Handbook of the Sociology of Emotions

Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research

Series Editor: Howard B. Kaplan, Texas A &M University, College Station, Texas

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Handbook of the Sociology of Emotions

Edited by

Jan E. Stets University of California Riverside, California

and

Jonathan H. l\irner University of California Riverside, California

Springer

Jan E. Stets Jonathan H. Turner Department of Sociology Department of Sociology University of California University of California Riverside, CA 92521 Riverside, CA 92521 USA USA jan.stets@ucr.edu jonathan.turner@ucr.edu

Library of Congress Control Number: 2005936762

ISBN-10: 0-387-30713-3 e-ISBN 0-387-30715-X

ISBN-13: 978-0387-30713-8

Printed on acid-free paper.

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Contributors

David Boyns, Department of Sociology, California State University, Northridge, CA 91330

Kathy Charmaz. Department of Sociology, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, CA 94928

Gordon Clanton. Department of Sociology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182

Candace Clark. Kure Beach, NC 28449

Martha Copp. Department of Sociology and Anthropology, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN 37614

Mark H. Davis. Department of Psychology, Eckerd College, St. Petersburg, FL 33711

Brooke Di Leone. Department of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802

Diane H. Felmlee. Department of Sociology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616

Jessica Fields. Department of Sociology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA 94132

Linda E. Francis. School of Social Welfare, SUNY at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, NY 11794

David D. Franks. Department of Sociology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284

Dallas N. Garner. Department of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802

Jeff Goodwin. Department of Sociology, New York University, New York, NY 10012

Alena M. Hadley. Department of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802

Michael Hammond. Department of Sociology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 2J4

James M. Jasper. New York, NY 10011

Guillermina Jasso. Department of Sociology, New York University, New York, NY 10012

Howard B. Kaplan. Department of Sociology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843

Theodore D. Kemper. Department of Sociology, St. John's University, Jamaica, NY 11439

vi Contributors

Sherryl Kleinman. Department of Sociology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599

Edward J. Lawler. Department of Organizational Behavior, School of Industrial and Labor Relations and Department of Sociology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853

Kathryn J. Lively. Department of Sociology, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755

Melinda J. Milligan. Department of Sociology, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, CA 94928

Gretchen Peterson. Department of Sociology, California State University, Los Angeles, CA 90032

Cecilia L. Ridgeway. Department of Sociology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305

Dawn T. Robinson. Department of Sociology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602

Scott Schieman. Department of Sociology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 2J4

Christopher S. Schmitt. Department of Sociology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521

Stephanie A. Shields. Department of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802

Lynn Smith-Lovin. Department of Sociology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708

Susan Sprecher. Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Illinois State University, Normal, IL 61790

Jan E. Stets. Department of Sociology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521

Erika Summers-Effler. Department of Sociology, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556

Robert A. Thamm. Department of Sociology, San Jose State University, San Jose, CA 95192

Shane R. Thye. Department of Sociology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208

Jonathan H. Turner. Department of Sociology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521

Allison K. Wisecup. Department of Sociology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708

Contents

Introduction Jan E. Stets and Jonathan H. Turner References

I. BASIC PROCESSES

1. The Classification of Emotions 11 Robert A. Thamm Traditional Classification Approaches 11 Contemporary Classification Systems 14 Relevant Factors in Classifying Emotions 16 Culture, Structure, and Appraisal 16 The Classification Scheme 17 "Classic" Construction of Emotion Categories 18 Levels of Emotion Differentiation 20 Conclusions 34 References 35

2. The Neuroscience of Emotions 38 David D. Franks Why the Emotional Brain? 39 Sociology and the Neuroscience Divide 40 Some Generalizations about the Emotional Brain 41 The Functional Anatomy of Emotion in the Brain 42 Top to Dovv̂ n Brain Structures 45 The Debate About the Limbic System 49 Neuroscience and Unconscious Emotion 51 On the Relationship of Cognition and Emotion: The Interaction of Cognitive

and Emotional Processes in the Brain 55 Conclusion 59 Notes 60 References 60

ii Contents

3. Gender and Emotion 63 Stephanie A. Shields, Dallas N. Garner, Brooke Di Leone, and Alena M. Hadley A Framework for Studying Gender and Emotion 65 Beliefs About the Gender-Emotion Connection 68 Power and Status 71 Sexuality 74 Conclusion 78 References 79

II. THEORIES

4. Power and Status and the Power-Status Theory of Emotions 87 Theodore D. Kemper Power and Status Theory 87 Relational Metaprocesses 93 The Power-Status Theory of Emotions 96 Tests of the Theory 108 Research Agenda 109 Conclusion 110 Notes I l l References I l l

5. Cultural Theory and Emotions 114 Gretchen Peterson Defining Emotions 115 The Self and Emotions 115 Cultural Content 116 Empirical Work on Emotion Culture 118 Variations in Emotion Culture 121 Learning the Emotion Culture: Emotional Socialization 122 Research on Emotional Socialization 123 Managing Emotions 124 Research on Emotion Management 126 Commercialization of Emotion Management 127 Research on Emotional Labor 129 Concl usion 131 Notes 133 References 133

6. Ritual Theory 135 Erika Summers-Effler The Interaction Order 136 Interaction Order Dynamics 137 Second-Order System Dynamics 140 Thinking and the Self 141 Network Processes 146 Small Groups 147 Constraints on the Interaction Order 149

Contents ix

Conclusion 152 References 153

7. Symbolic Interactionism, Inequality, and Emotions 155 Jessica Fields, Martha Copp, and Sherryl Kleinman Theoretical Framings and Foundations 156 Linking the Emotional and the Social 158 Everyday Emotional Practices and Contexts 159 Who We Are, How We Feel: Emotions, Identity, and Beliefs 164 Emotion, Ideology, and Sustained Social Inequalities 168 Methodological Perspectives for Interactionist Studies of Emotion 173 Conclusion 174 References 175

8. Affect Control Theory 179 Dawn T. Robinson, Lynn Smith-Lovin, and Allison K. Wisecup Symbolic Interactionist Roots of Affect Control Theory 180 Definitions 181 The Formal Structure of the Theory 184 Empirical Studies of Emotion Using Affect Control Theory 191 Emotions in Understanding Social Movements and Politics 193 A Brief Comparison with a Close Theoretical Cousin 196 Directions for Future Research 198 Notes 199 References 199

9. Identity Theory and Emotions 203 Jan E, Stets Identity Theory and Research 204 Future Research 220 Conclusion 221 Notes 222 References 222

10. Self Theory and Emotions 224 Howard B. Kaplan Self Theory as an Integrative Framework for the Sociology of Emotions 224 Emotions as Self-Referent Responses 229 Emotional Experiences/Expressions as Self-Cognitive Stimuli for

Self-Evaluation 230 Emotional (Self-Feeling) Responses to Self-Cognition-Stimulated

Self-Evaluations 232 Emotions and Self-Enhancing/Self-Protective Responses 241 Emotional Responses as Self-Enhancing/Self-Protective Mechanisms 244 Self-Enhancing/Self-Protective Mechanisms and Self-Feelings (Emotion) 245 Retrospect and Prospect 247 References 249

Contents

11. Emotion-Based Self Theory 254 David Boyns Sociological Approaches to the Self 255 Locating the Emotion-Based Self in the Sociology of Emotions 258 Conclusion and Future Directions 271 References 272

12. Psychoanalytic Sociological Theories and Emotion 276 Jonathan //. Turner Freud's Theory in a More Sociological Guise 276 Redirection of Psychoanalytic Theory and Research 279 Sociological Theories of Pride and Shame 280 Expanding the Theory of Emotions: A New Kind of Synthesis Between

Sociology and Psychoanalytic Ideas 281 Conclusion 292 References 293

13. Social Exchange Theory of Emotions 295 Edward J. Lawler and Shane R. Thye The Problem 296 Social Exchange Theories: Background 298 Emotion and Emotional Processes 301 Relational Cohesion Theory 305 Extensions of Relational Cohesion Theory 308 Affect Theory of Social Exchange 311 Conclusion and Future Directions 316 References 318

14. Emotion in Justice Processes 321 Guillermina Jasso Justice Analysis: Understanding the Operation of the Sense of Justice 322 A Closer Look at the Justice Evaluation Function 327 The Long Reach of Justice: Theoretical Justice Analysis 331 Emotion in Justice Processes: Basic Framework and New Extensions 332 A New Extension: Impartiality in the Justice Process 334 Empirical Assessment of Impartiality 339 Emotion in a New Unified Theory of Sociobehavioral Processes 341 Appendi X 343 Notes 344 References 344

15. Expectation States Theory and Emotions 347 Cecilia L. Ridgeway Early Studies of Status and Affect 348 Expectation States Theory 349 Is Affect Inherent in Status Processes? 351 Cultural Schemas of Status and Emotion 353 Legitimacy Dynamics, Emotions, and the Containment of Conflict 355

Contents xi

How Do Emotions and Sentiments Shape Status? 358 Feeling with the Group and Solidarity 364 Conclusion 364 References 365

16. Evolutionary Theory and Emotions 368 Michael Hammond Evolutionary Existentialism 369 The Evolutionary Biology of Emotions 370 Emotions and Social Evolution 375 Conclusion 384 References 384

III. SELECT EMOTIONS

17. Love 389 Diane H, Felmlee and Susan Sprecher Is Love an Emotion? 390 Classic Psychological Approaches to Love 393 Sociological Perspectives on Love 397 The Future of Scholarship on Love 401 Conclusion 405 References 406

18. Jealousy and Envy 410 Gordon Clanton Recognizing Jealousy and Envy 411 Jealousy 412 Envy 424 Conclusion 439 References 440

19. Empathy 443 Mark H. Davis Empathy: An Organizational Framework 444 Research Evidence Relevant to the Model 447 Future Directions 460 Conclusion 462 References 462

20. Sympathy 467 Christopher S. Schmitt and Candace Clark Sympathy Conceptualized 469 Dimes of Sympathy: Emotional Gifts, Exchange, and Micropolitics 474 Courtroom Trials 481 Communities of Sympathy 484 Conclusion 485

xii Contents

Notes 487 References 487

21. Anger 493 Scott Schieman Conceptualization of Anger 494 Social Causes of Anger Processes 495 The Social Distribution of Anger 503 Power, the Sense of Control, and the Utility of Anger 507 Conclusion 509 References 510

22. Grief 516 Kathy Charmaz and Melinda J, Milligan Positioning the Literature on Grief 517 What Is Grief? 518 Psychological Theorizing: Attachment and Identification 520 Historical and Cross-Cultural Studies: Evidence for the Social and

Cultural Construction of Grief 521 Emotions and Social Movements: The Place of Grief 523 Situating Grief in Social Structure 525 Reconceptualizing Grief 529 Loss of Self 532 Research on Variations in the Experience of Grief 534 Conclusion 537 Notes 538 References 538

23. Moral Emotions 544 Jonathan H. Turner and Jan E. Stets What Is Morality? 544 A Biology of Morality? 546 The Moral Self 548 Social Structure and Moral Emotions 549 Toward A Sociology of Moral Emotions 556 The Psychodynamics of Moral Emotions 560 Conclusion: Moral Emotions and the Moral Order 564 References 565

IV. EMOTIONS IN SOCIAL LIFE

24. Emotions in the Workplace 569 Kathryn J. Lively The Managed Heart 570 Conclusion 583 Notes 585 References 586

Contents xiii

25. Emotions and Health 591 Linda E. Francis The Sociology of Emotions and Health 592 The Division: Biomedical Positivism and Social Constructionism in

Research on Emotions and Health 595 Bridging the Gap: Stress and Interactionism 600 Discussion 604 Conclusion 605 References 606

26. Emotions and Social Movements 611 Jeff Goodwin and James M. Jasper Fearing Emotions: A Brief History 612 Rediscovering Emotions: Recent Research 617 Theorizing Emotions: Engaging Broader Theories 624 Conclusion 630 References 631

Index 637