THIRD EDITION

HEATING,COOLING,LIGHTING:

Sustainable DesignMethods for Architects

Norbert Lechner

UKHTiNifB

WILEY

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

CONTENTS

FOREWORD TO THE FIRST EDITION xiii

FOREWORD TO THE THIRD EDITION xv

PREFACE xvii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xix

1.HEATING, COOLING, AND LIGHTING ASFORM-GIVERS IN ARCHITECTURE

1.1 Introduction 21.2 Vernacular and Regional Architecture1.3 Formal Architecture 51.4 The Architectural Approach 71.5 Dynamic versus Static Buildings 101.6 Passive Survivability 101.7 Energy and Architecture 101.8 Architecture and Heating, Cooling,

and Lighting 111.9 Conclusion 12 l •

2.SUSTAINABLE DESIGN

142.1 Easter Island: Learning from the Past2.2 Sustainable Design 142.3 Reuse, Recycle, and Regenerate by Design2.4 The Green Movement 162.5 Population and Sustainsbilily 172.6 Growth 182.7 Exponential Growth 182.8 The Amoeba Analogy 192.9 Supply versus Efficiency 202.10 Sustainable-Design Issues 202.11 Climate Change 212.12 The Global Greenhouse 232.13 The Ozone Hole 242.14 Efficiency 242.15 Energy Sources 252.16 Ancient Greece: A Historical Example2.17 Nonrenewable Energy Sources 25

13

16

2.18 Renewable Energy Sources 292.19 Hydrogen 362.20 Conclusion 38

25

BASIC PRINCIPLES 41

3.13.23.33.43.53.63.73.83.93.103.113.123.133.143.153.163.173.183.193.203.213.223.233.24

4

Introduction 42Heat 42Sensible Heat 42Latent Heat 43Evaporative Cooling 43Convection 44Transport 44Energy-Transfer Mediums 45Radiation 45Greenhouse Effect 46Equilibrium Temperature of a Surface 47Mean Radiant Temperature 48Heat Flow 48Heat Sink 49Heat Capacity 49Thermal Resistance 50Heat-Flow Coefficient 50Time Lag 50 >Insulating Effect of Mass 51Energy Conversion 51Combined Heat and Power 52 :

Fuel Cells 52 ' < f i

E m b o d i e d E n e r g y 5 3 ' '"• •''""''C o n c l u s i o n 5 4 t» ?v.- •

THERMAL COMFORT 55

4.1

4.24.34.4

4.54.64.74.8

Biological Machine 56Thermal Barriers 57Metabolic Rate 59Thermal Conditions of the Environment 60The Psychrometric Chart 60Dew Point and Wet-Bulb Temperatures 62Heat Content of Air 63Thermal Comfort 64

VII

V I I I CONTENTS

4.9 Shifting of the Comfort Zone 654.10 Clothing and Comfort 664.11 Strategies 674.12 Conclusion 68

5.CLIMATE

5.1 Introduction 725.2 Climate 725.3 Microclimate 75 ' ^5.4 Climatic Anomalies 77 ^ " "5.5 Climate Regions of the United States 785.6 Explanations of the Climatic Data Tables5.7 Additional Climate Information 875.8 Climate Information for Other Countries

Climate Data Tables 88 ^5.9 Design Strategies 122

71

79

87

IX

6

7.7 Design Guidelines for -^... •.Direct-Gain Systems 156

7.8 Example 1587.9 Trombe Wall Systems 1587.10 Design Guidelines for Trombe Wall

Systems 1637.11 Example 1637.12 Sunspaces 1637.13 Balcomb House 1647.14 Sunspace Design Guidelines 1667.15 Comparison of the Three Main

Passive Heating Systems 1687.16 General Considerations for

Passive Solar Systems 1687.17 Heat-Storage Materials 1717.18 Other Passive Heating Systems 1727.19 Conclusion 174

8.SOLAR GEOMETRY .. .,.,

6.16.26.36.46.56.66.76.86.9

6.106.116.126.136.146.156.166.176.18

7

Introduction 132 r.oo&rc*:IThe Sun 132Elliptical Orbit 132Tilt of the Earth's Axis 133 i«)Consequences of the Altitude AngleWinter 135The Sun Revolves Around the Earth!Sky Dome 135

. . . 1 3 1

r ;

».t

t.tm.i134

135

Determining Altitude and Azimuth Angles 136Solar Time 137Horizontal Sun-Path Diagrams 137Vertical Sun-Path Diagrams 139Sun-Path Models 141Solar Site-Evaluation Tools 142Heliodons 142Sundials for Model Testing 143Conceptually Clear Heliodons 145Conclusion 145

PASSIVE SOLAR |Ml,

7.17.27.37.47.57.6

History 148 .. -. -. -i.^gSolar in America 148 .nSolar Hemicycle 150Latest Rediscovery of Passive SolarPassive Solar 152Direct-Gain Systems 153

OK.t

147

i.i-

151

*

-

8.18.2

8.38.4

8.58.6

8.78.88.9

8.108.118.128.138.148.15

, 8.168.178.18

o ino.iy

8.208.218.228.238.248.258.26

PHOTOVOLTAICS AND ACTIVE SOLAR

Introduction 178The Almost Ideal Energy Source 178History of PV 178The PV Cell 180Types of PV Systems 181Balance of System Equipment 182Building-Integrated Photovoltaics 182Orientation and Tilt 184Roofs Clad with PV 185Facades Clad with PV 186Glazing and PV 186PV Shading Devices 188PV: Part of the Second Tier 188Sizing a PV System 189Finding the PV Array Size for aStand-Alone Building by the ShortCalculation Method 190Design Guidelines 191The Promise of PV 192The Cost Effectiveness of PV andActive Solar Applications 192Active Solar Swimming-Pool Heating 195Solar Hot-Water Systems 195Solar Hot-Air Collectors 197Designing an Active Solar System 198Active/Passive Solar Systems 200Preheating of Ventilation Air 201The Future of Active Solar 204Conclusion 204

177

iiv

CONTENTS I X

SHADING AND LIGHT COLORS 207

10.

2089.1 H istory of Shading9.2 Shading 213 ^ .9.3 Fixed Exterior Shading Devices 217 . i.,-9.4 Movable Shading Devices 2199.5 Shading Periods of the Year 2239.6 Horizontal Overhangs 2279.7 Design of Horizontal t ji.sl *

Overhangs—Basic Method 2289.8 Shading Design for South Windows 2309.9 Design Guidelines for Fixed

South Overhangs 2309.10 Design Guidelines for Movable :

South Overhangs 232 ' ' ;

9.11 Shading for East and West Windows 2339.12 Design of East and West

Horizontal Overhangs 235 l; 7l ' '9.13 Design of Slanted Vertical Fins 2369.14 Design of Fins on North Windows 2369.15 Design Guidelines for Eggcrate

Shading Devices 2379.16 Special Shading Strategies 2389.17 Shading Outdoor Spaces 241 r " ' r '9.18 Using Physical Models for Shading

Design 2449.19 Glazing as the Shading Element 2479.20 Interior Shading Devices 249 ? —, ;9.21 Shading Coefficient and Solar , ,',j: •,(>••.'}'•

Heat-Gain Coefficient 2509.22 Reflection from Roofs and Walls 2519.23 Conclusion 253

PASSIVE COOLING 257

Introduction to Cooling 258 ' ; :

Historical and Indigenous Use ofPassive Cooling 258 A

Passive Cooling Systems 267 **'Comfort Ventilation versus Night-FlushCooling 267Basic Principles of Air Flow 267Air Flow Through Buildings 271Example of Ventilation Design 278Comfort Ventilation 281Night-Flush Cooling 282

10.11 Radiant Cooling 28510.12 Evaporative Cooling 28710.13 Cool Towers 28910.14 Earth Cooling 29010.15 Dehumidification with a Desiccant 29310.16 Conclusion 293

11SITE DESIGN, COMMUNITY PLANNING,AND LANDSCAPING

11.1 Introduction 296 ; - ' E

11.2 Site Selection 299 " : :

11.3 Solar Access 30011.4 Shadow Patterns 30511.5 Site Planning 308 r r

11.6 Solar Zoning 31211.7 Physical Models 31511.8 Wind and Site Design 31711.9 Plants and Vegetation 32311.10 Green Roofs 32811.11 Lawns 33111.12 Landscaping 33211.13 Community Design 33811.14 Cooling Our Communities11.15 Conclusion 340

295

340

12.LIGHTING

12.112.212.312.412.512.612.712.8

" 12.912.1012.11

t 12.1212.1312.1412.1512.1612.1712.1812.19

;A i

Introduction 344Light 346 !^Reflectance/Transmittance 349Color 350Vision 353Perception 354Performance of a Visual Task 357Characteristics of the Visual Task 358Illumination Level 359Brightness Ratios 361Glare 362 '**' *"""'J ' XA

Equivalent Spherical Illumination 366Activity Needs 367Biological Needs 370 I*"*"1"Light and Health 373The Poetry of Light 373Rules for Lighting Design 374Career Possibilities 375Conclusion 375

viA

r.

X CONTENTS

13.DAYLIGHTING

13.1 History of Daylighting 38013.2 Why Daylighting? 38413.3 The Nature of Daylight 38613.4 Conceptual Model 38913.5 Illumination and the Daylight Factor13.6 Light without Heat? 39113.7 Cool Daylight 392 !A : \\13.8 Goals of Daylighting 39313.9 Basic Daylighting Strategies 39413.10 Basic Window Strategies 39713.11 Advanced Window Strategies 40113.12 Window Glazing Materials 40613.13 Top Lighting 407 " ' *-"13.14 Skylight Strategies 40813.15 Clerestories, Monitors, and Light Scoops13.16 Special Daylighting Techniques 41813.17 Translucent Walls and Roofs 422 ft (

13.18 Electric Lighting as a Supplement ... .to Daylighting 424

13.19 Physical Modeling 42613.20 Guidelines for Daylighting 43113.21 Conclusion 431

379

390

li

412

si.n'.i.ll• I I I

14.ELECTRIC LIGHTING 433

• • • ' • n t i L'-

t.XJ

14.1 History of Light Sources 43414.2 Light Sources 43514.3 Incandescent and Halogen Lamps 43714.4 Discharge Lamps 43814.5 Fluorescent Lamps 43914.6 High Intensity Discharge Lamps

., (Mercury, Metal Halide, andHigh Pressure Sodium) 441

14.7 Comparison of the Majora- Lighting Sources 443

14.8 Solid State Lighting 44314.9 Luminaires 44514.10 Lenses, Diffusers, and Baffles 44514.11 Lighting Systems 44814.12 Remote-Source Lighting Systems 45014.13 Visualizing Light Distribution 45114.14 Architectural Lighting 45414.15 Outdoor Lighting 45614.16 Emergency Lighting 45714.17 Controls 45714.18 Maintenance 458

14.19 Rules for Energy-Efficient ElectricLighting Design 458

14.20 Conclusion 459

15.THE THERMAL ENVELOPE; KEEPING WARM ANDSTAYING COOL 461

15.1 Background 462 . . , ,15.2 Heat Loss 463 l f l r v

15.3 Heat Gain 46515.4 Solar Reflectivity (Albedo) 46615.5 Compactness, Exposed Area, and

Thermal Planning 46715.6 Insulation Materials 47015.7 The Thermal Envelope 47515.8 Heat Bridges 482 ,f ; Hi1

15.9 Windows 48415.10 Movable Insulation 48915.11 Insulating Effect from Thermal Mass 48915.12 Earth Sheltering 49115.13 Infiltration and Ventilation 49615.14 Moisture Control 49715.15 Radon 50115.16 Appliances 50115.17 Conclusion 502

16.MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT FOR HEATINGAND COOLING

16.1 Introduction 50616.2 Heating 50616.3 Thermal Zones 50916.4 Heating Systems 50916.5 Electric Heating 51116.6 Hot-Water (Hydronic) Heating 51216.7 Hot-Air Systems 51516.8 Cooling 51816.9 Refrigeration Cycles 51916.10 Heat Pumps 52116.11 Geo-Exchange 52216.12 Cooling Systems 52316.13 Air Conditioning for

Small Buildings 52716.14 Air Conditioning for Large

Multistory Buildings 53016.15 Design Guidelines for

Mechanical Systems 53816.16 Air Supply (Ducts and Diffusers) 539

505

16.17 Ventilation 543 ,16.18 Energy-Efficient Ventilation Systems 54416.19 Air Filtration and Odor Removal 54716.20 Special Systems 54716.21 Integrated and Exposed

Mechanical Equipment 54716.22 Conclusion 551

17.CASE STUDIES

17.1 Introduction 55617.2 The Real Goods Solar Living Center17.3 The Urban Villa 56217.4 The Emerald People's Utility

District Headquarters 56517.5 Colorado Mountain College 56717.6 Gregory Bateson Building 57117.7 Commerzbank 57817.8 Phoenix Central Library 582

5S5

556

CONTENTS X I

APPENDIX FSUN-PATH MODELS

F.I Introduction 631F.2 Directions for Constructing a

Sun-Path Model 631

APPENDIX GCOMPUTER SOFTWARE USEFUL FOR THE SCHEMATICDESIGN STAGE

• -i' ' i - j v •. ' ,

G.I Introduction 641 > / ' , ; -G.2 Ecotect 641 , v .

; ; G.3 Energy Scheming 3.0 641 ; .V^v-AG.4 Energy-10™ 641G.5 UCLA Energy Design Tools 642

APPENDIX H

631

641

SITE EVALUATION TOOLS 645

APPENDIX AHORIZONTAL SUN-PATH DIAGRAMS

APPENDIX B

587

VERTICAL SUN-PATH DIAGRAMS 599

H. 1 Introduction 64 5H.2 The Solar Pathfinder 645H.3 The Suneye™ 645H.4 The Sun Locator 646H.5 Do-it-Yourself Solar Site Evaluator 646

APPENDIXHELIODONS 653

APPENDIX CSOLAR ALTITUDE AND AZIMUTH ANGLES 611

APPENDIX DMETH0D5 FOR ESTIMATING THE HEIGHT OF TREES,BUILDINGS, ETC 617

D.I Proportional-Shadow Method 617D.2 Similar-Triangle Method 617D.3 45° Right-Triangle Method 618D.4 Trigonometric Method 618D.5 Tools for Measuring Vertical Angles 619

APPENDIX ESUNDIALS

1.1 Introduction 6531.2 The Sun Simulator Heliodon 6531.3 The Sun Emulator Heliodon 6531.4 The Tabletop Heliodon 6541.5 The Bowling Ball Heliodon 6571.6 Other Sources of Heliodons 659

APPENDIX JEDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES INENERGY-CONSCIOUS DESIGN

APPENDIX KRESOURCES

661

663

621

K.1 Books 663K.2 lournals 663K.3 Videos 663

xm

X I I CONTENTS

K.4 CD-ROMs 664K.5 Organizations 664

APPENDIX LTABLES OF R-VALUES 667

L.1 R-Values foriypical Building Materials 668L.2 R-Values of Air Spaces 670L.3 Thermal Resistances for Slab Doors 670

APPENDIX MCONVERSION FACTORS BETWEEN THEINCH-POUND (I-P) AND SYSTEMINTERNATIONAL (SI) SYSTEMS 671

APPENDIX N.THE WATER TABLE FOR VENTILATION STUDIES

N. 1 Introduction 675

N.2 Construction of a Water Table 675

BIBLIOGRAPHY 679

INDEX 685

675

— - • ' ^ ^ ;

':, V ' ; ' ^ .

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