Tait&Yorke2006).Thetermshavehistoriesofusageanddifferentnuances(Leibowitz2016),e.g.,‘educationaldevelopment’ has largely been understood as comprising taught courses, something thatacademic developers provide for academic staff (Webster-Wright 2009), implying amorepassive role for university teachers, while the term ‘professional learning’ (Knight et al.2006) implies amore active role for university teachers in pursuit of their own learning.Regardless of the ‘baggage’ that these termsmay carry, the literature suggests that both‘professionaldevelopment’ and ‘professional learning’ are relevantpractices in supportofimprovedstudentlearning(Mayer&Lloyd2011).The literature claims a variety of benefits for a range of professional development andlearning practices – from theory-based learning on formal programmes to less formalpractice-based learning throughmentoring or critical reflection on practice.While taughtprogrammestendtoforegroundtheory,itisnotonlyinformalprogrammesthatuniversityteachers engage with learning theories. Participants in seminars and reading circles alsoengage deeplywith educational theory. Similarly, it is not only through informal learningthat university teachers deepen their engagement with practice; formal systems for adhominem promotion, for example, require teaching portfolios that involve candidates indeveloping rich, detailed descriptions of their practice. Professional development andlearning can be group-based (e.g., participation in teaching and learning networks andprojects) or individual (e.g., a staff member engaging with student feedback on his/herteaching).Theliteraturethussuggeststhatarangeofbothformalandinformal, individualand group, theoretical and practice-based learning opportunities are important forprofessionalgrowthanddevelopment,fromenrolmentonformalprofessionaldevelopmentprogrammestoparticipationininformalsupportivenetworks.Theterminologynotedabovehasalsoshiftedinemphasisfromeducationaldevelopmentoracademic staff development to professional development and professional learning. Theshiftfrom‘learningtoteach’(Ramsden1992)to‘professionallearning’(Knightetal.2006)isindicative of the growing importance of the professionalization of teaching in higher

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education, despite its continuing lesser status in relation to research (Brew 1999).Professionalism is predicated on the idea that the professional can apply systematicknowledge to practice; Eraut (1994) describes this as a key attribute of a profession. Asprofessionals, university teachers would be expected to possess systematic knowledgerelated to teachingand learning since systematic knowledge isboundupwith the ideaofprofessional judgment (Evans 2008; Winch 2015). University teachers should be able tolegitimate their actions through appeal to the systematic knowledge base that underpinstheirpracticeand toemploy it indecision-making (Edwards&Daniels2012).Eraut (1994)believesthatthepersonalattributesofconfidence,commitment,opennesstofeedbackanda deep professional commitment to the value of one’s work is essential in professionalpractice. In professional learning, the flow of knowledge is not necessarily oneway only.Professional communities themselves take part in knowledge creation (Nerland & Jensen2012).Inthecontextofuniversityteaching,GoslingandO’Connor(2006)proposeaReviewof Professional Practice (RPP)model, a non-judgemental collaboration between academicdevelopersandacademicstaffforthepurposesofprofessionallearning.Theimportanceoforganisationalcultures,practicesandsupporthasbeenrecognisedascritical,asthe‘lackoforganisational support can sabotage any professional development effort, evenwhen theindividualaspectsofprofessionaldevelopmentaredoneright’(Guskey2002,48).

The emphasis on informal opportunities to learn has been accompanied by the view thatlearning thatoccurs in themicro setting ismore significant than thatwhichoccursas theresultof centrallyprovided formal learningopportunities (Knight, Tait&Yorke,2006) andtherefore,thatattentiontotheworkenvironmentiscrucialtoensureprofessionallearning(Boud & Brew, 2013; in press). It is suggested by McKinney (2006), Bozalek, McMillan,Marshall, November, Daniels and Sylvester (2014) and Buller (2015) that within suchenabling environments, lecturers and teaching are valued both by peers and bymanagement. According to McMurray and Scott (2013) a climate that fosters learningdisplaysattributesofsupport,trustandfairness,andinnovationandrecognition.Accordingto Trigwell (2012) the feelings evoked by, and towards, our contexts, are of moresignificancethananypermanentemotionaldispositionswemighthave.ThisissupportedbyCostandius (2012), stating that the emotional reactions of humans usually revealcharacteristics of their environments. Cultivating caring environments at institutions ofhigher education could therefore be a potentially productive approach to enhance thedecision making of academics for participating in professional learning opportunities forteaching (Herman, 2015). The literature has cited factors other than interpersonalrelationshipsasimpactingonprofessionallearning.Forexampleworkloadhasbeencitedasafeatureaffectingprofessional learningbyacademics innationalandinternationalstudies(Kahn, 2009; Cilliers & Herman, 2010; Boud & Brew, 2013; Clarke & Reid, 2013). Theinfluenceofcultureinthelocalizednetworkorthe‘microculture’forteachingandlearninghasbeendemonstrated ina research intensiveuniversity inSweden (Roxå&Mårtensson,2009). Roxå (2014:abstract/n.p.) makes the point that they ‘provide opportunities forprofessional sophistication as well as for defensive withdrawal from the organizationalcontextsurroundingthem’.3.3 Principlesunderpinningtheprovisionofprofessionalacademicdevelopment

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The research literature on academic staff development points to both the importance ofrelevant theoretical knowledge forunderpinningpracticeand thatof supportivenetworksfor collaborative learning from experience, critical reflection on practice and widerparticipation (Mayer&Lloyd2011).Academic staffdevelopmentcouldbe locatedalongacontinuumwithlargelytheory-basedlearningattheoneendofthecontinuumandinformal,practice-basedacquisitionattheotherend. Theory

PHD(HE)MPhil(HE)PGDip(HE(T&L)

SeminarsReadingCircles

Formal

Non-formal

Teaching Portfolios (eg., forAdhominenpromotion)Accreditation

ShortcoursesWorkgroupsMentoring

Practice Figure3.1:acontinuumofprofessionaldevelopmentandprofessionallearningactivitiesThe different positions on the plane above correspond to Ryle’s (1949) classic distinctionbetween‘knowingthat’(theoreticalknowledgethatunderpinspractice)and‘knowinghow’(skilful practice). Schwandt (2005) explains these positions in terms of two models ofprofessionallearning.InModel1,practicesareunderstoodtobeunderpinnedbyrelativelyfixed bodies of disciplinary knowledge that can be applied to well-defined problemsituations. Model 2, on the other hand, involves practitioners in purposefully andcooperatively redefining problems and developing newways of doing through interactionwithoneanotherandwithmaterialobjectsinthesiteofpractice.AlthoughtherearealwayselementsofModel1inModel2,thelatterhasgreaterrelevancetopractice.Therearemanyvariants along this continuum, and different professions tend to have a preference fordifferentpositionsalongthecontinuum.Academicstaffdevelopmenthasoccurred intheabsenceofanexpliciteducationalmodel,althoughthepracticehasbeenhybrid,teachingboththeunderpinningtheoryinclassroom

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settings (Model1),withthe inclusionofcontextandpracticethroughcritical reflectiononpracticeor throughpractice-based assignments (Model 2). Academic staff are required tolearnon-the-job fromdayone, oftenwithout guidance,mentoring or support. Separatinguniversityteachersfromtheirdepartmentsintogenericstaffdevelopmentspacesmightbeinappropriate,particularlyifitpromotesdecontextualizedteaching‘skills’.AsWengerpointsout,theworkplaceshouldbethecentralarenaforprofessionallearning;foregroundingthetrainingroom(oronlineequivalent)asthemainsiteoflearningteachestheprofessionaltobeastudentratherthanapractitioner(Wenger1998).Itcanbedifficultforacademicstaffto relate theoretical knowledge to practicewhenmaking the transition from the trainingroom to their own classrooms. In this regard it is important for academic developers tounderstandsomethingofthesituatedworkplacesoftheuniversityteacherswhomtheyaresupporting(McAlpine&Harris1999;Boyd,Smith&Beyaztas2015).GoodteachingCentraltotheideaofteachingexcellenceintheliteratureis‘reflectivepractice’.Reflectivepracticeisthebedrockofprofessionalidentity(Schön1987).Reflectingonperformanceandacting on reflection has long been understood as a professional imperative in highereducation (Barnett 1997). Reflective practice is understood as the process of learningthroughandfromexperiencetowardsgainingnewinsightsofselfandpractice(EdwardsandDaniels 2012; Reich & Hager 2014; Siebert & Walsh 2013). This involves examining theassumptionsofeverydaypracticeandrequirespractitionerstobeself-awareandtocriticallyevaluate their own responses to practice situations. By engaging in critical reflection,practitioners open themselves to scrutiny, and thusmight become subject to self-controland self-surveillance (Zembylas 2006) but, if implementedmeaningfully, reflection invitespractitionerstoquestiontheethics,valuesandunderpinningtheoriesthatformthebasisoftheirpractice.Assuch,reflectiononpracticeoffersapotentialchallengetoexistingpracticesinhighereducation.Dewey (1910)was an early proponent of the importance of reflection for rational action.Dewey’sprinciplesofreflectivepracticeweretakenupbySchön(1983;1987)whoextendedthese principles to explain skilful practice, including the teaching of skilful practitioners.LaterscholarsarguedthatSchön’sconceptualframeworkignoredtheimportanceofcontextinpracticeinprofessionaleducationandintroducedtheconceptofcriticalreflection.Freire(1985) introduced this concept, understanding that teachers and their students shouldbeliberated from social oppression, and making the point that teachers make consciouspolitical choices, such as to be ethical in thoughts and actions. Excellent teachers, Freireargues, are disposed to change: they acknowledge their personal attitudes and are self-aware of the process of change. Freire saw critical reflection as the culmination of amovement from social conditioning to critical reflection towards praxis. Mezirow (2000)proposesthreetypesofreflectionfortransformativeaction:‘contentreflection’inwhichthesubjectthinksdeeplyaboutthecontentofwhatwastaught/learned;‘processreflection’inwhich the subject considers andevaluates the strategies used to teach/facilitate learning;and ‘premise reflection’ inwhich the subject confronts personal assumptions and values.Theconcepthasenteredmany fieldsofeducation.BryanandRecesso (2006) incomputer

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engineeringdescribeteachers’reflectiveactivitiesasadeepengagementwithvalues,beliefsandassumptions.Critical reflection is thus intellectuallyunsettling; itsoutcome ischangedpractice, with a social justice focus across many fields and professions (Benade 2015).Critical reflection ‘lays bare the historically and socially sedimented values atwork in theconstruction of knowledge, social relations, andmaterial practices . . . it situates critiquewithin a radical notion of interest and social transformation’ (Giroux 1983: 154-155).Critically reflective teachingpractice challengesboth strategies andbeliefs about teachingandlearningwithinthewidersocio-economicandpoliticalfabricofsocietyandisconcernedwithexposingandchallengingdiscourses,narrativesanddiscursivepracticesatplaywithinsociety.Recentstudieshavesuggestedthattheknowledge-baseforhighereducationteachingandlearning has not stabilised into a systematic body of knowledge (Vorster & Quinn 2012),although,aspointedoutabove,therehaslongbeenanunderstandingthatknowledgebuiltthrough critically reflective practice contributes significantly to professional learning(Brookfield 1995; VanMannen 1995). While ‘critical reflection’ remains the mainstay ofprofessional learning (see e.g., Ashwin et al. 2015), there is emerging critiqueof this (seee.g.,Bozalek&Zembylas2016),aswellasanemergingbodyofknowledgethathasbecomefairly standard in both formal and informal learning at introductory and more advancedlevels, suchas the roleand importanceof thehighereducation context, learning theories(particularlysocialconstructivism)andlearning-centredpedagogies(withagrowingfocusonICTsforteachingandlearning),Constructivealignment(Biggs2000),‘epistemologicalaccess’to disciplinary knowledge (Morrow 2004) (and what this means for challenging deficitunderstandings of student learning), ‘threshold concepts’ (Meyer & Land 2006) andgraduateattributes(Barrie2006),including‘employability’(Barrieetal.2010).3.4 TheSouthAfricancontextMuchofSouthAfricanaspirationsforsocialandeconomictransformationarevestedinthework and roles of academic staff (CHE 2016). Undoubtedly, professional academic staffdevelopment and learning is needed in the South African higher education context andacademic staff developers have a role to play in helping universities to create enablingconditionsandtobuildcapacityforteachingandlearning.Thereisgrowingunderstandingintheliteraturethatthebroadercontexts,suchasthetypeofuniversity(researchintensive,teachingintensive)(Clegg2009;Cooper2015),thenatureof thedisciplineor vocational/professional programme (Maton,Hood&Shay2016;Boyd,Smith&Beyaztas2015); the institutionalcontext (Wrightetal.,2004;); thedepartmentalculture (Trowler 2008; Guskey 2002) as well as the resources available for teaching andlearning–whether theseareappropriateandadequate for largegroup teaching (Gibbs&Jenkins 1997) laboratory-based teaching (Bates & Poole 2003) or ICTs for teaching andlearning(Laurillard2002;Bozalek,Ng’ambi&Gachago2013;Czerniewicz&Brown2013)–impactstronglyonwhatteachersareabletoachieve.The literature on universities in rural settings has been dominated by ‘deficit’understandings of rurality, such as geographic remoteness, low educational levels of thepopulationandarangeofother‘difficulties’(White&Corbett2014).Ruralityisunderstood

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to be a demographic aswell as social category, which intersectswith other indicators ofsocialinequality.Ingeneralitimpliesdistancefromurbancentres,sparsepopulation,lackofamenitiesandinfrastructure,andmaterialandsometimessocialdeprivation.ThusintheSAcontext history and geography intersect; whether a university was ‘previouslydisadvantaged’ and continues tobeunder-resourced,whether its physical locationaffectsthe institution’s ability to attract and retain academic staff, and in this way, impact onteaching quality7 Disparities in staff-student ratios, access to resources and a studentpopulationthatformanyandcomplexreasonsisunderpreparedforuniversitystudy,servestoperpetuatehistoricalinequitiesinteachingandlearningpracticesinruralinstitutions(leRoux&Breier2012).Mgqwashu(2016)arguesthathighereducationencouragesstudentstoturnagainstrurallifeandthatthe‘socialgoods’ofhighereducationinSouthAfricacannotbeconsideredwithoutreferencetorurality.Contextualdifferencesimpactonthenatureofacademicworkacrosscontexts.Forexample,teaching in a poorly resourced context with a 1: 80 staff to student ratio of largelyunderprepared undergraduate students makes different demands on an academic staffmember than teaching in a research-intensive,well-resourced institutionwhere there aremanymorepostgraduatestudents.Intheformercase,academicstaffwouldhaveaprimaryteaching focusandputtingpressureon such lecturers toboth improve theirqualificationsandpublishinaccreditedjournalsmightnotbeappropriateintermsoftheircontext;onthecontrary such pressure will draw resources and energies away from much neededundergraduateteachingandlearning.The key contextual features associated with history, geography and resources cannot beignored inanunequal society likeSouthAfrica.For instance,nationalpoliciesexpected tolead to theenhancementof teachingand learning shouldnotbebasedprimarilyongoodpracticeateliteinstitutions,norsolelyontheneedsofdisadvantagedinstitutions.Adeeperunderstanding of context across higher education institutions could provide insights thatmightbetterinformpolicyatthenationallevel–e.g.,isthepushforthePhDappropriate?Should all funding/ranking be based on research outputs? Should teaching-intensiveuniversitieshaveanotherrankingsystem?3.5 ThesocialrealistaccountofcontextandchangeThe literature on international and South African professional academic developmentreveals professional learning as multi-layered and extremely complex. Theoreticalconsistencyisrequiredtoaddressstaffdevelopmentconsciouslyandcriticallyandthesocialrealist tradition offers a way of understanding the interplay of the dynamics of change,power, causality and agency in teaching and learning systems. Work on professionaldevelopmentandlearninginSouthAfricahasdrawnonsocialrealismtorevealthe‘deeperlevelsofreality’(Quinn2012:47)andtoexplorethecausalpowerofthesystemaswellasthe agency of teachers, and to do so in a nuanced manner, taking into account thecomplexityofthemulti-directionalrelationshipsthatexist.Italsotakesintoaccounthistory

7Theseissueshavebeenuncoveredbyarticlesemanatingfromtheresearch–forexample(Leibowitzetal.2015;Ndebele,MuhuroandNkonki,inpress-listedinAppendixOne)

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andsocialstructure,butatthesametime,allowsforaninvestigationintotheroleofhumanagencyandcreativity.Ourstudy isbasedonthe ideathat thehighereducationsystemconsistsof twodomains:structure and culture. The structural domain typically comprises ‘roles, organisations,institutions, systems’ (Archer 1996: 1). Culture is understood as the dominant register ofideasorpropositions,andisnotalwayscoherentorunitary(Archer1995).ArcherandElder-Vass(2012)understandcultureasemergingfromiterativecyclesofinteractionbetweentheculturalsystemandsocioculturalinterpretations.Inanysettinganentitywillhaveculturalorstructural properties (Elder-Vass 2010). These properties will create enablements orconstraints. It ishowthey interplaywiththethirddomain–humanagency–that leadstothevariabilityofoutcomeinanysituation.Agencyisderivedfromhumanreflexivity(Archer2007), a process of internal deliberation in which concerns, commitments andknowledgeabilityplayarole.Archer’s(2007)notionthatactionsdependonourknowledgeability impliesthatreflexivityalone is insufficient to characterize how individuals respond to their conditions. A usefulconceptforinvestigatinghighereducationinstitutionsandtheirroleinfosteringeducationaldevelopment (or lack thereof) is thatof ‘emergence’.According toElder-Vass (2010,p.8),multiplepropertiesofanentitycaninterferewithorreinforceeachother,leadingtomanypossible outcomes. Elder-Vass writes, ‘Causal efficacy is a product of the parts and therelations combined’ (2010, p. 23). This is important when considering how universitiesproduce varied educational outcomes: we need to consider the parts that make up theorganization,andhowtheyinteract,atdifferentlevels.Ourframeworkthustakes‘context’tobeasetofrelationshipsofvariouspropertieswhichcanbeanalysedinrelationtothedomainsofstructure,cultureandagency.Thesedomainsareseparatedforthepurposesofunderstandingtheinterplayofrelations,buttheyarenotseparate entities in their own right. Contexts, in the case of individual higher educationinstitutions,arethesettingsinwhichthesystemicrelationsinteractwiththeindividual.Transforming our positions in society is possible but ‘their transformation depends partlyupon the subjective reflexivity of primary agents in seeking to play an active part in re-shaping society’s resource distribution’ (Archer 2000: 11). Primary agents can respond tosocialorinstitutionalstructuresandculturesbyformingnewcollectivitiesthatshareadesirefor transformative action.As such, theybecome corporate agents. Corporate agentshave‘capacitiesforarticulatingsharedinterests,organisingforcollectiveaction,generatingsocialmovementsandexercisingcorporateinfluenceindecision-making’(Archer2000:266).Thecapacity tobringabout social transformation isaccomplished throughparticularmodesofreflexivity. Archer argues thatwhile structural properties shape the situations that agentsface,theirmodesofreflexivitydefinetheirconcerns,andthatsocialpracticesareproducedfromagents’ reflexivedeliberations.Archeralso refers togroupagency,a concept furtherdevelopedbyDonati,whomaintainsthatcorporateagencycanbefostereddeliberatelybyculturalandstructuralfeatures(Donati,2010),3.6 Collaborativeresearch

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Collaborative research refers to projects that seek to contribute to the scholarship in thefield by bringing together a group of researchers within that field as co-investigators. Itimpliesasharingofactivitieswithinaprojectwitheveryoneworkingtowardsasharedgoal.The term ‘community of enquiry’, was used by Christie et al (2007) to stress that thecollaborationleadstonewknowledge.Thenatureofthecollaborationisoftendeterminedbythediscipline.Forinstance,thoseinthenaturalsciencesoftenrepresentamuch‘tighter’or structured relationship where the same design and instruments are used. A loosecollaborationandsharing mightbe thecase in thehumanitiesandsocial sciences (Lewis,Ross&Holden,2012).Eitherway,collaborativeworkisrecognisedasbeingcomplex(Kahnetal.2012;Sullivanetal2010)andnotwithout significantchallenges.Theopportunity toshareexpertise,particularly intermsofresearchpractice,andtobeexposedtoarangeofperspectivesandpositions, isdesirableandstudiespointtoenhancedqualityofoutcomes(Kezar2005,Kahnetal2012).An importantoutcomeofcollaborativeresearchcanbetheprofessional learning of those involved in the project (Leibowitz, Bozalek, Carolissen,Nicholls, Rohleder & Swartz, 2012; Cox 2006;Walker 2001; Smith,MacKenzie, &Meyers2014).Work that has focussed on collaborative educational research has identified a range ofissuesthatcanaddtothecomplexityoftheengagementinsuchprojects.Theseincludethesizeordiversityof the group (Brewet al. 2012), its disciplinary composition (Bossio et al.2014) and other features such as power dynamics and social and educational histories(Griffin,Hamberg&Lundgren,2013).An importantoutcomeofcollaborative researchcanbetheprofessionallearningofthoseinvolvedintheproject(Leibowitz,Bozalek,Carolissen,Nicholls, Rohleder & Swartz, 2012; Cox 2006;Walker 2001; Smith,MacKenzie, &Meyers2014).Theextent towhich this researchprojectwascollaborative, resulting inproductivelearning,isdiscussedinthefindings,Chapter5.6.

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4 CHAPTERFOUR:RESEARCHDESIGN4.1 ResearchapproachThe research approach was collaborative, participatory and practitioner-led, in thatacademic developers responsible for professional development at eight institutions cametogethertoundertakeresearchthatwouldfostertheircriticalreflectionontheirpractice.Itwasinformedbytheoryonprofessionalacademicdevelopmentandasocialrealistlenswasusedtoexaminehowchangeoccurs.Itwasalsopragmatic(Creswell2003;Greene,Kreider&Mayer2005;Roziek2013), thusdrivenbyamotivation toascertain findings thatwouldleadtopracticalrecommendations. Itwasaformof insiderresearch(Trowler2011)asallresearchersworkedwithin higher education,with the concomitant advantages aswell asdisadvantagesofconductingresearchasinsiders.The research designwas informed by a critical realist approach (Bhaskar 1998) that seesrealityasoccurringonthreeplanes:thereal,underlyingrelationships;theactualeventsasthey occur and the empirical, as individuals experience these events. This research thussought to ascertain the underlying relationships and explanations, via the empirical. Theresearch isalso informedby theanalyticaldistinctionsbetween,at thesystemic level, thestructure (including power relationships, resources and rules) and culture (the dominantideasandthediscourses),andtheinterplaywithindividualandgroupagency-asdiscussedintheChapter3.5.4.2 ResearchstrategyA multi-level and embedded multi-case study (Yin 2013) was undertaken in order toinvestigatethesupportforqualityteachingandtheprofessionaldevelopmentofacademicsfrom a variety of perspectives across the macro, meso and micro levels, and in variedinstitutionalcontexts.Theresearchfocusedontheleveloftheempirical,ietheexperiencesofacademicdevelopers,administratorsandacademics.Italsoutilisedinformationobtainedfrompubliclyavailabledataonthenationalandinstitutionalsettings,andpolicydocumentsatthenationalandinstitutionallevel.Theseprovideinformationaboutstructures,aswellastheculture,orbodyofideasthatareformallyencodedinpolicy.Policyisseentobe‘real’

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andashavingrealconsequencesdespitethe limited impact itmighthave,as it is ignored,watereddownoradapted,asissuccinctlycapturedinReynolds’andSaunders’metaphorofthe‘policyimplementationstaircase’(citedinTrowler,2002).Theuseofpubliclyavailabledocumentsand references tomacro trendsprovidesa contextandcounterfoilwhichmayeithersupportordisputethesubjectiveaccountsprovidedbythevariousrole-players.

PhaseoneAtthenationalleveladesktopstudyinvestigatedrelevantnationalpolicies,theinfluenceofnationalorganizationsandassociationsandnationaltrends.

PhasetwoAt each of the participating institutions the following documentswere compiled by teammembersusingjointlydesignedresearchinstruments(seeAppendicesThreeandFour):● DocumentOne,containing:

a) a brief description of the institution in terms of size, shape, geographical setting,resourcing,studentpopulationb) adiscussionofhowteachingandprofessionaldevelopmentisdescribedinpublicallyavailabledocumentssuchaspoliciesandmissionandvisionstatements

● DocumentTwo,containing:

a reflective discussion of the conditions, activities and impact of the professionaldevelopmentunit/centreforteachingandlearningandwascompiledbytheheadoftherelevantunit/centre

● Institutional policy documents related to teaching and learning - all of these weresubmittedtoacentraldatabase.

PhasethreeAn electronic survey with closed and open questions was distributed to all permanentlyemployed teaching academics at all eight participating institutions in 2012 (see AppendixTwo).Altogether736responseswerereceived.Theresponseratevariedperinstitution,with272(33.5%)beingthehighestresponserateper institutionand21(3%)beingthe lowest.Onlyfouroutoftheeightinstitutionswereabletomakesignificantuseofthenumericdatafortheirinstitutionalcasestudies.ThedifficultyofdisseminatingthequestionnaireatespeciallytheHDU’sdueto technicalandcommunicationdifficulties,attests to thekey focusof thisstudy – that institutional contextmakes a qualitative difference, whether to professionallearningortodatagatheringforresearchpurposes.Thequestionnairewasansweredonavoluntarybasis,with89% reporting that theywereeither ‘very interested’or ‘passionate’about teaching, and 75% indicating that they had attended some form or professionallearningopportunityattheirinstitution.

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PhasefourAudio-recordedinterviewswereconductedbyprojectteammembersfromoneparticipatinginstitutionwith four to fivemembers of the seniormanagement at another participatinginstitution(egViceChancellor,DeputyVice-Chancellorresponsibleforteachingandlearningand two or three Deans) by the end of 2012. (See Appendix Four for the interviewschedules.)10–16teachingacademicsfromeach institutionwere interviewedandaudio-recorded. The participants were selected according to a predeterminedmatrix of criteriaincluding discipline, seniority, gender, race and degree of participation in professionaldevelopment opportunities. These interviewswere conducted bymembers of the projectteam(sixinstitutions)orbyresearchassistantsattheirowninstitutions(twoinstitutions).Insome instancesmore interviewsthantheprescribedminimumwereconducted, leadingtoatotalof116interviewsacrosstheeightinstitutions.PhasefiveAt the end of years one, three and six of the project, each researcher wrote a shortreflection on their participation and the workings of the project based on a series ofquestions(seeAppendixFive).

4.3 AnalysisofdataThenationalleveldataandtheinstitutionaldocumentscollectedduringphasesoneandtwowere analysed by sub-groups within the research team. The open answers in thequestionnaires (phase three) and the transcriptions of the interviews (phase four), wereanalysed by project members from each participating institution. Data from the openquestionsinthequestionnairesandtheinterviewswereanalysedaccordingtothefollowingsetofthemes,whichwerearrivedatbytheteamviaathematicanalysis:

1. Howgoodteachingisunderstood–itwasfeltthatbeforeonecanunderstandhowgoodteachingispromoted,itisnecessarytodescribehowthisisdefinedataninstitution,andwhetherthereisasharedunderstanding.

2. The stature of teaching – its relative status in relation to research,administrationandcommunity interaction; thesignificanceof theactivityofteachingforacademics.

3. Howteachingispromotedattheinstitution–howprofessionaldevelopmentis understood to occur, how it is described as being promoted; and howindividualsbelieveitshouldbepromoted.

4. Howindividualsdescribetheirownrolesintheirlearningtoteach.Thesethemespertainbroadlytowhatemergedmoststronglyfromthedata.Themes1and2 are most closely associated with the systemic domain of culture, although there arestructural dimensions, especially with regard to the stature of teaching, in that policiespromoting the stature of teaching, would be regarded as ‘structures’, or as structural.Theme three pertains most directly to structural issues, but includes the conceptions ofprofessionallearningthatacademicsascribedto.Thedeepertheteamdelvedintothedata,the more apparent it became that teaching is not promoted solely via formal learning

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opportunities. For this reason Chapter 5.3 of this report, on conducive environments,focusesonculturalandstructural features intheteachingand learningenvironments.Theemerging appreciation of the significance of cultural and structural features of theenvironmentrepresentedaslightshiftofthestudytoincludeanenlargedunderstandingofwhat enables and constrains professional learning in higher education. Theme 4 pertainsmostdirectlytothedimensionofindividualandgroupagency.Dataonparticipants’engagementwiththeresearchprocesscollectedafteryearonewereanalysedby three teammembers,witha focuson theoutcomesof collaborationand thechallenges to researchers’ identities8. Data collected after year three was analysed andwrittenupby14oftheteammemberswithafocusontheculturalandstructuralconditionsinfluencing the outcome of the collaboration, and significance of corporate or groupagency9.

EthicsThe project obtained ethical clearance from the lead institution for 2011 - 2013,StellenboschUniversity,and fromeachparticipating institution.All information identifyingspecificindividualshasbeenremovedatthestageoftranscriptionandstoringofdata.4.4 AncillarystudiesSeveral ancillary sub-studies were conducted, for example into theworking conditions ofextended curriculum lecturers; professional development in the health sciences and theinfluence of biography on the professional identities of academic developers. Four Phdstudentsconductedparallelstudiesusingselectionsofthedata.8SeeLeibowitz,NdebeleandWinberg,2015(listedinAppendixOne).9SeeLeibowitzetal,2016/online(listedinAppendixOne).

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5 CHAPTERFIVE:FINDINGSChapter Five is divided into two key chapters: 5.1 reports on the contexts in whichprofessionallearningoccursandhowacademicsrespondtothecontexts.5.2reportsonthefinalresearchquestions,oncollaborativeresearchandtheresearchprocess.5.1. ContextsforprofessionallearningandlectureragencyThischapterreportsonthedatawithafocusontheimmediateinstitutionalenvironmentsatthelevelofstructureandcultureinwhichtheacademicswork,andonhowtheyrespondtothese environments (thus individual and group agency). The discussion is organizedaccordingtothefollowingtopicsanddatasources:Table5.1:Organisationoffindingsin5.1Topic AspectoftheInterplay DataSourceOpportunities forprofessional learning at theeightinstitutions

Structure Reflective reports perinstitution (Phase Two,DocumentTwo)

Beliefs about teaching andaboutprofessionallearning

Culture Interviews with seniormanagers(VCs,DVCs,Deans)andacademics

Conducive environments forprofessionallearning

Structureandculture Interviewswithacademics

Individualandgroupagency

Agency Interviewswithacademics

5.1.1 OpportunitiesforprofessionallearningattheeightinstitutionsThis chapter provides a synopsis of the findings concerning opportunities available forprofessional learningas reflectedprimarily in the institutionalcasestudyreportscollectedduring phase two. The synopsis highlights the different forms of academic professional

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development,thestructuresinplacetoenhanceprofessionallearning,withparticularfocusontheroleofacademicstaffdevelopersandpolicies.Thestudyfoundalmostthefullrangeofopportunitiesdiscussedintheliterature,fromthemoreformaltoinformal,aslistedbelow:1. Formalandaccredited:

PhDprogrammesonhighereducationMastersprogrammesonteachingandlearningPostgraduatediplomas inhighereducationteachingand learning (offered insixoftheeightinstitutionsby2013,wherethreeinstitutionsintheWesternCapeofferoneonasharedplatform)Shortcourses

2. Formal(organizedbymostlyacademicdevelopers)butnotaccredited:

WorkshopsMentorprogrammesWorkshopsHandsontraining(forexampleforusingICTS–instructionaldesign)ConsultationswithacademicdevelopersTeachingandlearningconferences

Incentive-oriented:FundingschemeseggrantsforinnovationsorresearchonteachingInstitutionalorfacultyteachingexcellenceawardsPolicyandstrategyled:TeachingandlearningstrategiesPoliciesonperformanceevaluationandpromotion

Committee-led:InstitutionalandFacultyTeachingandLearningCommittees

Otherformal:Studentfeedbacksystems

3 Informal: Self-reflection Conversationswithcolleaguesandsupervisors Observationofseniorstaffandexcellentteachersasrolemodels,and encouragementfromthese

Thisrangewasfoundacrosstheinstitutions.Theimpactoftheseopportunitieswasnot investigated in the study, and is an area worthy of further investigation.

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Generally a variety, including the more and less formal, could be found at eachinstitution,althoughtheaccreditedMastersprogrammestendedtobeofferedatalimitednumberofinstitutions,andpredominantlyattheHAUs.Thisgivesrisetothefollowingquestionsforfurtherinvestigation:1)WhyhavetheseprogrammestendedtobeofferedmainlyatHAUs?2)Whatistheeffectofthisatinstitutionsnotofferingsuch programmes? 3) Would it be advisable for all universities to offer suchprogrammes, or could collaboration and sharing amongst institutions be a usefulstrategyinthisregard?

Aswillbediscussedfurtherin5.1.2,themoreformalopportunitiestendedtobevoluntary,but compulsory in some cases for new academics or those who received unsatisfactorystudent feedback. Activities organised by academic developers in central teaching andlearning centres were more likely to be interdisciplinary, and those taking place in thefaculties,tobemorediscipline-oriented.StructuresalignedwithprofessionallearningStructuresalignedmostdirectlywithprofessionallearningwere:TheDVC(Academic/Teaching)TheDeputyDean(Teaching)TheHeadofDepartmentdidnothaveanovertteachingfunctionbutfeaturedprominentlyintheinterviews,aseitherpromotingorhinderinganacademic’sprofessionaldevelopmentTeachingandLearningCentresAcademicdevelopersinfacultiesTeachingandlearning‘champions’(drawnfromthepoolofacademics,andutilizedtomakepresentationsandparticipateinprojectsandtaskteams)Recipientsofteachexcellenceawards(similarlyaswith‘champions’).(Theeffectivenessofthedifferentmodelswasnotinvestigated.)From the institutional reports the following issues pertaining to these structures receivedattention:Statusandstature–frequentlyacademicdeveloperswhodidnotenjoyacademicstatusfeltthat this hampered their voice and sense of identity, ability to undertake research andreflection,and thus theireffectiveness. In institutionswhere itwas felt that theacademicdevelopers were extremely competent, or well qualified academically, this appeared toenhance their effectiveness and ability to effect change. An extract from the reflectivereports illustrate the importance of perception of competence amongst academicdevelopers,tiedinsomecasestoissuesofdisciplinarity:

… lack of expertise in the Centre in relation to teaching in all the disciplines,particularlysciencedisciplines.Therearelecturers,particularlyintheScienceFaculty,who do not believe that the generic courses offered have sufficient relevance fortheircontexts(includingtheteachingoflargeclasses).(Reflectivereport,HAU1)

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Setting about to consciously capacitate themselves and enhance their academic stature,academicdevelopersatHAU3quicklyreapedthebenefits:

Attheendofthe1990s,staffemployedintheAcademicDevelopmentCentrewereminimallyqualifiedtoworkwithacademicstaffwithmostonlyqualifiedathonourslevel. In the context of the need to work within a new brief of contributing toinstitutional development through staff and curriculum development, all withoutmaster’s degree set about completing them.… The need toworkwith curriculumdevelopment and constructs such as learning outcomes and criterion referencedassessmentwasalsoidentifiedasagapandcolleaguesintheCentresetabouttheirown staff development programme, reading widely and discussing theirunderstandings.Thisimpactedonthequalityoftheworktheywerecalledupontodonot leastbyallowing themtoclaimadegreeofexpertise in theareas inwhichtheywereworking.Thewillingnessofstafftopursuetheirowndevelopmentandtosupport each other in this aim is something which must not be overlooked inaccounting for the success the Centre has had in working with the professionaldevelopmentofeducatorsnotonlyatXXXUniversitybutalsoelsewhere.(Reflectivereport,HAU3)

InHAU3theabilityanddemonstratedcompetenceinteachingonformalprogrammesalsocontributed to the perception of their competence as academics. On the basis of theirexperience HAU3 also developed the first Postgraduate Diploma in Higher Education foracademicdevelopers.Incontrast,someofthe institutionsdidnothaveenoughacademicdevelopmentstaffandhadto‘outsource’thisfunction(forexampleHDU6).Afurther issuetodowith locationofacademic developers, was that theywere frequently placed in a central office outside offaculties, yet if theyoffereddiploma courses, theywere required toworkmostly throughfacultiesof education. Their complicated relationshipswith these faculties also influencedtheirabilitytoeffectchange.ResourcesforprofessionalacademicdevelopmentThe study found that in almost all the institutions resourcing for academic professionaldevelopmentwasbothexternalandinternal.AsignificantsourceofprofessionallearningforacademicsatoneHDUwastheprovisionoflearningopportunitiesataHAU.Thiswasviewedby some lecturers as particularly beneficial, as it meant exposure to the ideas of thatprogramme,andoftheideasofexperiencedlecturerswhoparticipatedalongsidethem,inthatprogramme:

…evenveryexperienced lecturerswhowerewithme,theyweresaying,oh, this isthewaytodoit.Werealisedquitealot.Thequestionstheywereaskingwerereallyrelevantquestions.(LecturerHDU6)

Thispointstotheimportanceofinter-institutionalcontact.

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Funding for professional academic development was provided by some of the HEIs fromtheir mainline budget, whereas some universities relied heavily on funds from externalsources. External funders included those outside the country, nongovernmentalorganizations, the Teaching Development Grants and skills development grants. It shouldalsobenoted that the fundsweregenerallyallocated for formal learningopportunitiesorwhat was defined in the introduction to this study as ‘professional development’, ratherthantoencourageinformallearningopportunities.5.1.2 BeliefsaboutteachingandaboutprofessionallearningIn 5.1 various structures supporting professional learning were described. This chapterexploresinstitutionalcontextsatthelevelofculture,thatis,therangeofbeliefs,valuesandattitudes about teaching and learning and the professional learning of lecturers thatemerged from the data. The data also reflects on conceptions of good teaching,which isimportantasthesehaveimplicationsforhowacademicsmaybesupportedorencouragedtolearntoteach.5.1.2.1StatusofteachingInofficialdocumentation(forexample,institutionalvisionandmissionstatements)alleightinstitutions foregroundedthe importanceofknowledgedissemination(teaching)asoneoftheir corepurposes. However, thedata from theeight institutional case studies showedthat there was, among teaching staff particularly, a continuum of beliefs related to thestatusofteachingininstitutions.Acrosstheboardrespondentsreportedanongoingtensionbetweenthestatusofteachingand the status of research, believing that the dominance of a research culture made itdifficultforthemtofocussufficientlyontheteachingaspectoftheirroleasacademics:

Eventheonenow(teachingdevelopmentworkshopheldrecently), Iwassupposedtobethere,but Ihadtogotoapaper-writingretreat. So Iwaswritingpapers forpublication…(LecturerHDU6)

Theprioritizationofresearchbroadlyandpostgraduatestudiesparticularlylimitedtimeandmotivationforengagementwithundergraduateteachingandlearningandwithprofessionallearning.InsomeoftheHDUsandUoTs ithasbeennecessarytoenhancedisciplinaryandresearchcapacity.AseniormanageratHDU5stressestheextentofthisneed:

IwouldliketoseethatallmyHODsareonaMasterslevel”.(SeniormanagerHDU5)Theunintendedconsequencehasbeenthattheroleofteachingwasnowperceivedasbeinglessimportantthanthatofresearch.

Wehaveexcellent incentives for research,wonderful financial incentives, rewards,recognition… As faras I'mconcerned, teachingand learninghas laggedbehind in

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termsoftheemphasisthatisplacedonitintermsoftherecognitionforexcellenceinteaching....(SeniorManagerHDU6)

For those academicswho saw a clear link between their teaching and their research, thetensionbetweenthetwocoreroleswaslessmarked;researchwasseentobenecessarytoensurethattheirteachingwasresponsivetochangesintheirdisciplines.Rewardstructures,particularly those related to promotion, appeared in many institutions to emphasizeresearchoutputsmore thangood teaching. Somebelieved thatalthough theywerebeingtold (through policies, etc.) that teaching was valued, in reality it was research ‘thatcount(ed)’.

Alloftheimplicitandexplicitmessagesfavourresearchandallocatingtimethere…attheendoftheday...beingaresearcheriskeytoyoursuccess...at[institution].(SeniorManagerHAU1)

In some research intensive institutions findings suggested that a great deal had beenachieved with regard to increasing the status of teaching and learning vis-à-vis that ofresearch and it was acknowledged that there were many excellent teachers who valuedtheirrolesandregardedteachingasoneoftheircorefunctions.

AndIhaveincrediblejobsatisfaction.Iloveresearch.Iloveteaching.IloveworkingintheprofessionandIfindthattheuniversityaffordsmeaveryrichspacetobringallthose interests intoasortof relationshipand itgivesmeanopportunitytokindofgrowinquiteinterestingways….(LecturerHAU3)

Accordingtooneseniormanagerofaresearchintensiveuniversity,her

… visionwould be that everybody takes their role as a teacher seriously; values itequally to the other aspects of their academic life like research, and that theybecomecritical,reflectiveteachers.(SeniorManager,HAU3)

Thevaluingofandcommitmenttoteachingandlearningwassignalledinarangeofwaysininstitutions by, for example: the creation of key positions such as deans of teaching andlearning;universitypoliciesrelatedtoprobationandpromotion;throughawardsfor‘good’teaching and through the funding of scholarship of teaching and learning initiatives andother projects related to teaching and learning and through the establishment of wellresourcedteachingandlearningcentres–thoughthisvariedgreatlyfromoneinstitutiontoanother.

Thesignalingofthevalueofteachingissometimescontradictedeitherinpractice,orinthepoliciesorotherformsofpublicdocumentationthemselves.Aninterestingexampleofthisisananalysison thewebsiteofHAU1conductedby JawitzandWilliams (2015– listed inAppendixOne)whichrevealsthatthewebsitedisplaysnoticeableabsenceswithregardtosignalingthe importanceofteachingand learning–despitewhat ispronouncedabouttheimportanceofteachinginotherforums.

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Inbothof the ruraluniversitiesaswell as in the twouniversitiesof technology thatwerepartofthestudy,teachingwasregardedashavinglowerstatusthanresearch.

Publicationiswhatit’sallabout.Thereisverylittle,ifanyrewardforgoodteachingorrecognition(LecturerUoT8).

In addition, in these institutions the importance of disciplinary expertise as the basis forgoodteachingwasrecognisedandbothseniormanagersandacademicsnotedtheneedtoachievehigherdegreesanddoresearchinone'sfieldtoenhanceteaching.However,itwasnotedbysomethatbeingagoodresearcherdidnotmeanthatonewasnecessarilyagoodteacher.Junior staff as well as temporary teachers were usually expected to teach largeundergraduate classes so that senior academics, who are also often prolific researchers,couldhavemore time todevote to their researchendeavours. The incentivesavailable toresearchersandtheweightinggiventoresearchintermsofcareeradvancementcontributetoresearchbeingseenasprimary.Thereseemedtobe,however, anemergingsensethatmuchhadbeendone to raise the capacityof staff todo researchand that itwas time toenhancethestatusofteachinginthesameway.

beinga formertechnikon…wedidnothavea focusonresearchandthereforehis[thedean’s]emphasisismoreonresearch…SowhileIteachIalsoresearchatthesametimebecausetheuniversityisveryclearthatweneedtohaveresearchoutputs….(LecturerUoT7)

From the data it is clear that teaching and learning, although a core activity of highereducation,isgenerallynotashighlyvaluedasdisciplinaryresearch.Tochangethis,beliefsandvaluesaroundthesecoreactivitiesneedtobechallenged.Inadditionthereisafrequentvariancebetweenpolicyandpractice,andbetweenwhat isstatedbyseniormanagers (egViceChancellorsandDeans)andmiddlelevelmanagers(egheadsofdepartment).FinallyatespeciallyHDUstherearecompetingprioritiesduetocapacityconstraintsandotherfactorssuchasthemergers,whereyoungacademicsrequirecapacitydevelopmentwithregardtothe teaching role and the need to gain postgraduate qualifications in their disciplinessimultaneously.5.1.2.2Conceptionsofgoodteaching

Predictably, good teachingwas understood anddescribed inmany differentways rangingfrom linking teaching to philosophical explorations of the macro purposes of highereducationtodescriptionsoftherangeofpracticesandskillswhichmakeacademics‘good’teachers in their specific disciplinary and institutional contexts. Teaching that enabledinstitutionstorealisetheirvisionandmissionwasseenasdesirable. Acomparisonof theviewsofseniormanagersandofteachingacademicsrevealedsimilarity,butalsovariance.Academics tended to viewgood teaching in relation to their own teaching, their studentsandthepossibleoutcomes.SeniorManagers,especiallytheViceChancellorandDeputyViceChancellor level, weremore inclined to take a national and policy-related perspective, to

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viewteachinginrelationtotheirownmanagementofstaffcapacity,ortotalkwithempathyabouttheconditionsinwhichacademicsteach.

Atabasic levelgoodteachingwasseentorequirecurriculathatarealignedandtaughtbyteachers who are well prepared. Good teaching was described as multidimensional andcomplexanddifferingaccordingtocontext,includingyearofstudy,andfocusofdiscipline-whethertheoryorpractice-based.Someteachersviewedgoodteachingasawayofmakingadifferenceinstudents'livesorasgivingbacktosociety.

…yououghttobeabletomakeadifference…contributingtothedevelopmentof…people'smindsandskillsinameaningfulkindofway.(LecturerUoT7)

Althoughthenotionofgoodteachingasthetransmissionofknowledgefromtheteachertothestudentwasevidentinthedata,manyarguedthatitwasnecessarytoengagestudentsactively. Othersusedmorephilosophicalexplanations todescribegood teachingasgoingbeyond simply ‘transmitting’ a body of knowledge to students; it was understood asenablingstudents tobecreatorsandnot justpassive recipientsofknowledge.Asa seniormanagerinaninstitutionsaid:

… the quality of teaching and learning… hinges onwhat the students can engagewith…gettingstudentstoparticipate...knowing...whentostoptalkingandgettingstudentstotalk….(SeniorManagerHDU6).

Whilesomehadaninstrumentalistnotionofgoodteachingasensuringstudentsuccessandgood throughput rates, for others itwas about introducing students to ideas that lead totransformed understandings of theworld and of themselves. Some saw good teaching asdevelopingstudents'in-depthunderstandingofdisciplinaryfields.Someacademicssawtheirroleas‘thecultivationofhighlyeducatedgraduates’(SeniorManagerHAU3).Inaddition,itwasseenasimportanttodevelopstudentsasindependentlearners.Good teaching, according to some, should take account of the social context and shouldforegroundthe ‘cultivationofhumanity’ rather than just ‘producecompetent technocrats’(SeniorManagerHAU3).

…there’saneedfortherecognitionofteachingassomethingmuchmorethanthesimple transformation of usable information and rather as the cultivation of apersonhood.(LecturerHAU2)

One of the goals of good teaching and learning was described as needing to developstudentswithaconsciousnessoftheirresponsibilitytowardsthecountryandtheworldatlargeandtheneedtocontributetochangingsocietyforthebetter.Itwasnotedthatgoodteaching should also pay attention to the needs of the discipline or the field throughappropriatecurriculumdevelopment. Inaddition,goodteaching requiredanawarenessofhowtheworldwaschanging, includingwhatdifferent technologiesmean for learningandpedagogy.

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Particularly given the history of South Africa, many saw good teaching as ensuring thatstudents who graduated were competent in their fields, were able to find suitableemployment and contribute economically to their families’ prosperity and to thedevelopmentofthecountry.

Good teacherswere seen by some as academicswhowere able to respond positively toteachingchallenges,especiallythoserelatedtoincreasedclasssizes,diversityofthestudentcohortsandthearticulationgapbetweenschoolanduniversity.Forsomethismeantcomingto terms with the fact that traditional lecture formats and in particular ‘chalk and talk’teachingwerenot leadingtothekindof learningneededandto look formore interactivemethodologies.Goodteachingwascomplexandchangedasrequiredbychangingcontexts.

[Students]arenotalwaysaspreparedastheyusedtobe,so Ihavetoput inmoreeffort tohelp themscaffold their learning.… Ican’t justgo into theclassroomandteach….(LecturerHAU3)

Practices that were considered to be part of good teaching included ensuring the activeengagement of students in their own learning and responding to student diversity;developing good relationships with students including showing concern for the wholeperson;teachinginwayswhichbooststudents’confidenceinthemselvesandtheirabilities;teachingstudentstobecriticalthinkers,competentprofessionalsandgoodcitizensofSouthAfricaandtheworld.Creativitywasseenasan importantcomponentofgoodteaching.This includedtheuseofinnovative teaching and learning methods. The use of information and communicationtechnologies (ICTs) to engage students in learning was regarded as important. Theimportanceofprovidingstudentswithgoodfeedbacktopromote learningwasseenasanaspectofgoodteaching.Forotherscollaborativeteachingandsharinggoodpracticeswerefacetsofgoodteaching.Goodteachingrespondedtostudentdiversityandtotheneedsofworkplaces. For some, depending on their institutional contexts, good teaching wasconstrained by limited resources including lack of adequate infrastructure and very largeclasses.Formanyinterviewees,goodteachingresultedfromacademicswhowerepassionateabouttheir disciplines and committed to their students’ learning andwell-being. Some believedthat academics were ‘born good teachers’ and that ‘good teaching is instinctive andintuitive’; ‘eitheryoucanteachoryoucan’t…you’veeithergot itoryouhaven’t’ (LecturerHAU1).

Othersbelievedthatgoodteachingwasrootedinscholarshipbothinrelationtodisciplinaryknowledgeandtoknowledgefromthefieldofhighereducationstudies.Goodteachingthushadaphilosophicalbasis.

[Teaching and learning are not] some kind of technical or neutral process … theultimate test… for… any university is the extent towhichwe have engagedwithprofound epistemological and ontological issues, teaching and learning issues andcurriculumissues.(SeniorManagerHAU3)

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Linkedtothis,formany,wasadoptingtheidentityofreflexivepractitioners.Thelatterledtorenewalandchange,thusenablingbetterdealingwithchallengesrelatedtocontemporaryhighereducationcontexts.

Initially [you are] very confident and secure about the information that you havegleaned…becauseyouenjoyteaching....Thenyoubegin…torealizehowmuchyoustillneedtolearn,waysyoustillneedtogrowandwaysthatyoucanmakelearningmore exciting to your students, because you realize it isn’t just amatter of givingthem information, it’s a matter of stoking that desire to learn themselves and tobecomeasfascinatedaboutyourdisciplineasyouare.(SeniorManagerHDU5)

Thevarietyofconceptionsofgoodteachingandhowthisisattainedgoessomewaytowardsexplaining the variety of views on professional learning, which is discussed in the nextchapter.5.1.2.3BeliefsaboutprofessionallearningAcross the eight institutions there was a range of beliefs and opinions about whetherprofessional development in relation to teaching and learning was necessary in highereducation;what form such professional development should take;who should undertakeprofessionaldevelopment;whatmotivatedacademicstafftoengageinprofessionallearningand what the enabling and constraining conditions were for academics to participate inprofessionaldevelopmentactivities.Thedatafromthecasestudies indicatedthatthemajority,particularlymembersofseniormanagementandyounger lecturers,believedthatsomeformofprofessionaldevelopmentwasnecessaryandusefulforhighereducationteachers.

...[academicstaffdevelopment]iscriticallyimportant…Weneedtomakesurethatevery academic who stands in front of a class is a competent teacher andunderstandssomeof thebasic theoriesof teachingand learningandhowteachingandlearningtakesplace…Sowereallybelieveverydeeplyintheprofessionalizationofteachingandthatonecandevelopscholarshipofteachingandlearning….(SeniorManagerHAU3)

This belief in the importance of professional learning is tempered by results in thequestionnaire suggesting that actual participation in professional learning opportunitiesacrosstheboardmightbelow.Whilst75%ofrespondentsreportedattendingprofessionallearningopportunitieswithregardtoteaching,41%attendedsuchopportunitiesonceayearorless.Someacademics(especiallymoreestablishedacademics)hadtheviewthattheirdisciplinaryqualificationsandknowledgeequipped themadequately to teachand/or that learning toteachhappenedthroughimmersion;thatbeingthrowninatthedeependwasthebestwaytolearn.

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For many academics, the desire to improve their teaching was intrinsically motivated bytheirpassionfortheirdisciplineandfortheirdeepconcernfortheirstudents’learningandwellbeing.Forsomethiswascomplementedbytheircommitmenttoandbeliefinlifelonglearning. Insome institutions, though,staffengaged inprofessionaldevelopmentactivitiestopromotejobsecurityandpromotionpossibilities.Somemadetheargumentthatchangesinhighereducationwithincreasedstudentnumbersandamorediverse studentbodymeant that traditionalwaysof teachingwereno longereffective;thatlecturersneededtodevelopnewwaystodealwithnewteachingandlearningchallengesandthatthereforeacademicstaffdevelopmentwascrucial.There was a range of underpinning beliefs about what professional development foracademicstaffshouldbe.Somehadapragmaticviewandweremostinterestedintrainingopportunities to learn important and useful skills to solve specific problems; some werelookingfor‘tipsandtricks’,ora‘pocketguideforteaching’(Institutionalreflectivereport).Insome cases, academics wanted training in particular aspects, for example, how to useteachingtechnologies,copewithlargeclasses,andsoon.While some understood professional development as little more than skills training, forothersprofessionaldevelopmententaileddeeperexplorationofthevalues,theories,beliefsandideologieswhichunderpinnedtheirdisciplinesandtheteachingoftheirdisciplines.

…a huge influence onmy teaching I must say has been this whole scholarship ofteaching, of reading, of understanding, of you know, trying to see why are thestudentsdoingthis…readingbooks…readingarticles.(LecturerUoT7)

Therewas, however, variation in termsof academics’willingness and commitment to seeacademicstaffdevelopmentasascholarlyendeavourwhichentailedengagementwiththeliteratureofhighereducationstudies.For some professional development was viewed as promoting critical reflexivity10; aschallengingacademics tothinkcriticallyandtoshift theirviewsontheir teachingpractice.Professional development was viewed as a space to question common sense theories ofteachingandlearning.

…weconstantlyneedtore-evaluatewhatwearedoing…getourselvesoutofourcomfortzonesandchallengeourselvesandbechallengedbyotherpeople,bydoingthingsdifferently.(LecturerHAU1)

For the majority who were in favour of professional development there wasacknowledgement that there were many, both formal and informal, opportunities foracademics to learn to teach thatmight lead to improved student learning. For some, thespacestolearnfromothershadbeeninvaluable.

10Criticalreflectiononacademics’teachingpracticesisdiscussedinmoredetailinWinberg(inpress–listedinAppendixOne).

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[The induction programme] was an amazing experience for me to meet otheracademicsfromacrossdisciplines…anditwasawonderfulwayofinduction....we’vegone through a joyous experience and you have this sense of an [institutional]community.(HAU1)

Informal learning opportunities included learning from knowledgeable peers, includingthrough team teaching / informal discussions in departments; beingmentored by amoreexperienced peer, forming supportive communities of practice and so on. For othersprofessionaldevelopmententailedself-study.Although some lecturers felt that enhancing teaching proficiency and understandingteaching and learning was something individuals should do for themselves, many othersstronglybelieved that,as few lecturershadany formal teachingqualification, therewasaneed for formal institutional structures for the professional development of academics asteachers.

Ithinkwhatthe[TeachingandLearningCentre]hasdoneintheinstitutionisdevelopthatsortofinstitutionalteachingandlearningnetwork…Ithinkthat'swhyIwassoinspiredandmotivatedtojointheinstitution’sinitiativesbecauseitwasthefirsttimethatIfelttherewasacommunityonmyowncampus.(LecturerHDU4)

There was a range of opinions on the best format for formal professional developmentstructuresbuttheseincludedformalqualificationssuchasaPostgraduateDiplomainHigherEducation,shortcourses,workshops,writingbreakawaysforthescholarshipofteachingandlearning(SoTL),teachingfellowshipsforpromotingSoTLandsoon.Therewasconsiderablesupportforspecificprogrammessuchasthosecurrentlyonofferinsomeinstitutions.Therewas also some debate as to whether formal staff development initiatives should involvelecturersfromacrossthevariousdisciplinesorbedisciplinespecific.Itwasnotedthattherewereprosandconstobothmodes.Given therangeofattitudesandbeliefs, therewasmuchdisagreementas towhether thestaffdevelopmentopportunitiesprovidedbyinstitutionsshouldbecompulsoryorvoluntaryand for whom professional development was most appropriate. Good arguments wereadvanced for both compulsory and voluntary participation with some arguing that onlylecturerswhohadorwhoweredeemedto‘haveaproblem’shouldbecompelledtoattendstaff development initiatives. Some thought that negative feedback from students onteachingmightbeacriterionfordecidingwhoshouldparticipate.Itwasacknowledgedthatcomplianceinresponsetouniversitypoliciesoronlyforcareeradvancementpurposesmaynotleadtothekindoflearninghopedfor.

Iwouldn'tmakeanythingcompulsory.Ireallythinkit'saboutpersuadingpeople.It'saboutpeopleseeingthevalueofengagingwiththeteacherroles.Iwouldn'tmakeitcompulsory,ever.(SeniorManagerHAU3)

Therewere also examples in the interviews,where staff attended activities because theywere compulsory, and becamemore enthusiastic due to the exposure to new ideas andpractices.

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In conclusion, for some academics formal learning opportunities were experienced asenablingandenrichingwhereasothers–aminority-resentedthemandexperiencedthemasimpositional.Ifparticipationinallformsofprofessionallearningweretobeencourageditis necessary to have shifts in institutional culture and to value and promote the role ofteachingandofprofessionallearningmuchmorehighly.5.1.3 ConduciveenvironmentsforprofessionallearningInpreviouschapters itwassuggestedthattherewasastrongappreciationof thevalueofformalofferingsaswellasof theworkofacademicdevelopers. Fromthe interviewswithacademicsitemerged,however,thattheirworkingenvironmentsinfluencedtheirattitudestowards their teaching– andbyextension, their professional learning. In this chapter keyfeaturesoftheworkingenvironmentsandhowtheyappearedtoinfluencelearningtoteacharediscussed.WorkloadandclasssizeOneofthefeatureswithinlecturers’workingcontextsthatfeaturedinacademics’accountswas that of high workload. The research findings across all institutions indicated highworkload and the accompanying lack of time, as major constraints on the uptake ofprofessional learningopportunities.This featureappearedmoreprominentlyat theHDUs,underscoring the points made about institutional inequality in chapter 2.4. Academicsmentioned‘‘over-crowdedclasses,wheretheuniversityteachertostudentratiocanreachupto1:500’’(reflectivereport,HDU5).Heavyworkloadswerelinkedtoashortageofpostsatthreedisadvantagedinstitutions.EmploymentconditionsThe existence of staff without proper teaching contracts, who could not access theinstitution’s resources,wasmentionedatHDU5and the casualisationof staff teachingonthe extended degree programmes was mentioned at HDU411. The high administrativeburden, sometimes as the result of teaching large classes,wasparticularly problematic atUoT7,UoT8,HDI4,HDI5,andHDI6.

Physicalinfrastructureandresources

The dimensions of infrastructure and available resources for teaching and learning werecitedbycolleaguesacrosstheinstitutionalrangeasimpactingonteachingandlearning.Oneof the fewpositive comments about physical conditionswas expressed by a lecturer at ahistoricallyadvantageduniversity:

I’vegotnocomplaintsabouttheenvironmentintermsofteaching.Ourlabsarewellequipped,asyoucanseeourlecturehallsarewellequippedandIthinkwe’vegotaverygoodplatformandthingscanactuallyonlygetbetterfromhere.XXXUniversity

11Thispointisdevelopedinoneoftheparallelstudiessupportedbytheproject–seeGarraway(2015,listedinAppendixOne).

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offersafantasticenvironmentforusaslecturers.Itgivesustheopportunitytobe...toreachoutandtouchthemostrecenttechnology.(LecturerHAU2)

Althoughphysicalconditionswerementionedacrosstheboard,thiswasmoresoatHDUs:I offer them extra lectures, you know, lecture-driven tutorials… because of thefacilities,likethelecturevenuesthat…don’tsupportaprojector,I’veactuallydoneaworkbookforstudents....iftheycan’tseetheboardortheycan’thearme,they’vestillgotthenotesinfrontofthem.…becauseIhaveproblemswithvoiceprojectionin large classes, I end up circling the lecture venues, so that everybody can get tohearmeatsomepointintime.…Ispendalotoftimemakingmynotesandgettingthemprintedandfollowingupwith…thenotemaking. I trytoputtheminawaythatiseasilyunderstandable.IspendalotofmytimeonthatandifIhadmore,ifIdidn’thavetoreallydoallofthat,inotherwordifstudentscouldseetheboard,…Iwouldn’thavetogivethemascomprehensivenotesandthenIcouldactuallyspendtimeonresearchandmyownprofessionaldevelopment.(LecturerHDU5)

This qUoTe has been reproduced at length, as it demonstrates how lack of facilities caninfluenceprofessionallearning12.AsimilarpointaboutthelinkbetweenmaterialresourcesandteachingapproachismentionedinUoT7:

Ithinkalotofwhatonedoesisdeterminedbythecircumstances…sometimesthecircumstancesforceyouinto…orlet’ssayminimizestheamountofoptionsthatareavailabletoyouandsometimes…yesitischalkandtalk…becausethat’sallyoucandoatthatmoment…that’sallyouhaveavailabletoyouatthatmoment.(LecturerUoT7)

Thisrelationshipbetweeninadequatefacilitiesandtransmissiontypeteachingiscalledintoquestion by lecturers who circumvent these constraints by adopting radically differentteaching approaches. See page (47 currently) for one example of a creative teachingapproach as a response to inadequate teaching conditions. The relationship betweenresourceconstraintsandteachingmodelsrequiresfurtherinvestigationanddiscussion.

Collegialrelations

Formanycolleagues,thefirstportofcallwitha learningquerywastheircolleagues. Inananalysisof thequestionnaire results, themajorityof respondents, fromall butoneof theparticipatinginstitutions,indicatedtheywouldfirstchoiceforassistancewithateachingandlearningrelated issuewas toapproachacolleague in theirdepartmentandthereafter theinternet. At the eighth institution, approaching a colleaguewas rated among the top twooptions. This points to the significance of collegial relations. A “toxic” departmentalenvironment at HAU2 discouraged an academic from becoming involved in activities,including professional learning related activities, in her department. Comments aboutcollegial relations emanated from interviews at many of the institutions, but were more

12AfulleraccountoftheinterrelationshipbetweenthematerialanddiscursiveisprovidedinLeibowitz(inpress:SAJHE,InpursuitofsociallyjustpedagogiesindifferentlypositionedSouthAfricanhighereducationinstitutions–listedinAppendixOne)

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strongly connected with low morale at one HDU where lack of morale and interest inteachingwascited.Theywerealsocitedwithspecific referencetotheaftereffectsof themergers:

…theinstitutionpaidenoughattentiontoharmonisingseniormanagementlevelsbutnot nearly enough tomanage change itself on the ground level of teachingwherepeopleworkincompletelyopposingteachingideologies,letalonepoliticalideologieson the mergers. I think that created a massive drain of energy.We’re muddlingthroughthatbutit’sstillleftabitofrigormortisbehindit.(LecturerUoT7)

Collegial relations strongly encouraged professional learning, when the collegial networkwascommittedtoteaching:

It’s a great teamof people and there are really exceptional educatorswho I learnfromallthetime.(LecturerUoT7)

However,whenthedominantculture inadepartmentwasnotsupportiveofteachingandlearning,thiscouldhavetheoppositeeffect:

Ihaveneverbeenencouraged toattendanyprofessional learning for teaching;onthe contrary colleagues have sometimes discouragedme to attend (Questionnaireresponse,HAU2).

Commentsabouthighor lowmoraleoraboutpredominantlypositiveornegativeculturespertainingtoteachingandlearningweremadeacrosstheboard,HAUsandHDUs.Howeverin the interviews itwaspossible to locate an intensityof feeling aboutmoraleor domainattitudetowardsteachingandlearningatspecificinstitutions.Thissuggeststhatitwouldbepossible, given an accurate analysis of conditions at those institutions where collegialrelationsmilitateagainstprofessional learning, toeffect change in this regard.Oneof themeanstoeffectthischange,isacademicleadership,whichisdiscussednext.

Academicleadership

Thedata fromallparticipating institutionssignaledthecrucial roleofacademic leadershipfor ‘‘creating an intellectual space and language to talk about teaching and learning’’(Reflective Report HDU4) and for ‘‘shifting’’ the ‘‘university culture’’ (Reflective ReportHAU1), and even the ‘‘national culture’’, towards ‘‘valuing teaching’’ (Reflective ReportHAU2). Senior managers from two research intensive universities acknowledged theirresponsibilitytocreateanenvironmentinwhichstaffandstudentscanperformandreachtheir potential. This sentiment was shared by a senior manager at a teaching focusedinstitutionwhoarguedthat“themainthingthatwecando,[is]tocreatetheenvironmentfor people to develop themselves” (SeniorManager HDU5). At HAU1 there was also thesense that there is institutional support and recognition for teaching, but this washighlightedasamorerecentphenomenon:

Ithinktheinstitutionisbecomingmoreengagedwiththeseissues-andthereisnowa DVC with responsibility for teaching and learning and there are teaching andlearningformalcommittees-butthisengagementisrelativelynew.(SeniorManagerHAU1)

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Inthereflectivereportsreasonswereadvancedforwhyonoccasionseniormanagerswerelesslikelytoplayasupportiverole.InoneHDUitwasbecauseatthatinstitutionDeansandHODsdidnotrotate,leadingtoproblemsofstasiswithcertainmanagers.Conversely,inonerural HDU the rapid turnover of DVCS meant having to reacquaint incumbents with anunderstanding of the importance of teaching and learning, and of supporting learning toteacheachtime.

In this chapter the focus turns to how the role of academic leadership is experienced byacademics as one of the important influences on their work environments and on theirprofessional learning. Examples of lecturers’ comments on the role heads of departmentplaytosupportprofessionallearningare:

Wehaveaverygoodheadofdepartmentwhoisverysupportiveingeneral,andthathelps,itmakesahugechangefromlastyear.(LecturerHAU1)

Headsofdepartmentwerecitedasprovidingmoralsupportfortheprofessionallearningofacademics, on occasion unlocking funding to pay for attendance at professionaldevelopmentopportunities,sharingexperiences,ormentoringnewlecturers.

There were numerous examples of Deans or heads of departments participating inprofessional development opportunities, such as diploma programmes and short courses,andthepositiveimpactthishadonothercolleaguesatthesameinstitution.AtHDU6aheadof department attended a PGDIP (HE) at another university and implemented what shelearntinherdepartment: IbelievethatIhavebeentryingbyallmeanstoimplement[whatIlearnt].Because

aswe speaknow, in termsofassessmentandqualityassurance, Ihavemade surethat before the examination question papers were submitted to examinationchapters...theysubmittedthequestionpaperstomeasheadofdepartmentsothatI can submit them there ... Imade sure thatwe create a day and have ameetingwherewewouldallcometogetherandmoderateallthosequestionpapers,fromthetechnicalpartofit...(LecturerandheadofdepartmentHDU6)

Lecturers at various universities also complained about their heads of department, asunsupportive of their professional learning. Respondents to the questionnaire at oneresearchintensiveinstitutionindicatedthatthelanguageusedbytheirlinemanagers,whenreferringtoteachingandtheprofessionallearningforteaching,wassometimes‘devaluing’,andincludedwordslike“waste”and“anunaffordableluxury”(questionnaireresponse).Anintervieweementionedthatherheadofdepartmenttoldheritwas“unacceptable”forherto spend so much time on her teaching and that she was not “cost-effective to thedepartment”(LecturerHAU2).

Amisalignmentbetweeninstitutionalstructuressuchaspolicies,theinstitutionalvaluesandthe role ofmiddlemanagement also resulted in situationswhere teaching and its relatedactivitieswerehighlyregulatedbutnotnecessarilyvalued13.Asignificantfindingatthethree

13ThisisdiscussedinmoredetailinrelationtoHAU2in(VanSchalkwyk,Leibowitz,Herman&Farmer,2015–listedinAppendixOne).

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research-intensive institutions and one university of technology in this research was aperceived disconnect between the views of senior management and the approaches ofmiddlemanagement.Oneofthelecturerlevelintervieweeswasveryclearaboutthis:

So everything, it’s like really the middle management, the middle structures, arequiteproblematic in the senseof,do they reallyunderstandwhat thegoalsof topmanagementis?(LecturerHAU2)

ConditionsexternaltotheuniversityConditions external to the university directly influenced internal work environments. ThispointwasmademostemphaticallybycolleaguesinthetworuralHDUs,whereinhospitableconditionsdiscouragedcolleaguesfromremaininglongintheseregions14.Theseconditionsincluded lack of amenities such as good schools, libraries or shopping centres, aswell asresourcessuchaswaterandelectricity:

AndIfindsometimestheelectricitygoesoutandgo‘ohGod,howamIsupposedtoteach if there’snowater?’andthenthestudentsobviouslydon’tcometocampus.There’snoelectricitybecausetheelectricitygotcutandforsomeorotherreason….SothesearesomeofthecontextualfactorsthatI…didn’treallythinkwouldimpactmy functioningbut these are someof the things that I’vehad to copewith.And Ihavecopedwithit.(HDU6)

A featurenotuniquetouniversities inruralenvironments,butexpressedmorestrongly inthose,washavingtotraveltoteachoncampusacrosslongdistances.

StudentsStudents featured in lecturers’ accounts as constraining as well as encouraging lecturers’professionallearning.Theirpositiveresponsesoftenencouragedlecturerstolearntoteachevenbetter.Insomelecturers’accountsthestudentswereapathetic,didnotattendclasses,weremilitant,orthelargeclasssizesorstudents’expectationsforcedthelecturerstoteachin a manner that did not encourage an approach to teaching in harmony with theinternationalliteratureongoodteaching: Iknowthatfromthehighschoolstudents,mostofthestudentstheywanttobefed

withinformation,sothatiswhatIreallydo.…thekindofstudents,theyforceyoutodothatbecauseifyoudon'tteachthemyou...itwillbeadisaster.(LecturerHDU6)

Students were the source of many of their lecturers’ inspiration and the focus of theirprofessional or ethical responsibility. Their difficulties also encouraged some lecturers tolearnhowtoteachthembetter:

14Theconditionsatthetworuralinstitutions,HDU5andHDU6,arediscussedinmoredetailinNdebele,MuhuroandNkonki,inpress,SAJHE–listedinAppendixOne.

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Somystudents,yes,andsomeof thechallenges that they face,havebeenthebigtriggers[ofmyprofessionallearning].(UOT8)

Finally,studentswereasourceoflearningforsomelecturers:

I … think that I’m as much a learner as I am a teacher because I learn from thestudentseveryday. I learn fromthem. I see teachingand learningasacommunalenterprisebetweenmeandthestudents….(LecturerUOT7)

The responses of academics to students varied, in the same vein as responses to otheraspectsoftheworkingcontexts,suchasworkloadorlackoftime.Inthenextchaptersomeofthereasonsforthesevariedresponsesarediscussed.

5.1.4 Lecturers’responsestotheirenvironments

Chapter 5 has thus far concentrated on the conditions in which lecturers teach, and thevarious structural and cultural conditions which enable and constrain their growth asteachers – as these conditions were described by the interviewees. At this point it isnecessarytofocusonthemannerinwhichacademicsrespondedtotheirworkingcontexts,withafocusontheconceptofagencyasoutlinedbyMargaretArcher.

A central feature in Archer’s depiction of human agency is that humans responddifferentially to the enablements and constraints that face them, and the greater theconstraint, thegreatertheexpensetowhichpeoplewouldhavetogotoovercomethese.Oneofthemoststrikingfeaturesoftheinterviews,especiallybutnotsolelyintheHDUs,isthelengthstowhichlecturersmightgotoovercomewhattheyperceiveasconstraints:

Look,it’shardtosaytheenvironmentisconducive,butIthinkwehavetheattitudetomakeitconducive,welookbeyondthepotholes.(LecturerUOT8)

Thisdoesnot imply that lecturershaveentirely freewill,autonomousof theconditions inwhich they live.Ananalysisof intrinsicandextrinsic sourcesofmotivationat threeof theinstitutions in the study, HAU2, HDU4 and HDU5, concluded that motivation to learn toteachmightovercomedireconditions,butthatititselfisaffectedbytheseconditions.15An investigation into lecturers’ responsesto theso-calledburdenof insufficient timefromthe questionnaire data16 provides an example of how individuals respond differentially toconstraints placed before them. Some academics cite the lack of time as a reason not toparticipateinprofessionaldevelopment,whereasotherssaytheyparticipate,despitealackoftime,andthatthey‘maketime’forthis:

15Leibowitz,inpress,SAJHE,Professionalacademicdevelopment–theinfluenceofcontextonmotivation(listedinAppendixOne).16JawitzandPerez,inpress,SAJHE,Assertingagency:Navigatingtimeandspaceforteachingdevelopment(listedinAppendixOne).

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Teachinglargeclassesandlecturingalargenumberofweeksaswellastryingtodosome research makes it difficult to find additional time to engage in professionallearningforteaching.ImakethetimebecauseIthinkitisthatimportant.(HAU1)

Akeyconstructthataccountsforlecturers’variedresponsestotheircontextsinthedataisthatofreflexivity,whichwassummarizedinchapter3.5,withreferencetoArcher(2007)asa process of internal deliberation in which concerns, commitments and knowledgeabilityplayarole.Concernsandcommitmentsfeaturedstrongly intheaccountsof lecturerswhowereverypassionateabout their teaching.Throughout thedata therewasevidence inallinstitutionsofsomelecturersbeingstronglyintrinsicallymotivatedtoteachwellandthustopursuesome formofprofessional learning.Theirpassion for theirdisciplines, for teachingandfortheirstudents’learningweresufficientimpetusforthemtoseekandtakeadvantageofbothformalandinformalprofessionallearningopportunities:

What actually pushed me [to engage in professional learning opportunities] wasseeing thatsometimesstudentsneededhelp that Imaynotbeable tooffer them.(HDU6)

Insomeinstancesthisconcernwascomplementedbyaconcernforthesocialgood,andthekindsofcontributionsstudentsmightmakeongraduating:

I guess I realisedmore andmore that teaching is really what givesme a buzz. ...teachingistransformativeandreallymakinganimpactonstudents'lives,particularlyatfirst-yearlevel…I'vealwaystriedtothinkaboutproducingscientists,butdifferentkinds of scientists. So scientistswhowill be able to thinkmore broadly about thewidercontextofscience.So it'sseeing itastransformative,not just for individuals,butalsoforsociety.(LecturerHDU4)

Agencyisalsoinfluencedbyknowledgeabilityandemotion(Archer,2007).Thusalecturer’sabilitytorespondtostimuliisalsoinfluencedbyhisorherowncapabilities.AnexampleofthisisfromaninterviewwithalectureratHDU5,whostruggledwithunconduciveteachingconditions:

…itwassuchabigclassandwehadthemin…thattestvenue,Irealizedthere’snoway that I’mgoing tobesuccessfulhere.… the first fewweeks, Iwould try tooutshoutatthem.ThenIrealizedthisisnotgoingtowork-andthisispartofanarticleI’m trying to get published at themoment. I then thought to myself, these areadults, so why don’t we form cooperative learning groups? …This whole peerlearningsystemIpurelydidbecauseIknewIwasnotgoingtomanageandIneededthelearnersintheclasstohelpme....(LecturerHDU5)

The lecturerdoesnotexplain the sourceofher ideas about cooperative learning,but thefactthatsheispublishinganarticleaboutitindicatesthatshehasknowledgeaboutteachingandlearningtodrawupon,thusenhancinghersenseofsuccess,hersatisfactionbecomingtheemotion thatmightmodifyhergoalsandre-orientateher futurebehaviour.This isanexampleoftheinterplaybetweenstructure,cultureandagencythatiskeytoArcher’sworkonchange.

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Asdiscussedinchapter3.5agencyisnotexercisedbyindividualsalone,butimportantly,alsobygroups.Archer(2000:11)referstothisas‘corporateagency’.Inmanylecturers’accountsgroupagencyfeaturedstrongly,inparticularatHDU4andUOT7andUOT8:

Weareaclose-knitteam,fourofusshareanofficesothere’sagoodsynergyamongus.…Weareall on the same level… two…havePhDs, theyareolder,haveabitmorelifeexperience,sotheyinvestinyoubutit’sacrosspollinationthing.(LecturerHAU1)

Corporateagencyintheformofsupportivegroupsaresignificantinallcontexts,butappearto play an even more significant role in those where conditions appear to academics asadverse.

5.2 CollaborativeresearchThischapterrespondstoresearchobjectives4and5concerningcollaborativeresearch.Itisbased primarily on the analysis of the three sets of the project participants’ reflectivereportsandadiscussionatthefinalmeetingoftheproject.Beforeestablishingwhatfactorsconstrained and enabled the collaboration, it is necessary to consider whether thecollaborationhasbeensuccessfulintermsoftheoutcome.OutputsWith regard to the outputs, reports were prepared for each participating institution.Researchoutputsgeneratedarelistedbelow,withfulltitlesofpublicationsinAppendix1.Phds:fourregistered,onecompleteAposterbya teammemberworkingonherPhDwonarunnerupprizeat theSociety forResearch into Higher Education (SRHE) student research pre-conference meeting inDecember2012andin2014OnespecialissueoftheSouthAfricanJournalofHigherEducationwithfivepapersreportingondataobtainedinthestudy(inpress)Onebookwiththreechaptersreportingondataobtainedinthestudy(inpress)Onearticleinanewspaper(MailandGuardian)19journalarticlespublished29ConferencepresentationsorpanelsOnedaynationalcolloquiumreportingonthefindingsoftheresearchAblogontheproject.OutcomeAtthefinalprojectmeetingmembersreportedsatisfactionabouttheresearchoutputsandmany agreed that working in such a large group across institutions allowed for a morecomparative and context-sensitive approach. The comparative dimension with its broadsweep gave more authority to the findings. On the negative side was the fact that the

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findingswerenotdealtwithinasmuchdepthandnuanceasmighthavebeenthecasewithasmaller,moreintensivestudy;someoftheresearchgatheringtechniques,forexamplethesurvey,werenotmanagedascarefullyandaccuratelyastheycouldhavebeen,andbytheendoftheprojectthewealthofdatahadnotbeenminednearlyasmuchasitcouldhavebeen.With regard to the learning and capacitation of team members, in the reflections theyreported learningaboutthetheoryofsocialrealism,aboutresearchtechniquesandaboutprofessional learning. Several reported learning about collaborative research, with onememberreportinggainingconfidencefromthisprocess,toundertakeacollaborativestudyatherowninstitution.AcommentinthethirdreflectionphaserevealedthelearningthatoneofthePhDstudentsengagedin:

I learnt that feeling uncertain about where we are in a research project, or inunderstandingatheoreticalframeworkispartoftheexploratoryjourney,andisnotlimitedtotheinexperienced.TheexplorationandquestioningoftheSCAtheoreticalframework became more meaningful as we shared our understandings and ouruncertainties.ThiswasanincrediblyvaluableexperienceformeasaPhDstudent.

Fromthereflectionsitwouldappearthatthelessexperiencedresearchersreportedlearningandappreciatingwhattheylearntmorethanthemoreexperiencedresearchers.An interesting dimension to the projectwas the degree of insecurity, threat to academicidentity and anxiety reported by many of the teammembers in the earlier years of theproject17-andwhichhadabatedbyyearsix:

Iexperiencedwithtimeafeelingofacceptance,warmthandasenseofbelonginginacommunityofacademicdevelopmentpractitioners. Thissenseof‘belongingness’emergingfromthetogethernessandsharedpurposeiswhatIhavegrowntovalueasamemberofthecollaborativeproject.

Withregardtoimpactonparticipants’criticalreflectionontheirprofessionalsettings,theysaidtheyunderstoodtheirworkbetter,althoughthiswasbynomeansthegreatestareaofbenefit.ProcessandgroupcompositionThe coming together as a group of educational researchers was facilitated as a result ofobtainingtheNRFgrant.Themechanicsoftheprojectwerecomplex.Communicationwasinevitably via email and sporadic, interspersed with periods of significant activity, oftencentredaroundthetwoorthree-dayface-to-facemeetingsthatwerescheduledtwiceayeartofacilitateplanning,collaborativeworkingsessionsandwriting.Forthosefrommoreruralareas, these face-to-facegatherings represented significant chunksof timeaway from the

17ThisisdiscussedinmoredetailinLeibowitz,NdebeleandWinberg,(2015–listedinAppendixOne)

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officeastraveltimecouldextendthesemeetingstoafullworkingweek.Thewayinwhichthegroupwasassembledcouldberegardedasamixofstrategicandconvenienceselection.Thegrantrequirementsnecessitatedcertainselectionsintermsofinstitutions(amixofruraland urban, HAIs and HDI), but it is fair to say thatwithin that framework, the teamwaslargely based on existing networks and former collaborations. Thus from the start of thecollaborationtherewerevariousformsofdiversity.Thisdiversityplayedoutinmanyways,includingintermsoflevelofexpertiseandexperience(bothasacademicdevelopersandasfarasresearchwasconcerned),age,background,genderandrace.Inaddition,althoughallproject members were engaged in academic development activities, they differedsignificantly intermsoftherolestheyfilledinthedifferent institutions,theirpractice,andtheir standing in these institutions. They displayed a broad range of methodologicalpositionsandperspectives. This collaborative researchprojectdiffered frommanyothers(forexampletheGriffin,HambergandLundgren2013studyongender)inthatitcomprisedmembersfromalargenumberofinstitutions(eight),acrossonecountry;althoughmembersall shared the desire to enhance teaching and learning at their institutions, they did notshare an interest in the same theories (on learning and social change); andmany of themembers,includingtheprincipalresearcher,didnothaveteachingoracademicstatus.Structuralfeaturesenablingtheresearchweretheabilitytoworkonsub-projectsinsmallerteams,accesstoresourcesmadepossiblebytheNRFfunding,andfurtherresourcesmadeavailable by some of the senior researchers’ own institutions, especially where theseinstitutions were well resourced. Structural features constraining the research were thebusynessoftheresearchersandthedemandsbytheirworkcontexts,thelongdistancestotravel to theresearchmeetingsbyespeciallymembers fromruraluniversitysites.Culturalfeaturesenablingthecollaborationincludedthecommitmentoftheteammemberstotheideaofsupportingandenhancingteachingandlearningandwhatwasdescribedbyoneofthe teammembers as a ‘spirit of generosity’where teammemberswerewilling to shareresourcesandknowledgewitheachother.Afeatureconstrainingthecollaborationleadingtoalackofclaritywastheplanningoftheprojectwhileitwasinmotion,causedpartlybytheshortnoticegiventoapplyforthegrantandpartlybythelackofresearchexperiencebythe group leader. This was in one sense an enablement, as it allowed for flexibility andopenness towards the unexpected, seen as so important in large-scale collaborativeresearchbyJohansson(2013).The collaboration cannot claim to be unique, but certainly was rare in higher educationcirclesinSouthAfrica.Thecontextisshiftingasincreasingnumbersofacademicdevelopersobtain theirPhDs–which inandof itself itan importantcatalystof research–eventuallyleadingtomoreseniorappointmentsatbothassociateprofessorandprofessorlevels,thusgrowingthecadreofresearcherswhopotentiallyhaveaccesstotheresourcesandstandingneeded to embark on larger scale studies. In addition, more colleagues in the field areobtaining NRF ratings which enable them to submit applications for dedicated grants,including those specifically focused on teaching and learning. Given the importance ofcollaborativeresearchforcomparativestudiesonacademicdevelopmentandforcapacity-building,itisnecessary,thatattentionisgivenwithinsuchprojects,tothestructuringofthecollaborationinordertoensuremaximumsharingandcapacitybuilding.

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The argument that inter-institutional research collaboration is important for capacitybuilding, developed in this chapter, complements that made in chapter 5.1.1 that inter-institutionalcollaborationorsharingofexpertiseisanimportantmeanstoenhanceteachingandlearninginSouthAfrica.6 CHAPTERSIX:DISCUSSION6.1 IntroductionTheaimsandobjectivesoftheresearchandtheoutcomesforeacharesummarizedbelow:Table6.1:SummaryofObjectivesandOutcomes

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No Objective Outcome

1 To make suggestions about how to enhanceprofessionaldevelopmentwithregardtoteachingateachoftheeightparticipatinginstitutions

Atthetimeofwritingthisreportpresentations on the data andfindings have been made in sixoftheparticipatinguniversities

2 To make suggestions at the national level forappropriate and context-sensitive policy toenhanceteachingandlearninginSouthAfrica

These are provided in ChapterSeven.

3 To contribute to the international debates onprofessionaldevelopmentwithregardtoteachingand learning with specific reference to theconcepts of ‘structure, culture and agency’ asdeveloped in the work of social realist MargaretArcher

This is discussed in Chapter Six,andvariouspublications inmoredepth.

4 To contribute to the international debates oncollaborativeresearch

This is discussed in Chapter Six,andtwojournalarticles.

5 To make suggestions at the national levelregarding collaborative research on teaching andlearningandabouthowtosupportthis18

These are provided in ChapterSeven

The aim of this chapter is thus to draw the various findings together and to suggest anyrelevantpointsforthevariousbodiesof literatureonwhichtheprojecthasdrawn,andtopresentbroadimplicationsonthefollowingtopics:● Approachestoprofessionallearning● Approachestotheconceptofcontextandtheinterplayofstructure,cultureandagency● Approachestocollaborativeresearch.Thechapterculminateswithconsiderationsofthestrengthsandlimitationsoftheresearchdesign and the implications thereof for researching teaching and learning in highereducation.6.2 Professionallearning

18Thelasttwoaimswereintroducedinthesecondphaseoftheresearch.

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Thestudyendorsestheconceptof‘professionallearning’,thatisbroaderthanthenotionofprofessional development, and is lifelong and agentic, as discussed in Chapter 3.1. Thelecturer is encouraged to learn by the quality of the offerings of formal learningopportunitiesandthecredibilityoftheacademicdeveloperswhoofferthese,aspectsoftheworkingenvironmentaswellasbythelecturers’ownconcernsandcommitments.Thelatterwouldbe influencedby the lecturer’s ownbiography. The studydoesnot ‘pronounce’ onwhetherparticipationinformallearningactivitiesshouldbecompulsory,butitdoesprovidesomeexampleswheremakingsuchactivitiescompulsoryprovidesindividualswithapositiveexposure to these opportunities, that might not have been the case if these were notcompulsory.Thequestionofwhetherofferings shouldbemadecompulsoryornot shouldnotbeansweredoutsideofconsiderationsofthecredibilityoftheprogrammesandthoseoffering them, of the prevailing culture, and whether the attendance would have beenencouraged,wereitnotcompulsory.Theneedforacredibleandprofessionalisedacademicdevelopment cohort has been signalled as an important component of a conduciveenvironmentforprofessionallearning(Quinn&Vorster,2014;Vorster&Quinn,2015).Akeyfindingisthatthereisacontinuumfromformallearningopportunities,moreadhocandinformallearningopportunities,tothemostinformalofall,ie.learningfromone’sownongoingpractice,areallimportant.Therelationshipbetweenthesedimensionsoflearningiscomplementary andmutually reinforcing.A finding is for on theonehand theneed for aprofessionalizedandwellcapacitatedacademicdevelopmentstaffcohort,andontheother,ongoingattentiontotheconditionsinwhichacademicsworkandteach.Thisfinding,unliketheviewofwriterssuchasKnight,TaitandYorke(2006)andothersthatmaintainthatthelearningthatoccursinthefacultiesanddepartmentsis‘moresignificant’,cautionsagainstabinarybetweenformalandinformallearningapproaches.Botharenecessaryandimportantandmoreattentionshouldbepaidtohowtoenhancetherelationshipbetweenthetwo,orbetween thevariousaspectsof the institutional context, includingpolicy,humanrelationsprescriptions,formallearningopportunities,academicleadership,acaringenvironmentandsoon.Oneofthepointsofconcernisthatwherethedominantcultureinadepartmentorfaculty does not provide cultural resources for lecturers to learn to teach, and devaluesattention to professional learning, local networks then perform a negative function. Thissupports the position maintained by Roxå (2104) that microcultures can maintain adefensivepositionagainstthesurroundingorganizationalcontext.Thusinsteadofdiscussingwhereprofessionallearningshouldbeprovided,managersandacademicdevelopersshouldbeasking:1) Is there sufficientmotivationandencouragementwithinaparticular contextforacademicstolearn?2)Istheresupportforacademicstodevelopcriticalreflectionabouttheir teaching? 3) Are there sufficient opportunities for academics to draw on ideas andconceptsaboutteachingandlearningtoenrichtheirteaching?The findingsalsosupport thenotionofgroupagency (or ‘corporate’agency)andsuggeststhat the deliberate cultivation of positive collaborations is significant for professionallearning.Thesegroupsoccurmostnaturallywithindepartmentsandfaculties,andshouldbesupported across faculties or disciplines aswell as between institutions. There have beenimportantdevelopmentsinthisregardinSouthAfricasubsequenttothedatacollectionforthis study, including the collaboration of three universities in the Western Cape on thePGDIP(HE:T+L)andtheTeachingAdvancementatUniversityProgramme,initiatedin2015,and at which teaching academics from across the country have signaled appreciation for

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inter-university networking. This is not without its challenges, however, as the focus oncollaborationhas shown,andaccording toa studyancillary to this researchbyQuinnandVorster(2015–listedinAppendixOne)inwhichtheyexaminethechallengesofreproducingaPGDIP(HE)fortheirowninstitution,forcolleaguesatother institutions.Theworkingsofgroupswithindepartments,referredtoas‘workgroups’byTrowlerandCooper(2002),withamore intensive focusonsharedunderstandingsamongstcolleaguesandthe influenceofongoingpractices(Boud&Brew2013; inpress)wouldprovideavaluableextensiontothisstudy.Asalientfindingisthevaluingofresearchand/overandaboveteaching,signaledatalleightof the institutions. This is compounded in especially some of the HDUs,where there is aconcomitant pressure for academics to obtain postgraduate qualifications in theirdisciplines.Thenotionof the integrationof thevarious rolesof theacademic, signaledbythe Boyer Commission in the US in the 1990s (Boyer, 1990) provides a way out of thisunhelpfulbinarybetweenresearchandteaching.Animportantareaforfurtherresearchandstrategizing in South Africa, as well as other higher education contexts where there arecompetingprioritiesfortheenhancementofscholarshipandcapacitationishowacademicscan enhance their capabilities in amore holistic or integratedmanner, than is at presentmadefeasible.The study has shown a variety of conceptions of good teaching amongst managers andacademics.Mostoftheseconceptionsareinharmonywiththeliteratureongoodteaching,asoutlinedinChapter3.3andsomearenot.Giventhatthesampleoflecturersinterviewedisskewedsharplyinfavourofthosewhoarecommittedtogoodteachingandprofessionallearning, this is a cause for attentionand further investigation. Thereare variouspossibleexplanations for this variance: 1) formal and informal learning opportunities have notpenetratedthecohortofacademicsaswidelyanddeeplyasonewouldhope;2)conceptionsofgoodteachingremaindeeplyembedded,despiteexposuretonewconceptions;3)actualconditionsacademicsworkundermayimpedetheirengagementwithorfull integrationofnewideas.6.3 InstitutionalcontextfromasocialrealistperspectiveThefindingsofthestudyconfirmtheimportanceofadoptingacontextualizedapproachtomattersofprofessionallearning,wherethecontextisseenasthe“environmentinwhichthe(‘macro’)featuresofthesystemareeitherreproducedortransformed”(Archer1995,p.11).The ‘macro’systemhasbeendescribedat thenational levelandthe institutionalcontextsarethesettingswherethemacrofeatureshavebeenoutlined.Akeyfindinginthisrespect,isthatthemacrofeaturesoftheSouthAfricansocietyandnationalhighereducationpolicyenvironment are indeed reproduced, andonoccasion transformed, at the local universitylevel19. The study demonstrates how the agency and roles of individuals and groups,especially of teaching academics, but also of middle level and senior academics, make adifference. However the study provides a glimpse of how the inherent inequality in the

19Althoughseniormanagershavebeeninterviewed,theresearchanalysishasnotturnedtowhatextenttheserole-players,orothershavesucceededintransforminguniversities.

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systemstronglyinfluenceswhatappearstobepossibletoachieve,withregardtoteachingandlearning.Archer(1996)maintainsthatbothstructureandculturearesignificantinaccountsofsocialchangeorstasis,andthatneithershouldbeneglected.Thisstudyconfirmsthesignificanceof both domains.With regard to structures, policies, academic development centres, andpostssuchasdeputydean:teachingareallsignificant. Themanner inwhichmaterialandculturalresources interacttoproduceteachingand learningoutcomesorpractices20 isanimportantareaforfutureinvestigation.Theinterchapterbetweendisadvantageandruralityhasbeenhighlightedinthisstudyandisworthyoffurtherinvestigationasaspecificsocio-economiccondition.The domain of culture has been shown in the study to be extremely significant inreproducing and transforming dominant ideas about teaching and learning in highereducation. This domain is salient at all institutions, historically advantaged anddisadvantaged.Theroleofseniormanagersandmiddlemanagershasbeenhighlightedasagroupwhichplaysanimportantpartinhowdominantconceptionsofteachingandlearningare either reproduced or transformed. The extent to which dominant ideas are eithercoherentorcontradictory isan importantaspectoftheconceptionofcultureasdescribedbyArcher(1996).Shedrawsadistinctionbetweenthecoherenceoftheideas,andhowthisis imposedordisseminatedamongstpeople. Indeed, inthisstudytherewasfoundtobealackofcoherenceofideasregardingthestatureofteachingattheinstitutionallevel,butinaddition, a weak engagement or dissemination of these within certain institutions, andfurther,acontradictionbetweentheculturaldomainandvariouspoliciesandprocesses inthestructuraldomain(forexampleincentivepolicies,timetablesorperformanceevaluationand promotion processes). This conditionmight have changed since 2012,when the datawasgathered.Nevertheless, this is an importantarea for further investigationandaction.Structures advancing and incentivizing research, for example the NRF, still exist. Suchstructureshaveaninfluenceofculture,vizideasabouttheimportanceofteaching.AccordingtoArcher,humanagencyisneitherautonomous(iethathumanspossessfreewill)nor is it reduced to the extent that the systemic level is entirely determining. She alsocautionsagainstseeingagencyas‘conflated’withthesystemiclevel,suchthatonecannotseparateout theworkingsof the systemic andof agency. In this study the significanceofagencyishighlighted.Agencyandreflexivityaccountforthevariationinresponsesbetweenindividualstothestructuralandculturalconditionstheyface.Howeverthemannerinwhichagencyand the levelof structureandculture interact is complexandnuanced,andbynomeans‘brute’.Inotherwords,theinterplayexistsintinymicro-interactionsthatacademicsengageineachday,ratherthannecessarilyingrandeventssuchasamajorstudentprotestor change in policy. This suggests once again that it would beworth complementing thetheoreticalframeworkusedinthisstudy,withonefocusingonongoingpractice,repetitionandsharedmeanings.With regard to agency the study suggests that knowledgeability plays a significant role inadvancingprofessionallearning.Knowledgeandexpertiseisderivedfrompriorlearning(for

20ThisrelationshiphasreceivedfurtherattentioninLeibowitz,inpress(A),SAJHE-listedinAppendixOne

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example where one studied or taught previously), knowledge resources provided vianetworks (for example professional or disciplinary associations) and interaction withcolleagues in faculties and departments. The knowledge is also derived from theprofessional learning opportunities, for example the PGDIP (HE). Where there is limitedexpertise on a topic relating to teaching or professional learning in an institution, inter-institutionalcollaborationorsharingonceagainbecomesapossiblesolution.InadditiontheexampleofHAU3,where staff in theCentre forTeachingandLearningconsciously took ituponitselftocapacitateitsmembers,signalstheneedforsupportfromseniormanagersforthis capacitation, alongside attention to the identity and general academic growth, ofacademicdevelopers.Thestudyendorsestheviewthatagency issignificant.Acontributionofthisproject isthesuggestion derived from the findings that whilst agency, and reflexivity, promote thenegotiation of obstacles. Agency is itself influenced by the constraining and enablingconditionsintheenvironment21.Intrinsicmotivationfuelsthedesiretolearnprofessionallyamongst academics committed to teaching, far more so than extrinsic motivation(motivation driven by instrumentalist purposes and external drivers). However theinformation at hand is not able to shed light on the effects of intrinsic and extrinsicmotivationamongstacademicslessinterestedtolearntoteach(thosewhowerelesslikelytorespondtothequestionnaireortoagreetobeinterviewed,andpossiblythemajorityatmany universities). Further investigations into how less committed teachers can beencouragedtolearntoteach,requiresfurtherconsideration.6.4 CollaborativeresearchThestudysuggeststhatinter-institutionallargescalecollaborativeresearchwithintheSouthAfricanhighereducationsettingisfeasible,butitfaceschallengespertainingtogeographicaldistance,busyworkschedules,differentlevelsofresearchexperienceandunder-resourcingatsomeoftheparticipatinginstitutions.Acaseinpointwithregardtounder-resourcingwasthe inter-institutionalquestionnaire,whichwasastruggle todisseminateat severalof theuniversities,inparticularatHDUs.Furthermore, thestudysuggests thatalthoughthis isnotnecessarilyeasy, it ispossible tocultivate a learning and sharing environment within such collaborations, a general pointmadeaboutgroupreflexivityandsharingbyDonati(2012).Therearefewguidelinesforhowtoensuresuccessfulcollaborativeresearchenvironments.Suchinformationwouldgoalongway to support this burgeoning approach. The line of enquiry on collaborative researchbrings together several key strands in this study: the idea that collaboration can beconsciouslybuiltandthat it is important; thatone learnsbydoingwithmoreexperiencedothers(Wenger,1998)butthatformaltheoreticalknowledgeaswellastacitknowledge isalsorequired;andthatculturalandstructuralenablementsandconstraintsaremediatedbyindividualandgroupagency.Finally, this studyprocessalsopoints to the interrelationshipbetweenresearch,learning,professionalpractice,thushowvariousformsofscholarshipareinterlinked.

21Thispointhasbeenexploredinconjunctionwiththeoriesonmotivationandself-determinationtheoryinLeibowitz(inpress(B):SAJHE–listedinAppendixOne).

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6.5 StrengthsandlimitationsoftheresearchdesignThis research approach was not only collaborative, but to a degree participatory: in thesense that academic developers engaged in professional development were researchingtheirownprofessionalcontextsandsearchingforinformationthatwouldinformtheirownwork.Thereflectivereportsarethemostprominentfeatureofthisapproach.Thisrenderedtheresearch,designedbypeoplewhoserolesallowedforrelativelylittletimeforresearch,perhapsmoremessyand‘buildingtheplanewhileflying’thanitmighthavebeen,asamore‘pure’or ‘scientific’project.However theparticipatorynatureof thedesignenhanced theimmediate use value of the project and encouraged a measure of self awareness andcriticalityamongsttheresearchteam,whowereabletotesttheirownassumptionsoftheirworkagainstthedatafromtheirownandotherinstitutions.Thedesign,involvingeightsimultaneousstudiesutilizingcommoninstruments,washelpfulinallowingsilencesanddifferencestoemergethatwouldnothaveemergedinsinglecasestudies.Howeverthemultiplecasestudieswerestaticandthereforedidnotmaximizethepotential of the concept of the interplay of structure, culture and agency, which usuallyallows for a tracing of patterns and changes as theseoccur over time.A further researchweakness already mentioned was the difficulty of implementing a survey across theinstitutions.Thesurveywassignificant in that it the firstof itskindandprovidedabroad-sweepviewofattitudestowardsprofessionallearninginthecountry.Itwasonlyanalysednumericallyinthreeinstitutions,althoughtheopen-endeddatawasminedinmoredepth.Thesurveyandinterviewdataset isweightedinfavourofacademicswhoareenthusiasticabout teachingandprofessional learning.Various findingswouldneed tobeexploredandtestedwithacohortthatislesscommittedtotheteachingfunction.It shouldbenotedthat thedatacollected fromthesurveyand interviewsrecordresearchparticipants’ perceptions only. This might lead to the interpretation that the claims andrecommendationswhichcanbemadeare limited,becausesubstantivedata toconfirmorrefuteperceptionswasnotgathered.However,thedatacollectedfromtheinterviewsmadepossible a deep understanding of people’s experiences of their higher educationenvironment. This interpretive research approachwas complementedby the collection ofotherformsofpublicdocumentation,nationaltrendsandstatistics.Furthermore,particularattentionhasbeenpaidtonottreatingwhateithermanagersoracademicshavesaidas ifthisprovidesapictureofreality.Toparaphrasecriticalrealists,theremightbearealityoutthere,butourknowledgeofitcanonlybepartialor‘fallible’(Sayer,2011,p.47).Relatedtothis conflation of description with reality, is the danger of reading into the accountscontainedinthisstudyasifthisprovidesapictureofSouthAfricanhighereducationin2016.Thedatawascollectedin2011and2012.Someoftheimpressionscreatedbythisreportarestillpertinent,whereastheinfluenceofrecenteventssuchasthe#Feesmustfallandrelatedmovementshavenotbeentracedatall.Finally,itshouldbecautionedthatusingaparticulartheoreticalframeworkdeterminesthequestionswhich can be asked and so both reveals and obscures insight into professional

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development and teaching and learning in general (Ashwin, 2009). Various possiblecouplings of theoretical frameworkswith that of structure, culture and agencyhavebeenreferredinearlierchaptersofthisdocument.Thematter isofsufficient interesttoseveralmembersof this team, thatabookarisingoutof thisconcern iscurrentlybeingproduced(seeLeibowitz,BozalekandKahn,eds,inpress–listedinAppendixOne).7 CHAPTERSEVEN:SUMMARYOFRESEARCHFINDINGS1. The role of centres for teaching and learning are acknowledged and academic

developmentstaffareappreciated.Inmanyinstancestheprofessionalconditionsintermsofjobsecurityandabilitytodevelopprofessionallyareunsatisfactory.

2. There is an important role for formal learning opportunities, most notably thePostgraduate Diploma in Higher Education. There is equally, an important role forlearningfrominformalopportunities,forexamplefromcolleaguesinthetearoom,orfrom reflection on one’s own practice. Both forms have strength and limitations.Ideallybothshouldcomplementeachother,ina‘virtuouscycle’.

3. Professional learningwas found to be influenced by the overt valuing, leadership,formalprogrammesandpolicymessagingaboutgoodteaching.Itwasalsofoundtobe influencedby the general qualityof leadership, interpersonal relationships, andinfrastructuralandmaterialconditionsinacademics’professionalsettings.

4. The valuing of the research function over the teaching function is an overridingtensionacrossalltheinstitutionsinthestudy.

5. Where thereare formalor informalnetworksandcollegial relationship focusedonteachingenhancement,theseareperceivedtoplayanextremelysignificantroleformembersof suchnetworks.Manyacademics incontextswhere thesedonotexist,reportameasureofisolationanddiscouragement.

6. Professional learningwas found to be influenced by the overt valuing, leadership,formalprogrammesandpolicymessagingaboutgoodteaching,butitwasalsofoundtobeinfluencedbythegeneralqualityofleadership,interpersonalrelationships,andinfrastructuralandmaterialconditionsinacademics’professionalsettings.

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7. Rurality, as it intersects with disadvantage, features more overtly as a socio-economicindicatorthanappearstobementionedintheliteratureoninequalityandsocial(in)justice.

8. Where thereare formalor informalnetworksandcollegial relationship focusedonteachingenhancement,theseareperceivedtoplayanextremelysignificantroleformembersof suchnetworks.Manyacademics incontextswhere thesedonotexist,reportameasureofisolationanddiscouragement.

9. Individual and group agency influences participation in opportunities to learn toteach.Motivation, anaspectof agency, is influencedby the structural and culturalfeatures in an institution. Institutional structural and cultural affordances are anadditional dimension influencing teaching quality. Equity of teaching and learningopportunitiesarethusinfluencedbyamongstotherfactors,institutionalsettings.

10. Group agency, collegiality and academic leadership are important features thatencourageprofessionallearning,andcanbeconsciouslydeveloped.

11. Collaborative research is an important methodology to generate findings acrosssocio-economic and institutional contexts and to build research capacity.Arrangements internal to the collaboration, as well as external to it, for example,from the institutions where the collaborators work, have an influence on theworkingsoftheproject.

8 CHAPTEREIGHT:RECOMMENDATIONSRecommendationsrelatingtoprofessionallearningMost interviewees across these different levels of seniority agreed that the discourse,science and art of teaching needs to be uplifted nationally. This upliftment could beaccomplishedthroughsuchendeavoursasprofessionalstaffdevelopmentprogrammesforboth senior and lecturer level academics. It was found that currently the majority ofprofessional development programmes are directed particularly at novice academics andthat the middle layers of academics (such as Heads of Department) would benefit fromcapacity development as well. The results of the questionnaire indicated that muchdevelopment is currently superficial with most academics indicating that they had onlyattended staff development opportunities once a year. It is therefore recommended thatconditionsmake itpossible foracademics toattendmore frequently.At thesametimeasmaking these deeper professional development programmes available, it would benecessarytoconductresearchontheimpactofthese.ItisencouragedonanationalleveltoreleasemoniesforstudyingtheimpactoftheseprogrammesacrossHEIs.While the findings show thatmoreand improvedprofessional developmentopportunitiesneedtobesupported, theconditionsunderwhichacademicsareteachingshouldbebothinvestigatedandameliorated-forexample,thestaff:studentratiosdiffersignificantlyacrossHEIs, faculties and disciplines. These disparities have a direct impact on the quality ofteaching and learning. From the questionnaire it is indicated that eighty percent ofrespondents perceived that their workload prevented them from engaging with teaching

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andlearningdevelopmentactivities.Inadditiontothis,Itwasfoundthathistory,geographyandresourcesalsohaveadirecteffectonthequalityofteachingandlearning.Forexample,thehighturnoverofteachersatruraluniversitiesthanatbetterresourceduniversitieswhichhad a significantly lower turnover is a significant factor. The stability of the academicteachingstaffisimportantinensuringcontinuityandmaintainingstandards.Theincreasingcasualisation of staff, as for example in some foundational programmes,militates againstdevelopment of the identity as a university teacher and consequent investment in theacademicendeavour,includingreflexivityandthescholarshipofteaching.Important findings leading to recommendations are that currently the majority ofprofessional development programmes are directed particularly at novice academics andthat the middle layers of academics (such as Heads of Department), as well as seniormanagers, would benefit from capacity development as well. A further importantrecommendation,whichisnotcurrentlyimplemented,wouldbetheprovisionofdedicatedtimeforacademicstoengageinmoreextensivecapacitydevelopment.The tension between commitment to research and to teaching, which produces a binaryneeds tobeaddressed. Thisdualismbetween teachingand research is not improved,butfurther exacerbated by the suggestion made by a number of senior management forteaching-onlyandresearch-onlytracks.Inordertobringaboutsuchparitybetweenresearchandteaching,itisrecommendedthatmoreformalrecognitionbeprovidedforprofessionaldevelopment in teaching and learning - as is the casewith research.Ways of recognisinggood teachingneed tobe re-imaginedand implementedsoas toprovidemechanisms forsuchreward.Provisionshouldbemadeinstitutionallyforcomparableallocationoftimeforacademicstoengagewithteachingasisthecaseforresearch.Seniormanagementappearedreluctant to make teaching development compulsory. However, university managementacross the case studieshave researchperformance criteria. It is recommended that thereshouldbemechanismsatanationalleveltopromotethestatusofteachingandlearningsothatacultureofteachingandlearning,includingtheengagementinacad

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The Teaching and Learning Centres at some institutions are providing support across avariety of institutions. It is suggested that sharing this load would be helpful, as thecollaborative planning and teaching of staff development activities, including formalqualifications,couldbestrengthenedthroughtheuseoftheresources(includingpeople)atthe individual HEIs. Financial support, for example through the collaborative TeachingDevelopmentGrants,isonewaytoencouragethefurtherlearningofacademicdevelopersand of professionalising the field. Developmental opportunities for academic developerswasalsostatedasaneedbysomeinterviewees.Itisalsorecommendedthatopportunitiesareprovidedforacademicdevelopers(orstaffinteachingandlearningcentres)todeveloptheir own knowledge and skills to enable them to facilitate both formal and informalprofessional learning opportunities for academic staff across the disciplines in theirinstitutions.Newacademicdeveloperscouldbeinductedintothefieldthroughmentoring,coaching, apprenticeship, fellowship programmes, workshops and/or through a formalprogramme such as postgraduate diploma in higher education specifically for academicdevelopers. Allied to this is the need for more stable working conditions for academicdevelopersinsomeinstitutions.Since the inceptionof this research therehavebeenanumberof significant collaborativeanddevelopmental projects, someofwhichhave received funding from theCollaborativeTeachingDevelopmentGrants,which couldbe consideredas ‘goodpractice’ examples, orwhich,duetotheirbroaderregionalornationalsignificance,shouldbeconsideredformorepermanent funding. The followingare illustrative, anddonot cover the full rangeof suchinitiatives:• The Teaching Advancement at Universities (TAU) Fellowship Programme (a national

HeltasainitiativeprojectcurrentlyhostedattheUniversityofJohannesburg)• The Postgraduate Diploma in Higher Education for Academic Developers (currently

hostedatRhodesUniversity)• ThePostgraduateDiploma inHigherEducation (TeachingandLearning),collaboratively

developedandco-taughtbythreeuniversitiesintheWesternCape.Different levels of academics who were interviewed perceived teaching and learning indisparateways.Seniormanagement,forexample,feltcompelledtoimprovepass-rates,andconstructed good teaching through this lens. Interviews with academics suggest severaladoptedknowledge-transmissionapproachestoteachingandlearning. It isrecommendedthatopportunitiesarefoundtofacilitatealternativeperspectivesongoodteaching.Finally,thestudyaffirmstheneedforfurtherconceptualandempiricallybasedresearchintoprofessionallearninginSouthAfrica.RecommendationsrelatedtomethodologyTherearealsorecommendationsassociatedwiththemethodologyof thestudy.Multi-siteresearchintoteachingandlearningisofsignificantvalue,andshouldbeencouragedbytheNRFandothernationalbodiesasitprovidesawiderlensintoteachingandlearninginhighereducation. In order to ensure comparable data across the research landscape, it is

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recommended that symmetrical interviews be conducted (ie, selection of deans fromcomparablefaculties).The collaborative nature of the study suggests further aspects for study. Collaborativeresearchrequiresalevelofreflexivitycomparabletothatnecessaryforqualityteachingandlearning. It is suggested that reflection on, and targeted study of, aspects related tocollaborativeresearch(suchas,projectleadership,thewayinwhichacollaborativeprojectis structured and managed, opportunities to work together, geographical distances, andpower differentials associated with, for example, status, expertise, social location) couldtherefore lend insights into issues related to the professional development for universityteachers. Theprocess involved in collaborationas researchers is also recommendedasanaspectforfurtherstudy.Theways inwhich thechallengesandopportunitiesofdelimitinga theoretical frameworkforalarge-scalecollaborativestudyisworthyoffurtherinvestigation.MajorrecommendationsThetablebelowdepicts themajorrecommendationsregardingprofessional learning.Eachof these major recommendations is considered from the perspective of what might bepossible to do about them and the different levels at which change would need to beaffected.It should be noted that the list of recommendations portrayed in Table 8.1 below is notexhaustive, but represents the most common recommendations that have been gleanedfromthedata. Furthermore,addressingonesetofneeds, suchas improving the statusofteachingwill not necessarily translate into improved professional learning, as long as theinfrastructure and the inequitable workload conditions across institutions, faculties anddisciplines are not addressed. Another significant factor for learning to teach in highereducation is how students’ learning needs andbackgrounds differ fromone institution toanother.Itisthereforeapparentthattherecommendationsandthefurtherexplicationsofhow to address these on various levels are entangled with each other and that it isimportanttobearthisinmindwhenconsideringeachoneofthese.Furthermore,sincetherecommendationsaddressdifferentissuesandlevels,somemaybeeasierandmorelikelytobeaddressedthanothers.Insum,theactionssuggestedbythisdocumentforimmediateattentionatthenationallevelare:

1) Apolicyonprofessionallearningwithregardtotheteachingrole(orachapterwithinabroaderpolicydocumentontheprofessionalizationoftheHEacademiccohort)bewrittenwhichincorporatessomeofthesuggestionsinTable8.1below;

2) Agoodpracticeguideforinstitutions,academicdevelopersandfacultymanagementbecommissioned,whichdevelops thepointsoutlined in the final threecolumns intheTablebelow;

3) ThelessonsfromthisresearchbeincorporatedintofundingpoliciesoftheDHET(forexample,supportforgoodteachingmightrequirefocusedfunding,butinaddition,is

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dependentonfundingandfunctionalityoftheHEsystemasawholeandonfundingandfunctionalityofindividualinstitutions.

ExplanatorynotesaboutTable8.1Theserecommendationsaremadeonthebasisofthedatafromthenationaloverview,theinstitutional and reflective reports, the questionnaire, the interviews with the seniormanagers, the interviews with academics and the research team members’ reflectiveresponsesanddiscussions.ManyoftherecommendationsinTable8.1suggestactionsthatarepartiallyimplementedatnationallevel,orunevenlyimplementedacrossHEIs.Thustheactionsthatarelistedinthecolumn“whatneedstobedone”canalsobereadas“whatneedstobedonemoreorbetterormoreconsistently”.Itshouldalsobenotedthatsomeoftherecommendationssuggestionapproachestowardsprofessionallearningandthethinkingthatinformsgoodpolicy,ratherthanactualactions.The“levelatwhichchangesneedtooccur”hasdivisionsshowingwhatshouldbetakenintonationalpolicy,aswellaswhatshouldoccurat inter-institutional, institutionaland facultylevels.Someofthelatterthreecolumnscouldhaveimplicationsfornationalpolicyorcouldbesubsumedintoa‘goodpractice’guideforinstitutions.Table8.1:SummaryofMajorRecommendationsRecommendation Whatneedstobe

doneLevelwherechangeneedstooccur

National Inter-institutional

Institutional Faculty/Departmental/Centre

Improve status ofteaching andlearning Createformaland

informalopportunitiesforlearningtoteachwhichareaccessibleforacademics

Policytoreinforcethenecessityforbothformalandinformalopportunities

Inter-institutionalcoursesandPGDipsandshortcourses

Policytocreateimpetusforformalandinformalopportunitiesacrosstheinstitution,seminars,workshops,staffdevelopmentprogrammes

Mentoring,peerobservation,departmentalsupportforreflectiononteachingandlearning

Well-resourcedandwell-qualified

Policyprovisionfor

BodieslikeCHECand

Institutionalresources

Well-qualified,crediblestaffwithacademicstatuswhoare

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andcredibleteachingandlearningsupportstructures

centresforteachingandlearningandprofessionaldevelopmentopportunitiesforacademicdevelopers

HELTASA,SIGs,CHE

devotedtostructuresforteachingandlearning

abletoprovidearangeofstaffdevelopmentopportunitiesforteachingandlearning

Policiestopromoteteachingandlearning

Nationalpolicyonpromotingteachingandlearning

Policyrewardinginter-institutionalwork

Institutionalstrategicplansandactionplanstopromoteteachingandlearning

Facultyanddepartmentalplansonpromotingthestatusofteachingandlearning

Schemestorewardandrecogniseteachingandlearning

Nationalfellowshipse.g.TAU,nationalpoliciesrewardingteaching

Rewardsforinter-institutionalcollaborativeteaching

Rewardsandrecognitiontopromoteteachingandlearninge.g.tenure,probation,teachingawards,fellowships,sabbaticals

Rewardsforworkingcollaborativelyacrossdisciplineandfaculty,Facultyanddepartmentalawardstopromoteteaching

Involvementofkeystakeholdersinpromotingteachingandlearning

LeadersofCHE,DHET,NRF,UsAactivelypromotingthestatusofteachingandlearningandinter-institutionalcollaboration

VCs,DVCsactivelypromotinginter-institutionalcollaborationwithregardtoteachingandlearning

VCs,DVCsandADstaffvisibly,activelyandexplicitlypromotingthestatusofteachingandlearningacrossthewholeinstitution

Deans,DeputyDeansandHoDs,ADstaffvisibly,activelyandexplicitlypromotingthestatusofteachingandlearning

Knowledgeableleadershipregardingteachingandlearningtoestablishacultureofvaluing

StructuressuchasCHE,DHET,NRFprovideknowledgeableleadershiponteachingand

MostknowledgeableADandotheracademicstaffprovideleadershiponcross-

VCs,DVCs,ADstaffareprovidedwithopportunitiestoimprovetheir

Deans,DeputyDeans,TeachingandLearningspecialistsinFacultiesandDepartmentsareprovidedwithopportunitiesforimprovingtheirknowledgeofteachingandlearning

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ofteachingandlearningandencouragestafftoparticipateinstaffdevelopmentinitiatives

learning institutionalendeavours,learningfromeachother

knowledgeregardingteachingandlearning

Formalandinformalopportunitiesforimprovingteachingandlearning

Nationalopportunitiestoimproveteachingandlearning-internationalexperts,meetingsincludingtimeetc

Inter-institutionalcoursesandopportunitiesforcollaborativeworkonteachingandlearning

Institutionalcoursesandpromotionofinformalopportunitiesforimprovingteachingandlearningincludingdedicatedtimeforteachingandlearningactivities

Facultyanddepartmentalformalandinformalopportunitiestopromoteteachingandlearningsuchaspeermentoring,dedicatedtimeforopportunitiesfacultyanddepartmentalformalandinformalmeetingsetc.

Address theteaching/researchbinary Improvingthe

statusofSoTLNationalbodiessuchastheNRFtosupportSoTL

Fundingandrecognitionforcollaborativeinter-institutionalSoTL

FundingandrecognitionforSoTLataninstitutionallevel

FacultyanddepartmentalfundingandrecognitionforSoTL

ProvideopportunitiesforengagementwithSoTL

Opportunitiestoholdandattendinternational,nationalandlocalconferences,colloquia,symposia

Inter-institutionalconferences,colloquia,symposia

Institutionalconferences,colloquia,seminarstoshowcaseSoTL

Facultyanddepartmentalseminars,colloquiaetctoshowcaseSoTL

IncreaseSoTLpublications

FundingforSoTLresearchdevelopmentcoursesandwritingforpublicationsworkshops

Inter-institutionalcoursesondevelopingresearchandwritingforpublicationworkshops

Institutionalcoursesondevelopingresearchandwritingforpublicationworkshops

FacultyandDepartmentalpeermentoringonSoTLwritingandencouragementtoengageinactionresearch

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Encouragingcollaborativeresearch

Researchproposalstoincludeachapteroninter-institutionalcollaboration

Proposalsincludechaptersonsupportingteammemberstocollaborate,powerrelations,interpersonalrelations,leadershipstyle,commitmentsrequiredfromteammembers

Institutionalrewardsforcollaborativeresearch

Departmentalrewardsforcollaborativeresearch

Collaborativeteachingguides

CHEprovidingopportunitiesforteachingdocumentation

Inter-institutionalguidesandresources

Institutionalguidesandresources Disciplinaryguidesand

resources

Improveworkingconditionsaffectingteachingandlearning

Parityintermsofworkload

Nationalauditandreparativemeasuresregardingunequalworkingconditions

Inter-institutionalcollaborativeteachingtoreduceduplicationandexcessiveworkloads

Institutionalauditandreparativemeasuresregardingunequalworkingconditions

Facultyanddepartmentalauditsandreparativemeasuresregardingworkingconditions

Acknowledgingtheeffectofcasualisationonteaching

Nationalaudit Inter-institutionalaudit

Measurestakentoimproveteachingandlessencasualisationofstaff

Reconfiguringfundingformularegardingstudents’learningneedsandstaff/studentratios

Perhapsmoreofafocusonsuccessfuloutcomesforfundingratherthanstudentsregistering

Acknowledgingtheeffectsof

Examiningfactorssuchas

Ruralinstitutionsareaffected

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geopoliticallocationonteachingandlearning

rurality,institutionaltypeonteachingandlearning

bythestaffandstudentsthattheyattractandtheresourcesavailabletothem,experienceinresearchsupervision

AcknowledgingthehistoricallegacyofeducationanditsimpactonteachingandlearninginHE

Acknowledgingtheeffectsofmergersonteachingandlearning

Acknowledgingtheeffectsofmarketisationonteachingandlearning

Investigatingincreasedpressureformultipledemands

Lessinstitutionalpressureonstafftoaccomplishmultipletasksatonce

Lessfacultyanddepartmentalpressureonstafftoaccomplishmultipletasksatonce

Administrativesupportforteachingandlearning

Acknowledgementofeffectsofinfrastructureonteachingandlearning-ICTs,buildings,lecturerooms,transport,residences,

Nationalminimumstandardsandassistancetoimprovethisifneeded

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accesstofood

Acknowledgementoftheeffectsofinterpersonalrelationshipsonteachingandlearning

Knowledgesregardingteachingandlearning

Necessaryknowledgesregardingteachingandlearning

Knowledgeofthefieldofhighereducationanditschallenges

Knowledgeofthedifferencesandcommonalitiesbetweeninstitutions

Knowledgeofone’sowninstitutionandhowthisimpactsonteachingandlearning

Knowledgeoffacultyanddisciplinaryknowledge

Conceptionsof‘good’teaching,professionaldevelopmentetc.needclarification

Furtherresearchonwhatmotivatesteachingandtheconditionsunderwhichteachingisdoneneedstobeconducted

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Leibowitz,B.(inpress(A),SAJHESpecial IssueonContextualApproachestowardsProfessionalAcademicDevelopment)Professionalacademicdevelopment–the influenceofcontextonmotivation

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Leibowitz,B.,Bozalek,V.,Farmer,J.,Garraway,J.,Herman,N.,Jawitz,J.,McMillan,W.,Mistri,G.,Ndebele,C.,Nkonki,V.,Quinn,L.,vanSchalkwyk,S.,Vorster, J.andWinberg,C. (2016)Collaborative Research in Contexts of Inequality: The Role of Social Reflexivity. HigherEducation,online.DOI:10.1007/s10734-016-0029-5.

Leibowitz,B.,Bozalek,V.,vanSchalkwyk,S.andWinberg,C.2014.InstitutionalContextMatters:theprofessionaldevelopmentofacademicsas teachers inSouthAfricanHigherEducation.HigherEducation,DOI10.1007/s10734-014-9777-2

Leibowitz,B.,Ndebele,C.andWinberg,C.2013.Theroleofacademic identity incollaborativeresearch.StudiesinHigherEducation.

Leibowitz, B., van Schalkwyk, S., Ruiters, J., Farmer, J. and Adendorff, H. (2012) “It’s been awonderful life”: Accounts of the interplay between structure and agency by “good”universityteachers.HigherEducation63353-365.

Leibowitz,B., Garraway, J. and Farmer, J. 2015. Influence of the Past on Professional Lives: ACollective Commentary. Mind, Culture and Activity.http://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/VXkEex6WiqrkFdjYTSkY/full

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Ndebele,C.(2014).ApproachtowardstheprofessionaldevelopmentofacademicsasespousedininstitutionalpolicydocumentsataSouthAfricanuniversity.JSocSci,38(3):255-269

Ndebele, C. (2014). Deconstructing the Narratives of Educational Developers on the EnablingandConstrainingConditions in TheirGrowth;Development andRoles as Educational StaffDevelopment Facilitators at a South African University. International Journal of EducationScience,6(1),pp.103–115.

Ndebele, C. 2014. Bridging the Partition between Quality Assurance Units and EducationalDevelopment Centres at University: Leverage Points for Quality Development andEnhancement Director: Centre for Higher Education Teaching and Learning University ofVenda.JSocSci,39(3):303-316

Ndebele, C. and Maphosa, C. 2014. Voices of Educational Developers on the Enabling andConstraining Conditions in the Uptake of Professional Development Opportunities byAcademicsataSouthAfricanUniversity. International JournalofEducationalScience,7 (1)169-182.

Ndebele,C.,Muhuro,P.andNkonki,V.(inpress,SAJHESpecialIssueonContextualApproachestowardsProfssionalAcademicDevelopment)Ruralityandtheprofessionaldevelopmentofuniversityteachers

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Quinn, L. and Vorster, J. (in press, SAJHE Special Issue on Contextual Approaches towardsProfessional Academic Development) Conceptualising an epistemically diverse curriculumforacourseforacademicdevelopers

Quinn, L. and Vorster, J. 2015. Pedagogy for fostering criticality, reflectivity and practice in acourseonteachingforlecturers.AssessmentandEvaluationinHigherEducation.Online.

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Van Schalkwyk, S. andMcMillan,W. (in press, SAJHE Special Issue on Contextual Approachestowards Professional Academic Development) “I have a chameleon-like existence”: aduoethnographicaccountofbordercrossingbytwoacademicdevelopmentpractitioners.

Winberg, C. (in press) ‘Extreme Teaching’: Exercising Agency in Difficult Contexts. In:In B.Leibowitz,V.BozalekandP.Kahn(eds)Theorisinglearningtoteach.Routledge.

Winberg,C.andGarraway,J.(inpress,SAJHESpecial IssueonContextualApproachestowardsProefssionalAcademicDevelopment) ‘It takes a village’: attaining teaching excellence in achallengingcontext

Winberg, C. and Pallit, N. (online) “I am trying to practise good teaching”: Reconceptualisingprofessional portfolios in vocational higher educaiton, British Journal of EducationTechnology(BJET)AppendixTwo:Questionnaire(initialletterandopeningstatementdeletedforpurposesofbrevity)BiographicalDetails1.Pleaseindicateyourgender

·Female·Male

2.Pleaseindicateyouryearofbirthusingnumericcharacters3.Pleaseindicateyourrace

·Black·Coloured·Indian·White·Other

4.Pleaseindicateyourhighestqualification5.Doctorate

·Masters·Honours·Bachelors·BTech·PGDip·NationalDiploma·Other

6.Ifyouarecurrentlypursuingahigherdegree,pleaseprovidedetails7.Pleaseindicatethetypeofteachingqualification(s)youhave.

·HED

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·ACE·PGCE·PGDip·Bed·Med·MPhilinHE·DEd/PhD·Iamcurrentlypursuingateachingqualification·None·Other

8.Ifyouarecurrentlypursuingateachingqualification,pleaseprovidedetails9. Pleaseindicatethenatureofyourpositionatyourinstitution.Pleasemarkallrelevantoptions

·Permanent·Contract·Fulltime·Parttime·JointappointmentegUniversityandProvincialAdministration·Externallecturer·Other

10.Whatisthelevelofyourcurrentposition?Pleasemarkallrelevantoptions.·Juniorlecturer·Lecturer·Seniorlecturer·AssociateProfessor·ProfessorDeputyDean·Dean·Director·SeniorDirector·Researcher·Other

11. Please indicate your discipline. These categories were adapted from the NRF list ofprimaryresearchfields.Pleaseselectthemostrelevantoption.

·Agriculture·Arts·EconomicandManagementSciences·Education·Engineering·HealthSciences·Humanities·Law·MathematicalSciences·MilitarySciences·PhysicalSciences·NaturalSciences·SocialSciences·Theology

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·Other12.Towhichfacultyareyouaffiliated?TeachingExperience13. How many years have you been teaching in higher education? Please use numeric

characters14.Howmanyyearshaveyoubeenteachingatyourcurrentinstitution?Pleaseusenumeric

characters15. What is the main area of teaching you are involved in? Please mark all the relevant

options·Undergraduate·UndergraduateandPostgraduate·Postgraduatecoursework·Researchsupervision·Other

16.Howwouldyourateyourselfasteacheronascaleof1–5?(5=Excellent;3=Acceptable;1=Verybad)(andspaceforcomments)17.Howwouldyourateyourinterestinteachingonascaleof1–5?(5=Passionate;3=Neutral;1=Notinterested)(andspaceforcomments)ProfessionalLearning(Professionallearningcanbedefinedasthenumerousactivitieswhichhavetodowiththe“academic/educational/faculty/staff development of academics I post-compulsory, tertiaryofhighereducation”(Brew2004:5).Johnston(1998:1)addsthatprofessionallearningis“theneedforprofessionalstocontinuelearningastheypracticeandadvanceintheircareers”.18. In which area(s) of your work as academic have you attended professional learning

opportunitiesatyourinstitution?Pleasemarkallrelevantoptions.· Teaching· Research· CommunityInteraction· Management· Administration· None· Other

19. In which area(s) of your work as academic have you attended professional learningopportunitiesoutsideofyourinstitution?Pleasemarkallrelevantoptions.

· Teaching· Research· CommunityInteraction· Management· Administration· None· Other

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20. Please provide details of the professional learning opportunities you have attendedoutsideofyourinstitution.Youcanincludeinformationaboutwhereittookplaceorbywhomitwasorganised,thedateandthetopic.

21. Howoftendoyouparticipateinprofessionallearningopportunitiesforyourteaching?22. Onceatermormore23. Onceasemester24. Onceayearorless25. Never26. Other27. What may prompt your attendance of professional learning opportunities for your

teaching?Pleasemarkallrelevantoptions.· IfIaminterested· Ifthetopicisrelevanttomyteaching· IfinstructedbymySupervisor/HeadofDepartment· IfIhavethetime· Ifthereisanincentive/reward· Ifrequiredbymyinstitution· Ifitwilladvancemycareer· Ifitcanhelpmyteaching· IfIwanttoapplyforpromotion· IfIneedCPDpoints· IfitspeakstoaneedIhaveatthetime· Ifcolleaguessuggestitwouldbeworthwhile· IfIthinkitwouldbeworthwhile· Ifthereisapositiveattitudetowardsteachinginmydepartment· Other

28. Where do you go for help/support/advice on your teaching? Pleasemark all relevantoptions.

· InstitutionalTeachingandLearningCentre/Division· Colleagues· Mentor· Supervisor· HeadofDepartment· Conferences· Internet· Library· TeachingDean· Dean· SpecialistinthefieldofHigherEducation· Idonotfeeltheneedforhelp· Other

29. Ifyoudoaskforhelp/support/advice,inwhichareasdoyouaskforthis?Pleasemarkallrelevantoptions

· Teachinglargeclasses· Disciplineinclass· Integrationoftechnologyinteaching· Curriculumdesignanddevelopment

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· Engagingstudentsinclass· Facilitatinginteractivelearning· Encouragingclassattendance· Managingdiversityinclass· Issuesoflanguageinteaching· Usingstudentfeedbackforprofessionallearning· Compilingateachingportfolio· Assessmentofstudents· Researchonteaching· Programmeplanning· Integratinggraduateattributesinmyteaching· Usingsmallgroupteachingtechniques· Optimisingtutorials/fieldwork/practicals· Integratingservicelearning· Teachinginclinicalsettings· Workbasedlearning· Idonotfeeltheneedforhelp· Other

EnablingandConstrainingFactors30. My institutionprovides formal recognition forengagement inprofessional learning for

teaching (1–5,where1= stronglydisagree,5= stronglyagree)Pleasebrieflyexplainyourchoiceinthequestionabove

31. Myinstitutionprovidesresourcesforengagementinprofessionallearningforteaching(1–5).Pleasebrieflyexplainyourchoiceinthequestionabove

32. Myworkloadoftenhindersmyabilitytoparticipateinprofessionallearningforteaching(1–5).Pleasebrieflyexplainyourchoiceinthequestionabove

33. The topics of the professional learning opportunities for teaching are often notapplicableinmyowndiscipline(1–5).Pleasebrieflyexplainyourchoiceinthequestionaboveandgiveexamplesifpossible

34. Icaneasilyaccessinformationonprofessionallearningopportunitiesforteachinginmyinstitution (1 – 5). Please briefly explain your choice in the question above and giveexamplesifpossible.

Wevalueyourinputandfeedback.Ifyouhaveanycommentsorquestionsforthecompilersofthequestionnaire,pleasefeelfreetogivethesebelow.Theresearcherswouldliketointerviewanumberofrespondentsinordertoexplorecertainissuesinmoredepth.Ifyouarewillingtobeinterviewed,pleaseprovideyourcontactdetailsbeloworsendanemailtoXXX.AppendixThree:Templatesforinstitutionalreports(PhaseThree)1InstitutionalLevelReportNameofinstitutionDate

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AuthorsFinal/draft/awaitingethicalclearanceInstitutionalContexta.Geographicb.Socio-economicc.Historic(includingeg.recentlymerged)Howtheinstitutiondescribesitselfa. Toexternalaudiences(marketing;website(s);studentoriented;vacancyadvertisements;

Auditdocuments;Missionstatements;etc)b. To internal audiences? (Internal communiqués; ‘climate surveys’; staff orientation

documents;websites)c. In relation to the ‘research’ ‘teaching’& ‘social responsibility’priorities? (teachingand

learning/assessmentpolicies;recognitionandrewarddocumentation;asabove)Compositiona. Academic staff; support staff; undergraduate students; postgraduate students (provide

numbersandotheravailableinformation)b. Numberoffacultiesandnamesc. Institutional organogramwith specific reference to seniormanagement, placement of

staffdevelopment(general)functionandstaffdevelopment(T+Lfunction) References(ifanyused)2ProfessionalDevelopment–ReflectiveReportNameofinstitutionDateAuthorsFinal/draft/awaitingethicalclearancea. HistoryProvideaconcisehistoryofyourunit,focusingonthenatureoftheprovisionofprofessionaldevelopmentoffered,andhowithaschangedinverybroadterms.b.CompositionandnatureofunitBriefly describe your centre/unit with regard to: conditions which enable or constrain itsfunctioning, eg. size, relationship with other relevant units, staffing conditions of service(e.g.academicstatusetc),qualificationsofprofessionalstaff, noofsupportstaff,physicallocation,resourcing.c.Provisionfortheprofessionaldevelopmentofacademics

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Provideadescriptionofthekindsofprovisionofopportunitiesforprofessionaldevelopmentofferedbyyourunit.RefertoChrisWinberg’stablehere.Includecommentsonwhethertheopportunitiesare:● Compulsoryoroptional● Incentivized● Howwidelyorfreelytheseareavailable● Howdisciplinespecifictheseare.d. MonitoringHowdoyoumonitorandevaluateyouractivities?Howdoyoucollectevidence?Howmuchreflectionandscholarlypublicationdoesyourunitundertake?e.Evidenceoftake-upProvideabriefdescriptionoftheextentoftakeupoftheopportunitiesacrosstheinstitutionover2009–2011.References(ifanyused)3AnalyticalConsiderationsNameofinstitutionDateAuthorsFinal/draft/awaitingethicalclearancea. Potentialconstraintsandenablements(self-describedorinterpreted)b.Anyintended‘causalthesis’underlyingthedocumentsregardingstaffdevelopmentc.Whichofthe“Generations”areevident/dominantwithregardtostaffdevelopment?d.Otheranalyticorreflectiveobservations?ListofAppendicesNameofinstitutionAnnotatedlistAny gaps or other issues would be mentioned at the list of appendices; other relevantdocuments, eg. T+L annual reports, could be added if relevant to show constraint orenablementregardinguptakeofteachingandlearningdevelopmentopportunities.Appendicesshouldcontainthefollowing:TeachingandLearningpolicies/strategies/implementationplansT&LProfessionaldevplan/StaffdevelopmentplanT&LAssessmentandrelatedissuesInstitutionalAppointmentandPromotionCriteria/Policy

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InstitutionalStrategicandOperationalPlanAuditreportsInclusionofstatisticsInstitutionsmayincludestatsfrombefore2009and2010AppendixFour:InterviewschedulesAppendix4aInterviewswithlecturersSectionOne:Yourattitudetowardsteaching1. Tellmeaboutyourselfasateacher Prompts:a. Yourdisciplineb. Whatisyourcurrentinvolvementinteaching?c. Doyouliketeaching?d. Areyousatisfiedwithyourselfasateacher?e. Howlonghaveyoubeenteaching?f. Teachingqualifications?g. Whatareyoubeliefsaboutteaching(and learning)?Howdidyoucomeby it?Have theychangedovertime?How?SectionTwo:Yourprofessionaldevelopmentasateacher1. Doesyourinstitutionhavespecificrequirementswithregardtoteachingandlearning staffdevelopment?Explain.2. Whatstepshaveyoutakentoenhanceyourteaching? Prompts:a. Individuallydriven(eg,readup,reflect)–askforexamplesb. Peersupport(fromDean.HOD,colleaguesindepartmentandatotheruniversities)– askforexamplesc. Takeupopportunitiesofferedbyuniversityteachingandlearningcentre(including, forexample,PGDHE)–askforexamplesd. Ifnone,why?3. Ifyouhavemadeanysignificantattemptstoimproveyourteaching,whatprompted this?Prompt:a. Policy,yourdirectsupervisor,studentcomplaints,obstacles,yourowncuriosity4. Ifyouhavetakenupprofessionaldevelopmentopportunities,haveyouimplemented whatyoulearntontheseoccasions?5. Ifyes,explainandgiveexamplesofwhatyouhaveimplemented6. If you have not taken up professional development opportunities, what kind of supportwouldyouhavewanted,andfromwhom,toenableyoutodoso?SectionThree:Relationtoyourenvironment1. Doesyourenvironmentsupportorhinderthequalityofyourteaching?Explain. Prompt:a. probeforinstitutionalanddepartmentallevel

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b. andstudents2. Ifithinders,howdoyourespond/haveyouresponded?3. Does it supportorhinderyourattemptsatprofessionaldevelopment for teaching? Explain.4. Ifithinders,howdoyourespond/haveyouresponded?SectionFour:Closing1. Do you have any suggestions about what should be done at your university to supportlecturerstodevelopprofessionallywithregardtotheirteachingrole?2. Anythingelseyouwouldliketoadd?

Appendix 4b1 Interview with Senior Managers (Vice Chancellors and Deputy ViceChancelors)Givesomecontext:‘I’dliketoasksomequestionsaboutthedevelopmentofacademicstafffortheirteachingroles.ThefocusofthestudyIaminvolvedwithisontheconditionswhichenableorconstrainthiskindofdevelopment.’

1. Fromateachingandlearningpointofview,whatdoyouthinkarethestrengthsofyourinstitution?

2. Whatisyourpersonalvisionforteachingandlearningatyourinstitution?3. Whatdoyoufeelthatyouhavebeenabletoaccomplishwithregardtothisvisionat

thisinstitution?4. Whatare thegoalsandpriorities fordevelopmentofacademicstaffas teachersat

your institution? What is the rationale for having these particular goals andpriorities?

5. Whatmechanismsorsystemsareinplacetosupportthedevelopmentofacademicstaffasteachers?

a. Whytheseparticularmechanismsandnotothers?b. (Ifunit/centredoesn’tcomeuphereprobe–Iamawarethatyouhaveaxxx

whatdoyouseeastheroleofthisunit/centre/directorate?)6. Underidealcircumstances,isthereanythingthatyoumightliketododifferently?7. Howhastherestructuringaimedatunifyingthehighereducationsystemfrom2000

onwardsimpactedyourinstitution?a. Moreparticularly,howhasitaffectedtheneedfordevelopmentofacademic

staff as teachers? (probe from the response given e.g. what does being aresearch-ledinstitutionmeanforundergraduateteaching?)

8. What is your sense of how academic staff members respond to academic staffdevelopmentinitiatives?

a. Dotheytakeupopportunitiesfordevelopment?b. Doyouhaveanysenseofwhyorwhynot?

Nowprobetheenablingandconstrainingfactors…Culture,structureandagency

9. Whatfactorsenablestaffdevelopmentinrelationtoteachinginthisinstitution?

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10. Whatfactorsconstrainstaffdevelopmentinrelationtoteachinginthisinstitution?Trynottopromptorputissuesonthetable,butifthefollowingdonotcomeup,askspecificallyabout:

What resources are allocated to academic staff development regardingteaching and learning? Are they adequate? (e.g. money, time, people,infrastructureetc)Are there issues in attracting and retaining quality teaching staff at yourinstitution? (For example, some institutions might have great difficultyattractingstaff,mighthavealotofpart-timestaff,mighthavealotofoldoryoungstaffetc.Probethekeystaffingissues.)What are the implications of the above question for their development asteachers?(Asanoptionalprobeifithasn’tbeenaddressedintheresponse).

Appendix4b2:InterviewswithDeansGive some context: ‘I’d like to ask some questions about academic staff developmentrelatingtoteachingandlearninginyourfaculty.ThefocusofthestudyIaminvolvedinisontheconditionswhichenableorconstrainthissortofdevelopment.’

1. Fromateachingandlearningpointofview,whatdoyouthinkarethestrengthsofyourfaculty?

2. Whatisyourpersonalvisionforteachingandlearninginyourfaculty?3. Whathaveyoubeenabletoaccomplishwithregardtoyourvisionforteachingand

learninginyourfaculty?4. Whatare thegoalsandpriorities fordevelopmentofacademic staffas teachers in

yourfaculty?a. Whatistherationaleforhavingtheseparticulargoalsandpriorities?

5. Whatmechanismsorsystemsareinplacetosupportthedevelopmentofacademicstaffasteachersinyourfaculty?

a. Whytheseparticularmechanismsandnotothers?b. (Ifunit/centredoesn’tcomeuphereprobe–Iamawarethatyouhaveaxxx

whatdoyouseeastheroleofthisunit/centre/directorate?)6. Underidealcircumstances,isthereanythingthatyoumightliketododifferently?7. Howhastherestructuringaimedatunifyingthehighereducationsystemfrom2000

onwardsimpactedyourfaculty?a. Moreparticularly,howhasitaffectedtheneedfordevelopmentofacademic

staff as teachers? (probe from the response given e.g.what does being aresearch-ledinstitutionmeanforundergraduateteaching?)

8. Howdomembersofyourfacultyrespondtoopportunitiesfortheirdevelopmentasteachers?

a. Dotheytakeupopportunitiesfordevelopment?b. Doyouhaveanysenseofwhyorwhynot?

Nowprobetheenablingandconstrainingfactors…Culture,structureandagency

9. Whatfactorsenabledevelopmentofstaffintheirteachingroleinthisfaculty?

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10. Whatfactorsconstraindevelopmentofstaffintheirteachingroleinthisfaculty?Trynottopromptorputissuesonthetable,butifthefollowingdonotcomeup,askspecificallyabout:

Whatresourcesisyourfacultyabletodrawonforthedevelopmentofstaffintheir teaching role? Are they adequate? (e.g. money, time, people,infrastructureetc)Are there issues in attracting and retaining quality teaching staff in yourfaculty? (For example, some faculties might have great difficulty attractingstaff,mighthavealotofpart-timestaff,mighthavealotofoldoryoungstaffetc.Probethekeystaffingissues.)What are the implications of the above question for their development asteachers?(Asanoptionalprobeifithasn’tbeenaddressedintheresponse)

AppendixFive:PromptsforreflectiveresponsesfromteammembersonresearchprocessDecember2011Pleasewriteafewparagraphsonthecollaborativeprocess.August2013• Whathavebeentheoutputsandoutcomesofyourparticipationforyouthusfar?• Whathavethechallengesbeenforyouinachievingtheseoranyoutputsoroutcomes?• Whathasfacilitatedyourparticipation

• Inyourworkcontext/institution?.• Bytheprojectitself?• Byyou?

• Whathashinderedyourparticipation• Inyourcontext/institution?• Bytheworkingsoftheprojectitself?• Byyou?

May2016NameWriteacommentonthecollaborativenatureoftheresearch.Herearesomeheadings.Youcanaddreferencesifyouwish.Youcanalsodecidewhichofthesubheadingstoconcentrateon,inmoredepth

1. Depth/durationofmyinvolvementintheproject2. WhatIgainedorlearntduringandfromtheproject3. WhatIcouldhavegainedorlearnt,andwhatwouldhaveneededtobedifferent,

formetohavedoneso4. What I feel the gains for the project itself have been, due to its collaborative

nature

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5. What I feel thegainsfortheprojectcouldhavebeen, ifmatters internaltotheproject,orexternaltoit,weredifferent

6. WhatIhavelearnt,inretrospect,aboutcollaborativeresearch