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Helping students manage emotions:REBT as a mental health educationalcurriculumTachelle Banks aa Department of Teacher Education, Cleveland State University,Cleveland, OH, USAVersion of record first published: 14 Dec 2011.

To cite this article: Tachelle Banks (2011): Helping students manage emotions: REBT as a mentalhealth educational curriculum, Educational Psychology in Practice: theory, research and practice ineducational psychology, 27:4, 383-394

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Helping students manage emotions: REBT as a mental healtheducational curriculum

Tachelle Banks*

Department of Teacher Education, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH, USA

In preparing children to deal with life in an increasingly complex society, it isimportant that schools devote attention to well-organised and theoretically soundprogrammes employing a preventive approach to mental health. Rational Emo-tive Behaviour Therapy (REBT), as indicated in its name, incorporates changesto thought processes and behaviours. It is a cognitiveemotivebehavioural sys-tem of therapy, and is based on the assumption that emotional problems resultfrom illogical and irrational patterns of thinking about an event rather than fromthe event itself. REBT is a mental health and an educational intervention. Itattempts to teach students how to help themselves by providing a structuredmethod of processing extreme emotions. The purpose of this article is to providepractitioners with a knowledge base and practical applications of REBT thathave been successfully implemented in various educational contexts.

Keywords: Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy; classroom; mental health cur-riculum

Introduction

Cognitive behavioural interventions (CBIs) attempt to effect behaviour change byteaching relevant tasks that are based around strategies to correct cognitive distor-tions through the application of logic and the search for evidence (Etscheidt, 1991;Squires, 2001). The interventions are task-oriented and focused on problem solving.The purpose of this article is to provide practitioners with a knowledge base ofCBIs and provide practical examples of a CBI Rational Emotive Behaviour Ther-apy (REBT) that has been successfully implemented in various educational con-texts.

Empirical investigation of CBIs in educational settings

Cognitive behaviour theory (CBT) posits that emotional and behavioural problemsresult from either cognitive distortions and/or cognitive decits (Silverman & DiGi-useppe, 2001). Cognitive refers to thinking or reasoning aptitude. Cognitive decitsoccur because of a failure to develop cognitive processes, such as problem-solvingskills, to mediate adaptive behaviours. Silverman and DiGiuseppe (2001) stated thatcognitive distortions are conceptualised through faulty schema or illogical reasoningtendencies that result in negative automatic thinking patterns. Theories based on

*Email: t.i.banks@csuohio.edu

Educational Psychology in PracticeVol. 27, No. 4, December 2011, 383394

ISSN 0266-7363 print/ISSN 1469-5839 online 2011 Association of Educational Psychologistshttp://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02667363.2011.624303http://www.tandfonline.com

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cognitive distortions premises contend that emotional and behavioural problemsresult from the presence of dysfunctional, irrational, and inappropriate thinking pat-terns. These theories consider the internalisation of self-statements that are centralin developing self-control. Maladaptive self-statements are seen to contribute toemotional behaviour problems. The underlying premise of CBIs is that thinking pre-cedes feelings and feelings precede behaviour. Therefore, if cognitions change, thenfeelings and behaviours will change. Goals are clearly specied; decisions are madeon how to best meet specied goals and how to measure progress toward goals toprovide feedback. CBIs for children and youth include a variety of techniques inwhich children are taught to use cognitive strategies to guide their behaviour and,thus, improve their adjustment (Bernard, 1990; DiGiuseppe, 1990).

CBIs encompass a variety of instructional strategies and have been utilisedacross diverse populations; therefore, it may be more difcult to ascertain theireffectiveness, as there is no prescribed method of CBI. The efcacy of CBItreatment programmes is directly related to the specic characteristics, traits, andattributes associated with each group (Morris, 1993). Many programmes utilisecombinations of instructional strategies that contribute to the lack of clarity regard-ing specic treatment effects. CBI researchers have discussed the associated difcul-ties in determining the efcacy of CBIs, due to variations in training approaches.Components of CBI training include, but are not limited to; self-instruction, self-control, role-play, modelling, coaching, problem-solving, and response-cost proce-dures (Ager & Cole, 1991; Etscheidt, 1991; Kazdin, 1991; Kendall, Reber, McLeer,Epps, & Ronan, 1990).

In preparing children to deal with life in an increasingly complex society, it isimportant that schools devote attention to well-organised and theoretically soundprogrammes employing a preventive approach to mental health. Vernon (1989) sta-ted that the goal of effective programming is to create learning experiencesthrough which children can gain knowledge about themselves and their feelings andcan learn how to apply this knowledge in solving problems and coping with situa-tions throughout life (p. 9). Preventive mental health curricula should focus upondeveloping in children an awareness of self, of feelings, of self in relation to others,and of decision-making and problem-solving skills (Vernon, 1989; Zionts, 1996).

This paper supports the contention that a mental health curriculum should bedelivered in classroom settings to address and remediate the socio-emotional needsof students with and without disabilities and to support the need of creating safelearning environments for all students. One such CBI, REBT, has been used withchildren and adolescents in schools and found to be an effective intervention withmany commonly occurring difculties (Ellis & Wilde, 2002). The following sectionwill review research that examines the effectiveness of REBT as a mental healthcurriculum in various educational contexts.

REBT as a mental health classroom curriculum

REBT, as indicated in its name, incorporates changes to thought processes andbehaviours. It is a cognitiveemotivebehavioural system of therapy, and is basedon the assumption that emotional problems result from illogical and irrational pat-terns of thinking about an event rather than from the event itself (Ellis & Harper,1975). It is a theory and strategy that can be used to help individuals combat extre-mely negative feelings and behaviours. REBT has been implemented successfully

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with adults and children to address problems such as anxiety, depression, low frus-tration tolerance, perfectionism, obsessive compulsive disorders, post-traumaticstress disorders (Ellis, 2003), self-esteem, test-anxiety, locus of control (Omizo,1986), emotional disturbance (Banks, 2006), learning disabilities, and academic per-formance (Ellis & Wilde, 2002; Hajzler & Bernard, 1991).

The purpose of REBT is to help people learn to deal with serious emotional dis-turbances. It is based upon the premise that emotions and behavioural reactions area result of how an individual perceives a current situation or event (Knaus, 2001).REBT attempts to reduce extreme levels of anger, anxiety, and depression that mayinterfere with a students ability to achieve goals and/or work out how to overcomethe specic problem (Bernard, 1990). In essence, the objective of REBT is to teachindividuals to base thinking on factual events and act on the basis of an objectiveoutlook (that is, what would a camera see if it were aimed at the situation?),rather than on self-defeating feelings about or perceptions of events. The tenets ofREBT with children and adolescents are similar to those developed for adults.Goal-defeating behaviours and emotional consequences result from and are medi-ated by an individuals faulty beliefs about activating events (also referred to astriggering events or antecedents) (Gonzalez et al., 2004, p. 223). REBT main-tains that it is an individuals beliefs and perceptions of the events that cause conse-quences that the individual may be satised or disturbed by.

Not only will children have cognitions that result in emotions, but childrenwill also automatically have evaluative cognitions about their emotions (DiGi-useppe, 1990). As in adults, children may present irrational beliefs that can leadto emotional disturbance. Irrational beliefs are a type of reasoning that may pre-dispose children to arrive at illogical conclusions when assessing typical problemsituations (Lamarine, 1990). Ellis (1974) identied several of these illogical ideasthat are extant in society and Waters (1982) adapted the 12 irrational beliefs asrelated to adults and applied them to children, developing 10 irrational beliefs ofchildren:

(1) It is necessary to be liked by everyone you meet.(2) Worthwhile people do not make mistakes.(3) Life should be fair and justice must be equitably administered.(4) Life should always be as one wants it to be.(5) Others are to blame for our unhappiness.(6) The world is full of dangers that necessitate great personal concern.(7) Procrastination makes life easier.(8) Children should be dependent upon adults.(9) Every problem has one correct solution that must be found.(10) People should disguise their feelings.

REBT is a mental health and an educational intervention. It attempts to teach stu-dents how to help themselves by providing a structured method of processingextreme emotions. REBT is not only designed to help students solve current prob-lems, but also to reduce extreme levels of anger, anxiety, and depression whichmake it harder to work out how to overcome a specic problem (DiGiuseppe,1990). According to the tenets of REBT, external events do not cause emotionaldisturbance. Rather, it is an individuals perception and evaluations of the eventsthat create the disturbance (Wilde, 1999). The individuals perception then results in

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emotional responses that will affect goal attainment positively or negatively.Applied to students, the assertion is that extreme emotions disrupt the thinking pro-cess and impair their ability to achieve goals.

Previous studies have demonstrated REBT to be effective in helping studentswork on their emotional and behavioural problems through use of teacherstudentor teacher-structured groups or classroom lessons (Banks & Zionts, 2009; DiGi-useppe, 1990; Morris, 1993). Research studies have demonstrated the efcacy ofREBT with school-aged children in treating a number of psychological and behav-ioural problems including: conduct disorders (DiGiuseppe, 1990), low frustrationtolerance (Knaus & McKeever, 1977), obesity (Foreyt, 1987), and increasing self-esteem and self-concept (Omizo, 1986). REBT has long received professionalacceptance from teachers as well as school psychologists, as evidenced in the sec-tion on REBT for school psychologists in The Handbook of School Psychology(Reynolds & Gutkin, 1982).

Educational REBT programmes have been implemented in various educationalsettings, ranging from traditional classroom environments (LaConte, Shaw, & Dunn,1993; Knaus, 2001; Rosenbaum, McMurray, & Campbell, 1991; Sapp, 1994; Sapp,Farrell, & Durand, 1995; Wilde, 1996, 1999) to non-traditional educational settingswith special populations, such as after school programmes, Upward Bound pro-grammes, school programmes housed in a psychiatric hospital, and day treatmentsettings (Banks, 2006; Morris, 1993; Patton, 1995; Rudish & Millice, 1997; Shan-non & Allen, 1998). A number of studies have supported Elliss theory that cogni-tions can modify behaviour and are related to emotional disturbance (Flanagan,Povall, Dellino, & Bryne, 1998; Knaus, 2001; Morris, 1993; Rosenbaum et al.,1991; Shannon & Allen, 1998; Wilde, 1996). From a REBT perspective, an effec-tive mental health programme should increase rationality and thereby reduce emo-tional disturbance. Educational REBT programmes have been taught to groups ofchildren as young as eight who learned to accept responsibility for their emotionsand to use cognitive, behavioural, and affective techniques in order to reduce self-defeating attitudes, feelings, and behaviours.

Despite the associated difculties in measuring the impact of REBT, the litera-ture is replete with suggestions on how to implement it in various classroom set-tings. When successful implementation in classroom environments had beensupported, the researchers utilised a systematic integration of REBT principles andincluded activating tasks that promoted student engagement. Many have describedvarious ways to implement REBT educational programmes in classroom settingswith school aged children and adolescents (Banks, 2006; Banks & Zionts, 2008,2009; Barnes, 2000; Knaus, 2001; Lamarine, 1990; Morris, 1993; Patton, 1995;Rudish & Millice, 1997; Sapp & Farrell, 1994; Vernon, 1996; Wilde, 1996; Zionts& Zionts, 1997).

REBT: practical classroom strategies

The literature described in this section will provide practical suggestions for imple-mentation. Affective programming is a curriculum that recognises the inter-relation-ship between thinking, feelings, and behaviour, and includes an educationalcomponent that provides a strategy to manage extreme emotions. Moreover, the edu-cational feature can be integrated in classrooms as a mental health curriculum thatteaches emotional regulation. For example, Zionts and Zionts (1997) contended that

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affective programming needs to be integrated as part of the classroom curriculum.The authors suggested that teachers should teach the basic principles of REBT,including distinguishing fact from opinion, identifying and understanding feelings,and recognising and identifying irrational thinking patterns. Ellis (1974) developed asimple ABC model to address emotional concerns. A was dened as an activatingevent, and B was dened as a students belief system about A. C was denedas emotional and behavioural consequences. It was indicated that B largely causesC. Disputing intervention, D, is employed to challenge beliefs. Zionts and Zionts(1997) recommended the following sequence for teachers who would like to inte-grate the affective programme: REBT principles ? problem solving? ABC model.

Morris (1993) investigated the effects of a 12-week treatment programme (ofwhich the intervention period lasted 10 weeks), based on REBT, with adolescentsidentied as having conduct disorder (CD) and attention-decit hyperactivity disor-dered (ADHD). The treatment programme was implemented during the school daytwice a week for one hour. The rst two weeks of the intervention focused onassessment, relationship building, and personal issues relevant to the participants.The following eight weeks focused on dealing with self-defeating thoughts leadingto emotional disturbance. Special attention was paid to anger and depression. Partic-ipants learned to identify concepts related to irrational beliefs, automatic thoughts,and emotional responses reective of thoughts and beliefs. The results of the inter-vention indicated that REBT used with a homogenous group of students identiedas having CD signicantly reduced irrational thinking, depression, and symptoms ofanger. Students who participated in the treatment programme developed new skillsin deriving new alternatives for problematic events, approaches, and options toproblem-solving situations.

Sapp and Farrell (1994) described how CBIs can be employed to help studentsimprove academic achievement. The authors described how teachers, both in specialand mainstream education, who teach academically at-risk students can apply REBTeducational strategies to help students improve academic self-concept, control anger,reduce anxiety and stress, and reduce test anxiety. Sapp (1996) outlined proceduresfor implementing a seven session REBT curriculum that was based on seven of the10 irrational beliefs (Waters, 1982). In Sessions 1 and 2, students learned the mean-ing of academic self-concept and how irrational beliefs can be internalised andresult in low academic self-concept. Students were introduced to and directly taughtthe ABCs of REBT in Sessions 3 and 4. Age appropriate examples were used toteach students how to apply the ABCs and D of REBT. In Sessions 5 and 6,rational emotive imagery was used to improve students academic self-concept andfor cognitive restructuring.

Wilde (1996) proposed that elementary students could learn rational thinkingskills in a short-term developmental guidance programme. A total of 95 fourth-gradestudents (aged 910 years) participated in the study. Two 30-minute weekly lessonswere conducted for a two-week period (10 days). Each of the students in the vefourth grade classrooms received a total of four lessons for 120 minutes. The proce-dures were completed in a 10-day period. Lesson 1 was designed to establish thelink between thoughts and feelings. Students were taught how to distinguish betweenrational and irrational beliefs in Lesson 2. Lesson 3 served as a review of skillslearned from the previous lessons. Active student participation was encouraged inLesson 4. Students were randomly divided into two groups and then played a boardgame, Lets Get Rational. Wilde (1994) found that these activities, utilised in

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either group or individual sessions, decreased the endorsement of irrational thoughtsand depression in high school students. Wilde (1996) also established that fourthgrade students could learn the content of REBT in a short amount of time. The effec-tiveness of this comprehensive, short-term intervention supplies educational profes-sionals with a mental health curriculum that is efcient and cost-effective.

Morris (1993) investigated the effects of a 12-week treatment programme, basedon Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET) with 12 adolescents who were identied ashaving CD and 12 adolescents with ADHD. The results of Morriss study (1993)indicated that the students with CD signicantly reduced their irrational thinking,depression, and symptoms of anger. The rst two weeks of the intervention focusedon assessment, relationship building, and personal issues relevant to the participants.Learning to deal with self-defeating thoughts that lead to emotional disturbance wasthe focal point for the following eight weeks. Special attention was paid to angerand depression. Participants also learned to identify concepts related to irrationalbeliefs, automatic thoughts, and emotional responses reective of thoughts andbeliefs. The programme was presented using various strategies, including lectures,discussions, and watching videos. Morris (1993) suggested that intervention pro-grammes based on lecture, discussion, and video might be appropriate not only forstudents with CD, but also for other dysfunctional behavioural patterns. Studentsidentied as having emotional disorders (ED) may also require programmatic modi-cation to suit the characteristics of the population.

Banks (2006) conducted a study to determine if students with ED could under-stand the content of REBT. REBT was implemented as a pullout programme in aday treatment setting that covered a span of approximately eight months of theschool year. The researcher introduced REBT to the students in three phases. REBTreadiness activities were integrated in an effort to remediate skills associated withunderstanding the content of the cognitiveemotivebehavioural intervention, suchas identifying and rating feelings. The goals of the sessions were to (1) build a rap-port with the group; (2) set behavioural expectations regarding participation; (3)help students identify, measure, and connect feelings to thinking; and (4) dene anddetermine the difference between facts and opinions. The objective of the rst phasewas cognitive preparation. Phase two was designed to teach students how to iden-tify the ABCs of the REBT model. The third phase focused on using the ABCmodel by applying skills learned and participating in group discussions. Studentswere encouraged to logically think about and talk about problematic events. Stu-dents were also taught to question reasoning that did not lead to goal attainment inthe classroom.

Banks (2006) study led her to suggest that it is imperative that professionalsconsider the characteristics of students with ED in educational settings. Researchhas indicated that students with ED have difculty developing and maintaininginterpersonal relationships with peers and adults (Cullinan, 2004; Kauffman, 2004).An integral component of the REBT model is disputing irrational beliefs. The litera-ture suggests that disputation, as a traditional clinical approach, is a direct and attimes confrontational approach that challenges current thinking patterns of the indi-vidual (Ellis, 1980, 1991). In practice, it is important to consider how to introducestrategies that may lead to further emotional distress. In Banks study (2006), theD, disputation, was coined as questioning ones beliefs.

Considering the difculty that students identied with ED have with managingemotions and maintaining relationships, the researcher employed a stylistic variation

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in an effort to make disputation less confrontational and more about questioning. Inpractice, individual and group dynamics need to be carefully analysed before intro-ducing strategies that could actually increase emotional distress. REBT should beimplemented in a manner that teaches students new skills, reinforces skills learned,and fosters student ownership and generalisation of skills in various settings. The dis-putation component of REBT can be presented in a fashion that is less confrontationalwhile reinforcing previous skills learned and encouraging generalisation of skills.

Barnes (2000) found that students responded well to REBT principles whenintroduced in a traditional classroom environment. The author suggested that teach-ers become trained in the principles of REBT and integrate a REBT-based curricu-lum in their classroom environment. In an effort to promote the use of REBTprinciples in classrooms, Barnes (2000) developed a board game, Mrs MigginsRoom. The researcher employed a case-based qualitative research methodology incollaboration with teachers to develop rules and procedures for the game, Mrs Mig-gins Room. Barnes observed teachers working with two students and developed agame that was based on REBT principles.

The purpose of the game was to introduce REBT concepts in the classroomdesigned to foster group discussion using the ABC model. Mrs Miggins Roomintroduced questions in a fashion that encouraged appropriate play through discus-sion. Student participation was encouraged by rewarding participants with a pre-ferred tangible item. Anecdotal evidence indicated that the students were able toidentify which components of the game were helpful. Also, the students were ableto discuss principles of REBT, identify challenging events, and dispute personalbeliefs. The game provided an educational context and interpretation in whichREBT could be introduced to students and used by teachers.

Vernon (1996) argued that teachers are often required to help students deal withproblems. However, teachers frequently are not equipped to assist students to dealwith challenging events in ways that ensure sustainability over time and across set-tings. The author offered a systematic approach for school psychologists to work inpartnership with teachers in order to improve student classroom behaviour. First,school psychologists should focus on helping teachers understand the benets ofusing preventative approaches in the classroom and introduce REBT as a preventa-tive classroom strategy. Vernon (1996) outlined a specic format for conductingREBT lessons. Similar to that of a traditional teaching lesson plan, REBT lessonsshould be goal-oriented and contain objectives related to the core REBT concepts.Each lesson should include an activity designed to spark the interest of the studentsand involve the student in the concept being introduced. Students can participate inrole plays, games, reading, writing or art activities, feelings games, group assign-ments, or dramatisations. Vernon suggested that 1525 minutes be reserved for acti-vating the interest of students. After increasing student interests, students canengage in discussion and ask content related questions and talk about how the strat-egies can be used when presented with a challenging event or situation. The discus-sion component is essential. The author recommended that 1620 minutes beallocated for discussion, depending on the age of the child and the nature of theactivity. REBT lessons should be presented in a logical order to encourage practiceand reinforcement of skills (Vernon, 1996).

Patton (1995) offered an educational sequence for the introduction of REBT inan educational environment for teaching students with ED. Patton stated that thechallenge for many special education teachers who have students identied as hav-

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ing emotional and behavioural disorders (EBDs) is to determine what instructionalmodel will meet the individual needs of these students, positively impact theirthinking patterns, and improve student behaviour in the classroom. Patton (1995)described a seven session sequence for teaching rational behaviour skills to studentsidentied with EBD in a middle school setting. As with previously described pro-grammes, Patton presented the lessons in a sequential manner that promoted learn-ing, practicing, and the reinforcement of skills. In addition, she included scriptedgoals of the sessions and learning activities. In Pattons sequence, students learnedhow the brain works to create emotions, to dene the ABCs of emotions, and howto describe emotions related to a challenging situation or event. Students alsolearned how to dene REBT terminology. They learned ve rules for rational andirrational thinking and how to evaluate emotions using the ve rules. Analysingpersonal responses and establishing rational and behaviour goals were consideredcritical components of the teaching sequence. In addition, active engagement of stu-dents was encouraged by having them write a description of an event, developrational alternatives, create positive emotional goals, and use a prescribed format topractice positive self talk. Students applied and practised skill sets using situationsthat were relevant to them. Pattons sequence also encouraged the use of rationalimagery and self-monitoring, where students visualised themselves using positiveself talk when presented with challenging events. Next, they conducted a self-assessment with regard to their application of rational thinking and behaving. Patton(1995) recommended REBT as a teaching model. She also stated that academicskills should be embedded to assist students in their learning of rational behaviours,and further, that a systematic scope and sequence of instructional use of REBTactivities is amenable to classroom intervention.

Knaus (2001) shared his own personal experience integrating REBT into themainstream curriculum. He conrmed that REBT can be integrated in classroominstruction to build positive mental health concepts and problem-solving skills. Fur-ther, if concepts are introduced in a systematic fashion, students will learn theseconcepts and gain experience using skills learned. Similar to that of the previouslydescribed REBT teaching sequences, Knaus suggested that the teaching sequenceshould begin with a stimulating task followed by REBT content. One of the primaryskills that students need to acquire and practice before learning the cognitive modelis understanding feelings. For example, Knaus incorporated a pantomime game tofoster student understanding. The Expressions Guessing Game was designed toshow different ways feelings can be expressed. Students were encouraged to thinkfor themselves, to determine the facts of an event, and to assess how their thinkingimpacts feelings. Knaus integrated discussions and stimulating activities whichallowed him to take advantage of teachable moments to maintain student motivationthroughout the teaching sequence. Most importantly, he contended that REBT les-sons do not have to be a separate curriculum and can be integrated into the generalclassroom curriculum. Teacher understanding of REBT concepts is critical to suc-cessful integration of mental health programming.

Lamarine (1990) proposed that educational programmes based on the tenets ofREBT should include three categories: self-acceptance, understanding feelings, andexamining personal beliefs. Central to a REBT educational programme is the notionof exploring feelings and understanding the relationship between the affective, cog-nitive, and behavioural constructs. Lamarine also acknowledged that REBT can beintroduced using a variety of methods, but the methods should be strategic and sys-

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tematic. Lessons should activate student interests and include students as activelearners. This experiential component of REBT may enhance the likelihood that stu-dents will understand and apply REBT concepts into their daily experiences. Lama-rine recommended specic teaching strategies that can be used in variouseducational settings, including discussions, role playing, simulation games, biblio-therapy, reading, and discussing rational stories.

Hajzler and Bernard (1991) conducted a meta-analysis of affective educationprogrammes to determine their efcacy with school-aged children. In their review,they found that programmes that included a more comprehensive component byproviding opportunities for students to practice within and outside of treatmentsessions enhanced the likelihood of observing positive differences. Practice can bepresented as reviewing skills previously learned, homework, role-play and othermethods that provide students with the opportunity to rehearse and master skills.Automaticity is supported through rehearsal, and the desired outcome of studentownership of the skills learned will increase the probability of students using cogni-tive skills in different settings (Harris & Pressley, 1991; Kendall & Choudhury,2003; Kilstrom, 1987). Thus, the practice of REBT in educational settings shouldinclude a component that allows for reinforcement of skills via practice, rehearsal,and homework. The following discussion highlights practical challenges that wereencountered when assessing content attainment of REBT in an alternative educa-tional setting (Banks, 2006).

Contextual complexity: challenges implementing REBT in classroom settings

Classroom variables can impact delity of implementation in educational settings.Environmental factors, such as inuences of home, school, or peers, may potentiallynegate the impact of the affective education groups (LaConte et al., 1993). Banks(2006) noted various practical obstacles that were encountered while conductingCBI research in an educational setting. The increasing responsibilities of administra-tors and teachers to meet national and state mandates might have impacted themotivation of administrators and staff. Lochman, Coie, Underwood, and Terry(1993) noted that teachers might consider curricula not related to academics as non-essential and be unmotivated to spend instructional time on student behaviour. InBanks (2006) study, considering the duration of the study, teachers were less moti-vated to devote any additional time that may take away from their instructional timein the classroom. Instructional time was very important, as student absenteeismoccurred frequently; thus, teachers felt compelled to help those students make-upfor missed time and assignments.

Participant attrition and classroom changes proved to be major challenges(Banks, 2006). Some students were involved with the juvenile system and wouldmiss sessions due to placement in juvenile correctional facilities. Therefore, notonly were the students absent; they were placed in a setting that did not encouragethe practice and reinforcement of REBT skills learned, resulting in the treatmentbeing withdrawn and, thus, decreased the probability that there would be anychange or that the skills would be generalised. Also, a number of classroomchanges took place during this study. Four of the seven students in the experimentalgroup were either placed in different classrooms or placed in a juvenile correctionalfacility during the course of the study. Although the students were still willing toparticipate in the study, new variables were introduced (that is, new peer group,

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new teachers, new environment, and dealing with changes at school) that could notbe controlled for by the researcher or the teachers. The unpredictability of contex-tual variables encountered in educational settings can impact delity of implementa-tion. As indicated previously, it is important that teachers plan and structure REBTlessons and activities in advance so that modications can be made to accommodatestudent needs.

Conclusion

Students with ED present a spectrum of disorders and a multitude of problems intraditional classroom settings resulting in poor post-school outcomes. As a result,they require intervention strategies that are designed to meet their wide-rangingneeds in order to be successful during, and post, school years. In addition, there isa need to support both special education and mainstream education teachers withinterventions that can be integrated within an academic curriculum so that they canbetter help these students. REBT was designed to be a comprehensive strategy.

REBTs cognitive restructuring technique contains several challenging emotiveand behavioural aspects that can be argued to have the potential to meet the broadneeds of students with ED (Ellis, 1974). REBT is directed at bringing about areduction in the intensity of inappropriate, negative emotions of students. As inadults, children and youth may present irrational beliefs that can lead to emotionaldisturbance. Differentiating between rational and irrational beliefs is importantbecause irrational beliefs, according to REBT, lead to disturbed emotions, such asdepression, excessive anxiety, guilt, and anger, as well as negative behavioural reac-tions such as aggression, withdrawal, and impulsivity (Bernard, 1990). From aREBT perspective, an effective mental health programme should increase rationalthinking and, thereby, reduce emotional disturbance. An integral component of theREBT model is disputing irrational beliefs that contribute to ED.

This review of the educational applications of REBT suggests that, with devel-opmentally appropriate modications, REBT can be effective in disputing irrationalbeliefs with children and adolescents in classrooms. Moreover, research stronglysuggests that the concepts of REBT need to be taught in a systematic, multi-modalapproach and integrated within classroom settings. Further research with studentswho have ED needs to be conducted so that this promising intervention can becompetently applied in various educational settings.

References

Ager, C.L., & Cole, C.L. (1991). A review of cognitive-behavioral interventions for childrenand adolescents with behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 16, 276287.

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