handbook of photonics for biomedical science · 2011-12-26 · contents preface xix theeditor xxv...
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Series in Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering
Handbook of
Photonics for Biomedical Science
Edited by
Valery V. TuchinSaratov State University and
Institute ofPrecise Mechanics and Control ofRASRussia
LftC) CRC Press\C/*^ J Taylor &Francis Group
'Boca Raton London NewYork
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor Si Francis Group, an Informa business
A TAYLOR & FRANCIS BOOK
Contents
Preface xix
The Editor xxv
List of Contributors xxvii
1 FDTD Simulation of Light Interaction with Cells for Diagnostics and Imaging in
Nanobiophotonics 1
Stoyan Tanev, Wenbo Sun, James Pond, and Valery V. Tuchin
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Formulation of the FDTD Method 3
1.2.1 The basic FDTD numerical scheme 3
1.2.2 Numerical excitation of the input wave 4
1.2.3 Uni-axial perfectly matched layer absorbing boundary conditions 7
1.2.4 FDTD formulation of the light scattering properties from single cells. ...
10
1.2.5 FDTD formulation of optical phase contrast microscopic (OPCM) imaging 15
1.3 FDTD Simulation Results of Light Scattering Patterns from Single Cells 19
1.3.1 Validation of the simulation results 19
1.3.2 Effect of extracellular medium absorption on the light scattering patterns . .22
1.4 FDTD Simulation Results of OPCM Nanobioimaging 24
1.4.1 Cell structure 24
1.4.2 Optical clearing effect 24
1.4.3 The cell imaging effect of gold nanoparticles 25
1.5 Conclusion 29
2 Plasmonic Nanoparticles: Fabrication, Optical Properties, and Biomedical Applica¬
tions 37
Nikolai G. Khlebtsov and Lev A. Dykman2.1 Introduction 37
2.2 Chemical Wet Synthesis and Functionalization of Plasmon-Resonant NPs 38
2.2.1 Nanosphere colloids 38
2.2.2 Metal nanorods 38
2.2.3 Metal nanoshells 39
2.2.4 Other particles and nanoparticles assemblies 39
2.3 Optical Properties 40
2.3.1 Basic physical principles 40
2.3.2 Plasmon resonances 43
2.3.3 Metal spheres 45
2.3.4 Metal nanorods 46
2.3.5 Coupled plasmons 53
2.4 Biomedical Applications 58
2.4.1 Functionalization of metal nanoparticles 58
2.4.2 Homogenous and biobarcode assays 60
2.4.3 Solid-phase assays with nanoparticle markers 61
2.4.4 Functionalized NPs in biomedical sensing and imaging 63
v
vi Handbook of Photonics for Biomedical Science
2.4.5 Interaction of NPs with living cells and organisms: Cell-uptake, biodistri-
bution, and toxicity aspects 65
2.4.6 Application of NPs to drug delivery and photothermal therapy 67
2.5 Conclusion 69
Transfection by Optical Injection 87
David J. Stevenson, Frank J. Gunn-Moore, Paul Campbell, and Kishan Dholakia
3.1 Introduction: Why Cell Transfection? 87
3.2 Nonoptical Methods of Transfection 89
3.2.1 Lipoplex transfection 89
3.2.2 Polyplex transfection 89
3.2.3 Gene gun transfection 90
3.2.4 Ultrasound transfection 90
3.2.5 Electroporation 90
3.3 Review of Optical Injection and Transfection 91
3.4 Physics of Species Transport through a Photopore 97
3.5 Physics of the Laser-Cell Interaction Ill
3.6 Conclusion 113
Advances in Fluorescence Spectroscopy and Imaging 119
Herbert Schneckenburger, Petra Weber, Thomas Bruns, and Michael Wagner
4.1 Introduction 119
4.2 Techniques and Requirements 120
4.2.1 Video microscopy and tomography 120
4.2.2 Spectral imaging 121
4.2.3 Fluorescence anisotropy 122
4.2.4 Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) 122
4.2.5 Fluorescence screening 123
4.3 Applications 123
4.3.1 Autofluorescence imaging 123
4.3.2 Membrane dynamics 125
4.3.3 FRET-based applications 128
4.4 Final Remarks 132
Applications of Optical Tomography in Biomedical Research 137
Ana Sarasa-Renedo, Alex Darrell, and Jorge Ripoll5.1 Introduction 137
5.1.1 Fluorescent molecular probes 138
5.2 Light Propagation in Highly Scattering Media 139
5.2.1 The diffusion equation 139
5.2.2 Fluorescence molecular tomography 139
5.3 Light Propagation in Nonscattering Media 144
5.3.1 Optical projection tomography 144
5.3.2 Reconstruction methods in OPT 147
Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging and Metrology for Biomedicine 159
Clifford Talbot, James McGinty, Ewan McGhee, Dylan Owen, David Grant, Sunil Kumar,Pieter De Beule, Egidijus Auksorius, Hugh Manning, Neil Galletly, Bebhinn Treanor, Gordon
Kennedy, Peter M.P. Lanigan, Ian Munro, Daniel S. Elson, Anthony Magee, Dan Davis, Mark
Neil, Gordon Stamp, Christopher Dunsby, and Paul French
Table of Contents vii
6.1 Introduction 159
6.2 Techniques for Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging and Metrology 162
6.2.1 Overview 162
6.2.2 Single-point and laser-scanning measurements of fluorescence lifetime. . . 164
6.2.3 Wide-field FLIM 167
6.3 FLIM and MDF1 of Biological Tissue Autofluorescence 170
6.3.1 Introduction 170
6.3.2 Application to cancer 171
6.3.3 Application to atherosclerosis 172
6.4 Application to Cell Biology 175
6.4.1 Fluorescence lifetime sensing .175
6.4.2 FLIM applied to FRET 176
6.5 Multidimensional Fluorescence Measurement and Imaging Technology 178
6.5.1 Overview 178
6.5.2 Excitation-resolved FLIM 179
6.5.3 Emission-resolved FLIM 180
6.6 Outlook 182
7 Raman and CARS Microscopy of Cells and Tissues 197
Christoph Krafft and Jiirgen Popp7.1 Introduction 197
7.2 Experimental Methods 199
7.2.1 Raman spectroscopy 199
7.2.2 Raman microscopy 200
7.2.3 Surface enhanced resonance Raman scattering (SERS) 201
7.2.4 Resonance Raman scattering (RRS) 201
7.2.5 Coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) microscopy 201
7.2.6 Raman imaging 202
7.3 Sample Preparation and Reference Spectra 203
7.3.1 Preparation of tissues 203
7.3.2 Preparation of cells 204
7.3.3 Raman spectra of biological molecules 204
7.4 Applications to Cells 205
7.4.1 Raman microscopy of microbial cells 205
7.4.2 Raman spectroscopy of eukaryotic cells 206
7.4.3 Resonance Raman spectroscopy of cells 208
7.4.4 SERS/TERS of" cells 208
7.4.5 CARS microscopic imaging of cells 210
7.5 Applications to Tissue 211
7.5.1 Raman imaging of hard tissues 211
7.5.2 Raman imaging of soft tissues 212
7.5.3 SERS detection of tissue-specific antigens 214
7.5.4 CARS for medical tissue imaging 215
7.6 Conclusions 216
8 Resonance Raman Spectroscopy ofHuman Skin for the In Vivo Detection of Carotenoid
Antioxidant Substances 229
Maxim E. Darvin and Juergen Lademann
8.1 Introduction 230
8.2 Production of Free Radicals in the Skin 231
viii Handbook of Photonics for Biomedical Science
8.3 Antioxidative Potential of Human Skin 231
8.3.1 Different types of antioxidants measured in the human skin 231
8.3.2 Role of cutaneous carotenoids 232
8.4 Physicochemieal Properties of Cutaneous Carotenoids 232
8.4.1 Antioxidative activity 232
8.4.2 Optical absorption 232
8.4.3 Solubility 232
8.5 Methods for the Detection of Cutaneous Carotenoids 233
8.5.1 High pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) 233
8.5.2 Reflection spectroscopy 233
8.5.3 Raman spectroscopy 234
8.5.4 Comparison of the methods 235
8.6 Resonance Raman Spectroscopy (RRS) 235
8.6.1 Setup for in vivo resonance Raman spectroscopy of cutaneous carotenoids. 235
8.6.2 Optimization of the setup parameters 236
8.6.3 Typical RRS spectra of carotenoids obtained from the skin 237
8.6.4 Measurements of the total amount of carotenoids in the skin 238
8.6.5 Selective detection of cutaneous beta-carotene and lycopene 238
8.6.6 Measurements of cutaneous lycopene 239
8.7 Results Obtained by RRS In Vivo 240
8.7.1 Distribution of carotenoids in the human skin 240
8.7.2 Stress factors, which decrease the carotenoid level in the skin 241
8.7.3 Potential methods to increase the carotenoid level in the skin 242
8.7.4 "Seasonal increase" of cutaneous carotenoids 243
8.7.5 Antioxidants and premature aging 243
8.7.6 Topical application of antioxidants 245
8.7.7 Medication with antioxidants 245
8.8 Strategies on the Application of Antioxidant Substances 247
8.9 Conclusions 247
9 Polarized Light Assessment of Complex Turbid Media Such as Biological Tissues Us¬
ing Mueller Matrix Decomposition 253
Nirmalya Ghosh, Michael Wood, and Alex Vitkin
9.1 Introduction 254
9.2 Mueller Matrix Preliminaries and the Basic Polarization Parameters 255
9.3 Polar Decomposition of Mueller Matrices for Extraction of the Individual Intrinsic
Polarization Parameters 258
9.4 Sensitive Experimental System for Mueller Matrix Measurements in Turbid Media 261
9.5 Forward Modeling of Simultaneous Occurrence of Several Polarization Effects in
Turbid Media Using the Monte Carlo Approach 264
9.6 Validation of the Mueller Matrix Decomposition Method in Complex Tissue-Like
Turbid Media 267
9.7 Selected Trends: Path length and Detection Geometry Effects on the Decomposition-Derived Polarization Parameters 270
9.8 Initial Biomedical Applications 274
9.8.1 Noninvasive glucose measurement in tissue-like turbid media 274
9.8.2 Monitoring regenerative treatments of the heart 275
9.8.3 Proof-of-principle in vivo biomedical deployment of the method 277
9.9 Concluding Remarks on the Prospect of the Mueller Matrix Decomposition Method
in Polarimelric Assessment of Biological Tissues 279
Table of Contents ix
10 Statistical, Correlation, and Topological Approaches in Diagnostics of the Structure
and Physiological State of Birefringent Biological Tissues 283
O, V. Angelsky, A.G. Ushenko, Yu.A. Ushenko, VP. Pishak, and A.P. Peresunko
10.1 Introduction 284
10.1.1 Polarimetric approach 284
10.1.2 Correlation approach 285
10.1.3 Topological or singular optical approach 286
10.2 Biological Tissue as the Converter of Parameters of Laser Radiation 288
10.2.1 Crystal optical model of anisotropic component of the main types of biolog¬
ical tissues 288
10.2.2 Techniques for analysis of the structure of inhomogeneously polarized ob¬
ject fields 290
10.3 Laser Polarimetry of Biological Tissues 291
10.3.1 Polarization mapping of biological tissues: Apparatus and techniques ... 291
10.3.2 Statistical and fractal analysis of polarization images of histological slices
of biological tissues 292
10.3.3 Diagnostic feasibilities of polarization mapping of histological slices of bi¬
ological tissues of various physiological states 294
10.3.4 Polarization 2D tomography of biological tissues 298
10.4 Polarization Correlometry of Biological Tissues 303
10.4.1 The degree of mutual polarization at laser images of biological tissues. . .
303
10.4.2 Technique for measurement of polarization-con-elation maps ofhistological
slices of biological tissues 304
10.4.3 Statistical approach to the analysis of polarization-correlation maps of bio¬
logical tissues 304
10.5 The Structure of Polarized Fields of Biological Tissues 308
10.5.1 Main mechanisms and scenarios of forming singular nets at laser fields of
birefringent structures of biological tissues 308
10.5.2 Statistical and fractal approaches to analysis of singular nets at laser fields
of birefringent structures of biological tissues 309
10.5.3 Scenarios of formation of singular structure of polarization parameters at
images of biological tissues 313
10.5.4 Structure of S-contours of polarization images of the architectonic nets of
birefringent collagen fibrils 313
10.5.5 On the interconnection of the singular and statistical parameters of inhomo¬
geneously polarized nets of biological crystals 315
10.6 Conclusion 317
11 Biophotonic Functional Imaging of Skin Microcirculation 323
Martin J. Leahy and Gert E. Nilsson
11.1 Skin Microvasculature 323
11.2 Nailfold Capillaroscopy 324
11.3 Laser Doppler Perfusion Imaging 325
11.4 Laser Speckle Perfusion Imaging 329
11.5 Polarization Spectroscopy 331
11.6 Comparison of LDPI.LSPI, and TiVi 333
11.7 Optical Microangiography 336
11.8 Photoacoustic Tomography 337
11.9 Conclusions 339
X Handbook ofPhotonicsfor Biomedical Science
12 Advances in Optoacoustic Imaging 343
Tatiana Khokhlova, Ivan Pelivanov, and Alexander Karabutov
12.1 Introduction 344
12.2 Image Reconstruction in OA Tomography 345
12.2.1 Solution of the inverse problem of OA tomography in spatial-frequency do¬
main 346
12.2.2 Solution of the inverse problem of OA tomography in time domain 347
12.2.3 Possible image artifacts 348
12.3 3D OA Tomography 349
12.4 2D OA Tomography 351
12.4.1 Transducer arrays for 2D OA tomography 351
12.4.2 Image reconstruction in 2D OA tomography 355
12.5 Conclusions 357
13 Optical-Resolution Photoacoustic Microscopy for 7/7 Vivo Volumetric Microvascular
Imaging in Intact Tissues 361
Song Hu, Konstantin Maslov, and Lihong V. Wang
13.1 Introduction 361
13.2 Dark-Field PAM and Its Limitation in Spatial Resolution 362
13.3 Resolution Improvement in PAM by Using Diffraction-Limited Optical Focusing .363
13.4 Bright-Field OR-PAM 364
13.4.1 System design 364
13.4.2 Spatial resolution quantification 365
13.4.3 Imaging depth estimation 367
13.4.4 Sensitivity estimation 367
13.5 In Vivo Microvascular Imaging Using OR-PAM 368
13.5.1 Structural imaging 368
13.5.2 Microvascular bifurcation 370
13.5.3 Functional imaging of hemoglobin oxygen saturation 371
13.5.4 In vivo brain microvascular imaging 373
13.6 Conclusion and Perspectives 373
14 Optical Coherence Tomography Theory and Spectral Time-Frequency Analysis 377
Castas Pitris, Andreas Kartakoullis, and Evgenia Bousi
14.1 Introduction 377
14.2 Low Coherence Interferometry 379
14.2.1 Axial resolution 381
14.2.2 Transverse resolution 382
14.3 Implementations of OCT 383
14.3.1 Time-domain scanning 383
14.3.2 Fourier-domain OCT 384
14.4 Delivery Devices 385
14.5 Clinical Applications of OCT 385
14.5.1 Ophthalmology 386
14.5.2 Cardiology 386
14.5.3 Oncology 386
14.5.4 Other applications 387
14.5.5 OCT in biology 388
14.6 OCT Image Interpretation 389
14.7 Spectroscopic OCT 390
Table of Contents x i
14.7.1 Mie theory in SOCT 390
14.7.2 Spectral analysis of OCT signals 391
14.7.3 Spectral analysis based on Burg's method 392
14.7.4 Experimental demonstration of SOCT for scatterer size estimation 395
14.8 Conclusions 396
15 Label-Free Optical Micro-Angiography for Functional Imaging of Microcirculations
within Tissue Beds In Vivo 401
Lin An, Yali Jia, and Ruikang K. Wang15.1 Introduction 401
15.2 Brief Principle of Doppler Optical Coherence Tomography 403
15.3 Optical Micro-Angiography 404
15.3.1 In vivo full-range complex Fourier-domain OCT 405
15.3.2 OMAG flow imaging 407
15.3.3 Directional OMAG flow imaging 409
15.4 OMAG System Setup 411
15.5 OMAG Imaging Applications 412
15.5.1 In vivo volumetric imaging of vascular perfusion within the human retina
and choroids 413
15.5.2 Imaging cerebral blood perfusion in small animal models 413
15.6 Conclusions 415
16 Fiber-Based OCT: From Optical Design to Clinical Applications 423
V. Gelikonov, G- Gelikonov, M. Kirillin, N. Shakhova, A. Sergeev, N. Gladkova, and E. Za-
gaynova
16.1 Introduction (History, Motivation, Objectives) 423
16.2 Fiber-Based OCT as a Tool for Clinical Application 425
16.2.1 Design of the fiber-based cross-polarization OCT device 425
16.2.2 OCT probes: Customizing the device 428
16.3 Clinical Applications of the Fiber-Based OCT Device 430
16.3.1 Diagnosis of cancer and target biopsy optimization 430
16.3.2 Differential diagnosis of diseases with similar manifestations 431
16.3.3 OCT monitoring of treatment 431
16.3.4 OCT for guided surgery 432
16.3.5 Cross-polarization OCT modality for neoplasia OCTdiagnosis 434
16.3.6 OCT miniprobe application 435
16.4 Conclusion 439
17 Noninvasive Assessment of Molecular Permeability with OCT 445
Kirill V. Larin, Mohamad G. Ghosn, and Valery V. Tuchin
17.1 Introduction 446
17.2 Principles of OCT Functional Imaging 447
17.3 Materials and Methods 450
17.3.1 Experimental setup 450
17.3.2 Ocular tissues 450
17.3.3 Vascular tissues 451
17.3.4 Data processing 451
17.4 Results 452
17.4.1 Diffusion in the cornea 452
17.4.2 Diffusion in the sclera 454
x i j Handbook ofPhotonicsfor Biomedical Science
17.4.3 In-depth diffusion monitoring 456
17.4.4 Diffusion in the carotid 457
17.5 Conclusions 459
18 Confocal Light Absorption and Scattering Spectroscopic Microscopy 465
Le Qiu and Lev T. Perelman
18.1 Introduction 465
18.2 Light Scattering Spectroscopy 467
18.3 Confocal Microscopy 468
18.4 CLASS Microscopy 469
18.5 Imaging of Live Cells with CLASS Microscopy 473
18.6 Characterization of Single Gold Nanorods with CLASS Microscopy 474
18.7 Conclusion 477
19 Dual Axes Confocal Microscopy 481
Michael J. Mandella and Thomas D. Wang
19.1 Introduction 481
19.1.1 Principles of Confocal Microscopy 482
19.1.2 Role for dual axes confocal microscopy 482
19.2 Limitations of Single Axis Confocal Microscopy 483
19.2.1 Single axis confocal design 484
19.2.2 Single axis confocal systems 484
19.3 Dual Axes Confocal Architecture 485
19.3.1 Dual axes design 486
19.3.2 Dual axes point spread function 487
19.3.3 Postobjective scanning 489
19.3.4 Improved rejection of scattering 490
19.4 Dual Axes Confocal Imaging 494
19.4.1 Solid immersion lens 494
19.4.2 Horizontal cross-sectional images 494
19.4.3 Vertical cross-sectional images 495
19.4.4 Dual axes confocal fluorescence imaging 496
19.5 MEMS Scanning Mechanisms 498
19.5.1 Scanner structure and function 498
19.5.2 Scanner characterization 499
19.5.3 Scanner fabrication process 500
19.6 Miniature Dual Axes Confocal Microscope 501
19.6.1 Imaging scanhead 501
19.6.2 Assembly and alignment 501
19.6.3 Instrument control and image acquisition 502
19.6.4 In vivo confocal fluorescence imaging 503
19.6.5 Endoscope compatible prototype 503
19.7 Conclusions and Future Directions 505
20 Nonlinear Imaging of Tissues 509
Riccardo Cicchi, Leonardo Sacconi, and Francesco Pavone
20.1 Introduction 509
20.2 Theoretical Background 510
20.2.1 Two-photon excitation fluorescence microscopy 510
20.2.2 Second-harmonic generation microscopy 512
Table of Contents xiii
20.2.3 Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy 513
20.3 Morphological Imaging 516
20.3.1 Combined two-photon fluorescence-second-harmonic generation microscopyon skin tissue 516
20.3.2 Combined two-photon fluorescence-second-harmonic generation microscopyon diseased dermis tissue 516
20.3.3 Combined two-photon fluorescence-second-harmonic generation microscopyon bladder tissue 518
20.3.4 Second-harmonic generation imaging on cornea 520
20.3.5 Improving the penetration depth with two-photon imaging: Application of
optical clearing agents 520
20.4 Chemical Imaging 523
20.4.1 Lifetime imaging of basal cell carcinoma 523
20.4.2 Enhancing tumor margins with two-photon fluorescence by using aminole¬
vulinic acid 525
20.5 Morpho-Functional Imaging 526
20.5.1 Single spine imaging and ablation inside brain of small living animals. . .
526
20.5.2 Optical recording ofelectrical activity in intact neuronal network by random
access second-harmonic (RASH) microscopy 531
20.6 Conclusion 535
21 Endomicroscopy Technologies for High-Resolution Nonlinear Optical Imaging and
Optical Coherence Tomography 547
Yicong Wu and Xingde Li
21.1 Introduction 548
21.2 Beam Scanning and Focusing Mechanisms in Endomicroscopes 549
21.2.1 Mechanical scanning in side-viewing endomicroscopes 549
21.2.2 Scanning mechanisms in forward-viewing endomicroscopes 550
21.2.3 Compact objective lens and focusing mechanism 555
21.3 Nonlinear Optical Endomicroscopy 556
21.3.1 Special considerations in nonlinear optical endomicroscopy 556
21.3.2 Nonlinear optical endomicroscopy embodiments and applications 557
21.4 Optical Coherence Tomography Endomicroscopy 561
21.4.1 Special considerations in OCT fiber-optic endomicroscopy 561
21.4.2 Endomicroscopic OCT embodiments and the applications 561
21.5 Summary 565
22 Advanced Optical Imaging of Early Mammalian Embryonic Development 575
Irina V. Larina, Mary E. Dickinson, and Kirill V. Larin
22.1 Introduction 575
22.2 Imaging Vascular Development Using Confocal Microscopy of Vital Fluorescent
Markers 576
22.3 Live Imaging of Mammalian Embryos With OCT 580
22.3.1 Structural 3-D imaging of live embryos with SS-OCT 580
22.3.2 Doppler SS-OCT imaging of blood flow 583
22.4 Conclusion 586
23 Terahertz Tissue Spectroscopy and Imaging 591
Maxim Nazarov, Alexander Shkurinov, Valery V. Tuchin, andX.-C. Zhang
xiv Handbook ofPhotonics for Biomedical Science
23.1 Introduction: The Specific Properties of the THz Frequency Range for Monitoring
of Tissue Properties 592
23.2 Optics of THz Frequency Range: Brief Review on THz Generation and Detection
Techniques 593
23.2.1 CW lamp and laser sources, CW detectors 593
23.2.2 FTIR 593
23.2.3 THz-TDS, ATR 594
23.3 Biological Molecular Fingerprints 599
23.3.1 Introduction 599
23.3.2 Sugars 600
23.3.3 Polypeptides 600
23.3.4 Proteins 601
23.3.5 Amino-acids and nucleobases 602
23.3.6 DNA 602
23.4 Properties of Biological Tissues in the THz Frequency Range 603
23.5 Water Content in Tissues and Its Interaction with Terahertz Radiation 604
23.5.1 Data on water content in various tissues 605
23.5.2 THz spectra of water solution 605
23.5.3 Skin 608
23.5.4 Muscles 608
23.5.5 Liver 609
23.5.6 Fat 609
23.5.7 Blood, hemoglobin, myoglobin 609
23.5.8 Hard tissue 610
23.5.9 Tissue dehydration 610
23.6 THz Imaging: Techniques and Applications 612
23.6.1 Introduction 612
23.6.2 Human breast 612
23.6.3 Skin 612
23.6.4 Tooth 612
23.6.5 Nanoparticle-enabled terahertz imaging 612
23.7 Summary 613
24 Nanoparticles as Sunscreen Compound: Risks and Benefits 619
Alexey P. Popov, Alexander V. Priezzhev, Juergen Lademann, and Risto Myllyla
24.1 Introduction 620
24.2 Nanoparticles in Sunscreens 620
24.3 Penetration of Nanoparticles into Skin 621
24.3.1 Skin structure 621
24.3.2 Stratum corneum 622
24.3.3 Permeability of stratum corneum 623
24.3.4 Penetration of nanoparticles into human skin 624
24.4 UV-Light-Blocking Efficacy of Nanoparticles 626
24.4.1 Solar radiation 626
24.4.2 Effect of UV radiation on skin 626
24.4.3 Action spectrum and effective spectrum 627
24.4.4 Mie calculations of cross-sections and anisotropy scattering factor of
nanoparticles 627
24.4.5 Model of stratum corneum with particles 629
24.4.6 Results of simulations 631
Table ofContents xv
24.5 Toxicity of Nanoparticles 635
24.5.1 Free radicals 635
24.5.2 EPR technique 635
24.5.3 Experiments with TiCh nanoparticles: Materials 636
24.5.4 Raman spectroscopy 636
24.5.5 Mie calculations 636
24.5.6 Experiments 1: Emulsion on glass slides 638
24.5.7 Experiments II: Emulsion on porcine skin 638
24.6 Conclusion 640
25 Photodynamic Therapy/Diagnostics: Principles, Practice, and Advances 649
Brian C. Wilson
25.1 Historical Introduction 650
25.2 PhotophysiesofPDTYPDD 652
25.3 Photochemistry of PDT/PDD 656
25.4 Photobiology ofPDT 658
25.5 PDT Instrumentation 661
25.5.1 Light sources 661
25.5.2 Light delivery and distribution 663
25.5.3 Dose monitoring 665
25.5.4 PDT response modeling 669
25.5.5 PDT biological response monitoring 670
25.5.6 PDT treatment planning 672
25.6 PDD Technologies 672
25.7 Novel Directions in PDT 675
25.7.1 Photophysics-based developments 676
25.7.2 Photosensitizer-based 678
25.7.3 Photobiology-based 678
25.7.4 Applications-based 679
25.8 Conclusions 680
26 Advances in Low-Intensity Laser and Phototherapy 687
Ying-Ying Huang, Aaron C.-H. Chen, and Michael R. Hamblin
26.1 Historical Introductions 688
26.2 Cellular Chromophores 688
26.2.1 Mitochondria 689
26.2.2 Mitochondrial Respiratory Chain 689
26.2.3 Tissue photobiology 689
26.2.4 Cytochrome c oxidase is a photoacceptor 690
26.2.5 Photoactive porphyrins 690
26.2.6 Flavoproteins 691
26.2.7 Laser speckle effects in mitochondria 691
26.2.8 LLLT enhances ATP synthesis in mitochondria 692
26.3 LLLT and Signaling Pathways 692
26.3.1 Redox sensitive pathway 692
26.3.2 Cyclic AMP-dependent signaling pathway 693
26.3.3 Nitric oxide signaling 693
26.3.4 G-protein pathway 694
26.4 Gene Transcription after LLLT 695
26.4.1 NF-kB 696
XVI Handbook ofPhotonics for Biomedical Science
26.4.2 AP-1 696
26.4.3 HIF-1 696
26.4.4 Ref-1 697
26.5 Cellular Effects 697
26.5.1 Prevention of apoptosis 699
26.5.2 Proliferation 699
26.5.3 Migration 699
26.5.4 Adhesion 700
26.6 Tissue Effects 700
26.6.1 Epithelium 700
26.6.2 Connective tissue 700
26.6.3 Muscle tissue 701
26.7 Animal and Clinical Studies of LLLT 701
26.7.1 LLLT in inflammatory disorders 701
26.7.2 LLLT in healing 703
26.7.3 LLLT in pain relief 704
26.7.4 LLLT in aesthetic applications 705
26.8 Conclusion 706
27 Low-Level Laser Therapy in Stroke and Central Nervous System 717
Ying-Ying Huang, Michael R Hamblin, and Luis De Taboada
27.1 Introduction 718
27.2 Photobiology of Low-Level Laser Therapy 718
27.3 LLLT Effects on Nerves 719
27.3.1 LLLT on neuronal cells 719
27.3.2 LLLT on nerves in vivo 720
27.4 Human Skull Transmission Measurements 720
27.5 The Problem of Stroke 721
27.5.1 Epidemic of stroke 721
27.5.2 Mechanisms of brain injury after stroke 723
27.5.3 Thrombolysis therapy of stroke 724
27.5.4 Investigational neuroprotectants and pharmacological intervention 724
27.6 TLT for Stroke 724
27.6.1 TLT in animal models for stroke 725
27.6.2 TLT in clinical trials for stroke 726
27.7 LLLT for CNS Damage 727
27.7.1 Traumatic brain injury (TBI) 729
27.7.2 Spinal cord injury (SCI) 729
27.7.3 Reversal of neurotoxicity 729
27.8 LLLT for Neurodegenerative Diseases 730
27.8.1 Neurodegenerative disease 730
27.8.2 Parkinson's disease 730
27.8.3 Alzheimer's disease 730
27.8.4 Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) 731
27.9 LLLT for Psychiatric Disorders 731
27.lOConclusions and Future Outlook 731
28 Advances in Cancer Photothermal Therapy 739
Wei R. Chen, Xiaosong Li, Mark F. Naylor, Hong Liu, and Robert E. Nordquist28.1 Introduction 740
Table of Contents xvii
28.2 Thermal Effects on Biological Tissues 741
28.2.1 Tissue responses to temperature increase 741
28.2.2 Tumor tissue responses to thermal therapy 741
28.2.3 Immune responses induced by photothermal therapy 741
28.3 Selective Photothermal Interaction in Cancer Treatment 742
28.3.1 Near-infrared laser for tissue irradiation 742
28.3.2 Selective photothermal interaction using light absorbers 742
28.3.3 lndocyanine green 743
28.3.4 /» vivo selective laser-photothermal tissue interaction 743
28.3.5 Laser-ICG photothermal effect on survival of tumor-bearing rats 744
28.4 Selective Photothermal Therapy Using Nanotechnology 746
28.4.1 Nanotechnology in biomedical fields 746
28.4.2 Nanotechnology for immunological enhancement 746
28.4.3 Nanotechnology for enhancement of photothermal interactions 746
28.4.4 Antibody-conjugated nanomaterials for enhancement of photothermal de¬
struction of tumors 746
28.5 Photothermal Immunotherapy 747
28.5.1 Procedures of photothermal immunotherapy 748
28.5.2 Effects of photothermal immunotherapy in preclinical studies 748
28.5.3 Possible immunological mechanism of photothermal immunotherapy . ..
750
28.5.4 Photothermal immunotherapy in clinical studies 751
28.6 Conclusion 752
29 Cancer Laser Thermotherapy Mediated by Plasmonic Nanoparticles 763
Georgy S. Terentyuk, Garif G. Akchurin, Irina L. Maksimova, Galina N. Maslyakova, Nikolai
G. Khlebtsov, and Valery V. Tuchin
29.1 Introduction 764
29.2 Characteristics of Gold Nanoparticles 766
29.3 Calculation of the Temperature Fields and Model Experiments 767
29.4 Circulation and Distribution of Gold Nanoparticles and Induced Alterations of Tis¬
sue Morphology at Intravenous Particle Delivery 774
29.5 Local Laser Hyperthermia and Thermolysis of Normal Tissues, Transplanted and
Spontaneous Tumors 781
29.6 Conclusions 790
30 "All Laser" Corneal Surgery by Combination of Femtosecond Laser Ablation and
Laser Tissue Welding 799
Francesco Rossi, Paolo Matteini, Fulvio Ratio, Luca Menabuoni, Ivo Lenzetti, and Roberto
Pini
30.1 Basic Principles of Femtosecond Laser Ablation 800
30.2 Femtosecond Laser Preparation of Ocular Flaps 800
30.3 Low-Power Diode Laser Welding of Ocular Tissues 802
30.4 Combining Femtosecond Laser Cutting and Diode Laser Suturing 804
30.4.1 Penetrating keratoplasty 804
30.4.2 Anterior lamellar keratoplasty 805
30.4.3 Endothelial transplantation (deep lamellar keratoplasty) 806
30.5 Conclusions 807
Index 811