handbook of geophysics and space environments · handbook of geophysics and space environments...
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HANDBOOK OF GEOPHYSICS
AND
SPACE ENVIRONMENTS
Scientific Editor
Shea L. Valley
Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories
McGRAWHILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.New York San Francisco Toronto London Sydney
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1. GEODESY1 AND GRAVITY
1.1 FIGURES OF THE EARTH AND REFERENCE SURFACES . . . . 1-11.1.1 The Geoid 1-11.1.2 The Reference Ellipsoid 1-21.2 HORIZONTAL GEODETIC SURVEYING 1-21.2.1 Reduction to the Geoid 1-21.2.2 Deflections of the Vertical 1-21.2.3 Projection to the Ellipsoid 1-3
1.2.3.1 The Development Method 1-31.2.3.2' The Translative Method 1-31.2.3.3 Pizzetti's Projection . 1-31.2.3.4 Projective Method of Astronomical Geodesy . 1-4
KL.2.4 Earth Ellipsoids 1-4- 1.2.4.1 Reference Ellipsoids 1-4
1.2.4.2 Best-Fitting Ellipsoids 1-41.2.4.3 Arc-Measuring Method . 1-41.2:4.4 Area Method 1-51.2.4.5 Partial Systems Method 1-51.2.4.6 Mean Earth Ellipsoid 1-5
1.3 VERTICAL GEODETIC SURVEYING 1-61.4^ GRAVITY . . . 1-61.4.1 The Spheroidal Earth and Normal Gravity 1-61.4.2 The International Gravity Formula 1-71.4.3 Disturbing Potential and Gravity Anomaly 1-71.4.4 Gravimetrical Geoid and Deflections of the Vertical 1-81.4.5 Applications of Gravity Anomalies for Geodesy 1-10
1.4.5.1 Existing'Gravity Material 1-101.4.5.2 Existing Geoids 1-101.4.5.3 World Geodetic System 1-10
1.4.6 Gravity Measurements 1-131.4.6.1 Absolute Measurements 1-131.4.6.2 Relative Measurements 1-14
1.4.7 Reduction of Gravity Observations 1-141.4.8 Isostatic Equilibrium and Reduction 1-14
1.4.8.1 Reduction Tables 1-161.4.8.2 Reduction Maps 1-16
1.4.9 New Reduction Methods 1-161.5 GRAVITY FIELD EXTENDED TO HIGH ALTITUDES 1-161.5.1 Normal Gravity or Gravitation 1-161.5.2 Continuation of Gravity Anomalies and Disturbance 1-171.6 ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS 1-171.7 LUNAR OBSERVATIONS 1-181.7.1 Solar Eclipse 1-181.7.2 Occultations 1-181.7.3 Lunar Camera 1-181.8 ROCKET7FLASH TRIANGULATION 1-181.9 SATELLITE GEODESY 1-191.9.1 Orbits 1-20
1.9.1.1 Geocentric Coordinate System 1-201.9.1.2 Computation of Orbital Elements 1-211.9.1.3 Kepler's Equation 1-21
1.9.2 Orbit Perturbations 1-211.9.3 Position Determination 1-221.9.4 Analysis of Satellite Motions to Determine Gravitational Potential . . 1-231.10 REFERENCES 1-27
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CHAPTER 2. MODEL ATMOSPHERES
2.1 ATMOSPHERIC STRUCTURE AND DEFINITIONS 2-12.2 U.S. STANDARD ATMOSPHERE, 1962 2-22.3 SUPPLEMENTAL ATMOSPHERES : 2-22.4 EXTREME ATMOSPHERES 2-62.5 REFERENCES 2-6
CHAPTER 3. ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE, DENSITY,PRESSURE, AND MOISTURE
3.1 THERMAL PROPERTIES UP TO 90 KM 3-13.1.1 Energy Supply and Transformation 3-13.1.2 Station Temperatures 3-2
3.1.2.1 Probability Distributions . . ., 3-73.1.2.2 Highest and Lowest Temperatures 3-8
3.1.3 Upper Air Temperatures 3-113.1.3.1 Variability Below 30 Km 3-123.1.3.2 Variability Above 30 Km 3-12
3.1.4 Speed of Sound vs Temperature 3-143.1.5 The Lower Level Air Temperatures 3-143.1.6 Earth/Air Interface Temperatures w 3.193.1.7 Subsoil Temperatures * 3-203.1.8 Miscellaneous 3-233.2 ATMOSPHERIC DENSITY UP TO 90 KM 3-233.2.1 Distribution Below 30 Km 3-23
3.2.1.1 Statistical Applications to Reentry Problems 3-23' 3.2.1.2 Latitudinal Variations 3-23
3.2.1.3 Seasonal Variations 3-253.2.1.4 Interdiurnal and Diurnal Variations 3-253.2.1.5 Interlevel Correlations 3-263.2.1.6 Density-Wind Correlations 3-27
3.2.2 Distribution Between 30 and 90 Km 3-273.2.2.1 Latitudinal and Seasonal Variability 3-283.2.2.2 Interdiurnal and Diurnal Changes . 3-28
3.3 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE UP TO 90 KM 3-293.3.1 Sea-Level Pressure 3-293.3.2 Variations in Height of Constant Pressure Surfaces 3-30
3.3.2.1 Seasonal and Daily Variations 3-303.3.2.2 Diurnal and Semidiurnal Variations 3-31
3.4 ATMOSPHERIC WATER VAPOR 3-313.4.1 Polar Model 3-343.4.2 Midlatitude Model 3-343.4.3 Tropical Observations 3-343.5 TEMPERATURE, DENSITY, AND PRESSURE (90 TO 300 KM) 3-343.6 VARIATIONS ABOVE 200 KM 3-383.6.1 Diurnal Density Variations 3-393.6.2 Density as a Function of Solar Flux 3-393.6.3 Annual and Semiannual Density Variations 3-403.6.4 Effects of Magnetic Storms on Density 3-403.6.5 Latitude Effects 3-413.6.6 Diurnal Temperature Variations 3-413.6.7 Temperature as a Function of Solar Flux . 3-433.6.8 Effects of Magnetic Storms on Temperature 3-433.7 REFERENCES 3-43
CHAPTER 4. WINDS
4.1 MEAN WIND AS A FUNCTION OF HEIGHT 4-14.1.1 Variation of Mean Wind Speed (Lowest 300 Ft) 4-1
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1.1.2 ( Wind Direction Shifts (Lower 10,000 Ft) 4-24.1.3 ' Diurnal Variation and Low-Level Jet Streams (Lower 6000 Ft) . . . . 4-44.2 LARGE-SCALE WIND STRUCTURE 4-64.2.1 Time Variability up to 30 Km 4-64.2.2 Spatial Variability up to 30 Km x, . 4-84.2.3 Variability Above 30 Km 4-8
4.2.3.1 Seasonal Variation 4-154.2.3.2 Diurnal Variation 4-17
4.3 WIND SHEAR 4-174.4 TROPOSPHERIC WIND PROFILES FOR VEHICLE DESIGN . 4-204.4.1 Synthetic or Discrete Wind Profiles for Preliminary Design 4-214.4.2 Other Methods of Predicting Winds for Design Purposes 4-274.4.3 Final Design Calculations 4-274.4.4 Ballistic Profiles 4-284.5 DESIGN DATA ON WINDS 4-294.5.1 Hourly Surface Wind Speeds 4-334.5.2 Extreme Surface Wind Speeds 4-334.5.3 Wind Direction, Speed, and Variability Below 100,000 Ft 4-384.5.4 Structure of Jet Streams : 4-444.5.5 Observed Winds Above 100,000 Ft 4-454.6 REFERENCES 4-45
CHAPTER 5. PRECIPITATION, CLOUDS, AND AEROSOLS
5.1 PRECIPITATION 5-15.1.1 C Surface Rates of Precipitation 5-1
5.1.1.1 Clock Hourly Rates 5-15.1.1.2 Instantaneous Rates of Precipitation 5-25.1.1.3 Separation of Rainfall and Snowfall 5-45.1.1.4 Extreme Rates of Rainfall 5-4
5.1.2 Hail 5-55.1.2.1 Horizontal Extent 5-55.1.2.2 Vertical Extent 5-65.1.2.3 Size of Hail 5-6
5.2 MODEL ATMOSPHERES FOR PRECIPITATION 5-65.2.1 Widespread Precipitation 5-6
5.2.1.1 Water Content of Clouds 5-95.2.1.2 Particle Size Distribution 5-105.2.1.3 Integrals of Diameter over the Size Distribution 5-10
5.2.2 Thunderstorm Rainfall 5-105.2.3 Real Precipitation Distributions 5-115.3 CLOUDS 5-115.3.1 Data Available from Surface Observations 5-11
5.3.1.1 Summaries of Surface Observations 5-125.3.1.2 Limitations in the Use of Summaries for a Particular Station 5-12
5.3.2 Data Available from Aircraft and Radar 5-145.3.3 Vertical Extent of Cirrus Clouds 5-145.3.4 Frequency of Occurrence of Cloud Formations Above 20,000 Ft. . . . 5-145.3.5 Horizontal Extent of Cirrus Clouds 5-155.3.6 Maximum Water Content of Clouds 5-155.4 NOCTILUCENT CLOUDS 5-205.5 AEROSOLS 5-225.5.1 Size Range and Field of Importance 5-225.5.2 Size Distribution 5-235.5.3 Characteristics of Aerosols at Various Altitudes 5-245.5.4 Interaction with Radioactive Material 5-255.5.5 Impaction of Aerosol Particles on Aircraft 5-255.6 REFERENCES 5-25
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CHAPTER 6. ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION
6.1 PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS 6-16.2 OZONE 6-26.2.1 Regions of Ozone Formation 6-36.2.2 Distribution of Total Ozone 6-36.2.3 Vertical Ozone Distribution 6-36.3 ABSORPTION AND IONIZATION IN THE UPPER
ATMOSPHERE 6-76.3.1 Molecular Nitrogen 6-96.3.2 Molecular Oxygen 6-126.3.3 Nitric Oxide 6-136.3.4 Atomic Oxygen and Nitrogen 6-136.3.5 Minor Constituents 6-146.3.6 Absorption Cross Sections, 100 to 1 A 6-146.3.7 Average Absorption Coefficients 6-156.4 RECOMBINATION 6-156.4.1 Radiative Recombination 6-156.4.2 Dissociative Recombination 6-166.4.3 Three-Body Recombination 6-176.4.4 Ion-Ion Recombination 6-176.5 ELECTRON ATTACHMENT 6-186.6 ELECTRON DETACHMENT FROM NEGATIVE IONS :. 6-186.6.1 Photodetachment 6-196.6.2 Collisional Detachment 6-196.7 NON-DETACHMENT REACTIONS OF NEGATIVE IONS
WITH NEUTRALS 6-206.8 REACTIONS OF POSITIVE IONS WITH NEUTRALS 6-206.9 REFERENCES 6-23
CHAPTER 7. ATMOSPHERIC OPTICS
7.1 ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION MODEL 7-17.1.1 Parameters of Atmospheric Attenuation 7-17.1.2 Applications 7-2
7.1.2.1 Turbid Atmosphere 7-27.1.2.2 Rayleigh Atmosphere 7-2
7.2 REFLECTANCE 7-37.2.1 Ground Reflectance 7-3
7.2.1.1 Water Surfaces 7-37.2.1.2 Snow, Bare Areas, and Soils 7-47.2.1.3 Vegetative Formations 7-4
7.2.2 Polarization 7-47.2.3 Observations at High Altitudes 7-47.2.4 Cloud Reflectance 7-57.3 FLUX EMERGING FROM THE ATMOSPHERE 7-67.4 OPTICAL RADIATION IN THE ATMOSPHERE 7-67.4.1 Rayleigh Scattering (Molecular) and Polarization 7-77.4.2 Aerosol (Mie) Scattering 7-87.4.3 Atmospheric Scattering 7-87.4.4 Absorption Coefficients for Ozone 7-97.5 MEASUREMENTS OF SKYLIGHT 7-97.6 REFERENCES 7-36
CHAPTER 8. ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY
8.1 FAIR WEATHER ELECTRICITY 8-18.1.1 Electrical Conductivity 8-18.1.2 Electric Field 8-18.1.3 Currents and Space Charge 8-28.1.4 Atmospheric Ions 8-2
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8.1.5 Equilibrium Conditions 8-48.1.6 Variations in the Exchange Layer 8-58.1.7 Variations in the Free Atmosphere 8-58.1.8 Worldwide Current System and Maintenance of Earth's Charge . . . . 8-68.2 THUNDERSTORM ELECTRICITY 8-68.2.1 Electrostatic Field Patterns 8-78.2.2 - Precipitation Static 8-88.2.3 Power Line and Building Strikes 8-88.2.4 Possible Strike Patterns 8-108.2.5 Charge and Field Variations 8-108.2.6 Frequency Characteristics of Radiation 8-118.3 REFERENCES 8-23
CHAPTER 9. SOME ASPECTS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVEPROPAGATION
9.1 REFRACTIVE MODULUS IN THE TROPOSPHERE 9-19.1.1 Optical Wavelengths 9-19.1.2 Radio Wavelengths 9-19.1.3 Standard Profiles of Refractive Modulus 9-29.1.4 Variations of Refractive Moduli 9-29.2 ATTENUATION A N D BACKSCATTERING IN THE
TROPOSPHERE 9-29.2.1 Dielectric Properties 9-39.2.2 Backscattering and Attenuation Cross Sections 9-39.2.3 Total Reflectivity 9-99.2.4 Total Attenuation 9-149.3 IONOSPHERIC INTERACTIONS 9-149.3.1 Some Magneto-Ionic Formulas 9-169.3.2 Ionsondes and Ionograms 9-179.4 RADIO REFLECTIONS FROM METEOR TRAILS 9-179.4.1 Characteristics of a Meteor Trail 9-17
9.4.1.1 The Underdense Trail 9-199.4.1.2 The Overdense Trail 9-19
9.5 WHISTLERS, IONOSPHERICS, AND HYDROMAGNETICWAVES 9-19
9.5.1 Definitions 9-209.5.2 Theory of Whistlers and Ionospherics 9-22
9.5.2.1 Phase Refractive Index, Neglecting Collision Effects 9-229.5.2.2 Eckersley Dispersion Law 9-229.5.2.3 Nose Frequency 9-229.5.2.4 Effect of Ions, Neglecting Collisions 9-22
9.5.3 Theory of Hydromagnetic Waves : 9-239.5.4 Whistlers, Observations 9-239.5.5 Occurrence Statistics of Ionospherics 9-249.6 REFERENCES 9-26
CHAPTER 10. TRANSMISSION AND DETECTION OFINFRARED RADIATION
10.1 SOURCES AND DETECTORS 10-110.1.1 Infrared Radiation Sources 10-110.1.2 Infrared Detectors 10-110.1.3 Infrared Window Materials 10-210.2 ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION 10-210.3 ATMOSPHERIC EMISSION 10-610.3.1 Measurements from the Ground 10-710.3.2 Balloon Measurements 10-1510.3.3 Clouds 10-1510.3.4 Horizon Gradient (Limb Darkening) 10-1710.3.5 Satellite Measurements 10-1710.4 INFRARED CELESTIAL BACKGROUNDS 10-20
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10.4.1 Stellar Backgrounds 10-2510.4.2 IR Backgrounds Originating in the Solar System 10-2810.5 REFERENCES 10-36
CHAPTER 11. THE GEOMAGNETIC FIELD
11.1 UNITS, DEFINITIONS, AND MEASUREMENTS 11-111.1.1 Elements of the Geomagnetic Field 11-111.1.2 Magnetic Coordinates 11-211.1.3 Geomagnetic Measurements 11-211.2 THE MAIN FIELD OF THE EARTH . 11-711.2.1 Magnetic Charts 11-711.2.2 Analysis of the Main Field 11-7
11.2.2.1 Spherical Harmonic Analysis and Magnetic Dipoles . . . . 11-1711.2.2.2 Taylor Series Analysis 11-18
11.3 THE MAIN FIELD AT HIGH ALTITUDES 11-1811.3.1 Spherical Harmonic Extrapolation 11-1911.3.2 Taylor Series Extrapolation 11-1911.3.3 Comparison of Predicted and Observed Values 11-1911.4 TIME VARIATIONS OF THE GEOMAGNETIC FIELD 11-2811.4.1 Diurnal Variations and Direct Solar Flare Effect 11-2811.4.2 Magnetic Disturbances and Storms 11-2811.4.3 Magnetic Activity Indices 11-30
11.4.3.1 Indices K, a, and A 11-3211.4.3.2 Polar Range Index Q 11-3711.4.3.3 Variability Indices C, Cj, and Cp 11-3711.4.3.4 Difference Indices U, u, Uj and A 11-3911.4.3.5 Examples of the Activity Indices 11-39
11.4.4 Rapid Geomagnetic Variations 11-3911.5 THE DISTANT GEOMAGNETIC FIELD 11-4111.6 REFERENCES •. 11-61
CHAPTER 12. IONOSPHERIC PHYSICS
12.1 IONOSPHERIC REGIONS AND DISTURBANCES 12-112.1.1 Sudden Ionospheric Disturbance 12-112.1.2 High Latitude Absorption Events 12-212.1.3 F-Region Effects 12-212.2 ELECTRON AND ION DENSITY AND TEMPERATURE 12-212.2.1 Densities 12-212.2.2 Electron and Ion Temperatures 12-612.3 TOTAL ELECTRON CONTENT 12-612.3.1 Lunar Reflections, Cross Section, and Libration 12-612.3.2 Faraday Rotation of Plane of Polarization 12-1512.3.3 Variations in Electron Content 12-1512.4 NON-DEVIATIVE ABSORPTION 12-1512.4.1 Absorption in an Isotropic Medium : 12-1712.4.2 Effect of the Geomagnetic Field 12-2112.4.3 Effect of Electron Collisions With Ions 12-2512.4.4 Absorption Due to Collisions of Ions With Neutral Particles 12-2512.5 IONOSPHERIC WINDS 12-2812.5.1 Drift Directions 12-2812.5.2 Drift Velocities 12-3412.5.3 Characteristic Velocity 12-3512.5.4 Orientation of the Correlation Ellipse 12-3512.5.5 Axial Ratio of Correlation Ellipses 12-3512.5.6 Area of the 0.5-Correlation Ellipse 12-3612.6 SPORADIC E 12-3612.6.1 Worldwide Occurrence of Es 12-3712.6.2 Results of Analysis of Radio Amateur Data 12-3712.7 REFERENCES 12-53
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CHAPTER 13. AIRGLOW AND AURORAE
13.1 AIRFLOW 13-113.1.1 Spectrum 13-113.1.2 Intensity 13-113.1.3 Altitudes 13-113.1.4 Latitude Variation 13-113.1.5 Diurnal, Annual, and Secular Variations 13-2
13.1.5.1 Diurnal Variation 13-313.1.5.2 Annual Variation 13-313.1.5.3 Secular Variation 13-4
13.2 AURORA 13-413.2.1 Forms, Brightness, and Color 13-4
13.2.1.1 Form, Condition, and Structure 13-513.2.1.2 Brightness Index 13-513.2.1.3 Color Class 13-6
13.2.2 Spectrum 13-613.2.3 Altitudes 13-613.2.4 Occurrences and Variations 13-613.3 REFERENCES 13-29
CHAPTER 14. METEORITIC PHENOMENA
14.1 DEFINITIONS 14-114.2 METEOROID COMPOSITION AND DENSITY 14-114.3 METEOROID MAGNITUDE 14-114.4 INTERACTION WITH ATMOSPHERE 14-214.5 SPEED 14-414.6 METEOROID MASS AND FLUX 14-514.7 TEMPORAL VARIATIONS AND SHOWERS 14-714.8 METEOROID DAMAGE . . 14-814.9 REFERENCES 14-8
CHAPTER 15. THE SUN
15.1 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SUN 15-115.2 STEADY-STATE FEATURES OF THE SOLAR ATMOSPHERE . . 15-115.2.1 The Photosphere and the Line Absorbing Layer 15-115.2.2 The Chromosphere 15-315.2.3 The Corona 15-515.3 ENERGY OF THE SUN 15-615.4 TRANSIENT SOLAR PHENOMENA 15-715.4.1 Prominences 15-715.4.2 Active Centers 15-1015.4.3 Flares 15-1115.5 PROTON SHOWERS IN SPACE NEAR EARTH 15-1215.6 TERRESTRIAL EFFECTS OF SOLAR EMISSIONS 15-1215.7 SOLAR TRANSIENTS AND WEATHER 15-13
CHAPTER 16. SOLAR ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
16.1 SOLAR IRRADIANCE 16-116.1.1 Irradiance Outside the Earth's Atmosphere 16-116.1.2 Irradiance Within the Earth's Atmosphere 16-716.2 SOLAR ULTRAVIOLET AND X-RAYS 16-1016.2.1 Solar Spectrum, 3000 to 1800 A 16-1016.2.2 Solar Emission Lines, 1900 to 60 A 16-1016.2.3 Solar X Ray Emission 16-1216.2.4 Intensity of Radiation Below 3000 A 16-1216.3 SOLAR RADIO EMISSION 16-1816.3.1 Quiet Sun Temperature and Flux 16-18
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16.3.2 Calculation of Solar Temperature and Flux from AntennaTemperature 16-21
16.3.3 Flux of the Slowly Varying Component 16-2316.3.4 Description of the Rapidly Varying Component 16-24
16.3.4.1 Meter-Wave Range (25 to 580 Mcps) 16-2416.3.4.2 Decimeter-Wave Range (500 to 950 Mcps) 16-2516.3.4.3 Centimeter-Wave Range (3000 to 30,000 Mcps) 16-25
16.3.5 The Disturbed Sun as a Radio Source 16-2616.4 REFERENCES 16-38
CHAPTER 17. CORPUSCULAR RADIATION
17.1 BASIC RELATIONS 17-117.1.1 Nomenclature and Definitions 17-117.1.2 Trapped Particle Motion in a Magnetic Field 17-217.2 TRAPPED RADIATION 17-317.2.1 Spatial Parameters of Trapped Particles 17-317.2.2 Injection and Loss of Particles 17-617.2.3 Measurements of Naturally Occurring Trapped Radiation 17-717.2.4 Protons 17-717.2.5 Electrons 17-1017.2.6 Man-Made Trapped Radiation 17-1017.3 , COSMIC RADIATION 17-1117.3.1 Composition and Energy 17-1217.3.2 Charged Particle Flux Within the Atmosphere 17-14
17.3.2.1 Latitude and Longitude Dependence 17-1417.3.2.2 Minimum Momentum 17-14
173.3 Flux Modulations 17-1417.4 HIGH ENERGY PARTICLES FROM SOLAR FLARES 17-1917.4.1 Composition, Rigidity, and Flux of Solar Cosmic Rays 17-1917.4.2 Variations in Time and Direction of Solar Cosmic Rays 17-2117.5 REFERENCES 17-31
CHAPTER 18. INTERPLANETARY SPACE AND THE SOLARATMOSPHERE
18.1 OBSERVATIONAL DATA FOR INTERPLANETARY SPACE . 18-118.1.1 Electron Densities 18-118.1.2 Interplanetary Magnetic Fields 18-218.1.3 Solar Wind ; 18-218.2 MODELS OF THE CORONAL ATMOSPHERE 18-218.2.1 Inverse Square and Semi-Empirical Models 18-218.2.2 Chapman's Model 18-318.2.3 Chamberlain's Models 18-418.2.4 Sen's Electric Field Models 18-518.2.5 Parker's Models 18-518.2.6 Alternate Interpretations of Parker's Equations 18-518.2.7 Scale Heights for the Solar Atmosphere 18-718.3 SOLAR AND INTERPLANETARY MAGNETIC FIELDS 18*718.3.1 Solar Magnetic Cycle and Sunspots 18-818.3.2 Interplanetary Magnetic Field and Distortion of Solar Dipole Field 18-918.3.3 Effects of Rotation on Magnetic Lines of Force 18-1118.4 SOLAR METEOROLOGY AND ENERGY TRANSPORT 18-1118.4.1 Solar Rotation 18-1118.4.2 Reynolds and Prandtl Numbers 18-1318.4.3 Transport Coefficients from Gas Kinetics 18-1318.4.4 Solar-Wide Atmospheric Motions 18-1418.4.5 Energy Transport Processes 18-1618.5 TENTATIVE MORPHOLOGY OF THE SOLAR CYCLE 18-1718.6 REFERENCES 18-19
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CHAPTER 19. THE LUNAR ENVIRONMENT\
19.1 ATMOSPHERE 19-119.2 THERMAL ENVIRONMENT 19-119.3 MAGNETIC FIELD 19-119.4 COMPOSITION 19-619.5 SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE STRUCTURE 19-619.5.1 Lunar Surface Roughness 19-919.6 LUNAR RESOURCES 19-1319.7 LUNAR MOTION 19-1319.7.1 Rotation and Librations 19-1319.7.2 Librations and the Lunar Mechanical Figure 19-1419.8 LUNAR GRAVITY FIELD 19-1419.9 SUGGESTED VALUES OF LUNAR CONSTANTS 19-1519.10 REFERENCES 19-16
CHAPTER 20. PLANETARY ENVIRONMENTS
20.120.1.120.1.220.220.2.1
20.2.220.2.320.2.420.2.520.2.620.320.3.120.3.220.3.320.3.420.3.520.3.620.3.720.3.820.3.920.420.4.120.4.220.520.5.120.5.220.620.6.120.6.220.720.7.120.7.220.820.8.120.8.220.9
MERCURYGeneralTabular Data for MercuryVENUSAtmosphere20.2.1.1 Clouds20.2.1.2 Pressure and Temperature20.2.1.3 CirculationThermal EnvironmentMagnetic Field
20-120-120-120-120-120-220-220-220-320-320-320-320-520-5
Surface FeaturesSatellitesTabular Data for VenusMARSAtmospheric Composition 20-5Atmospheric Structure 20-5Atmospheric Circulation 20-7Yellow and White Clouds 20-10Blue Haze 20-10Magnetic Field '. 20-11Surface Temperatures and Features 20-11Satellites 20-13Tabular Data for Mars . .' 20-13JUPITER 20-13Satellites 20-15Tabular Data for Jupiter 20-15SATURN 20-15Satellites 20-15Tabular Data for Saturn 20-16URANUS 20-16Satellites 20-16Tabular Data for Uranus .' 20-16NEPTUNE 20-16Satellites 20-16Tabular Data for Neptune 20-16PLUTO 20-17General 20-17Tabular Data for Pluto 20-17REFERENCES 20-19
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CHAPTER 21. ASTROPHYSICS AND ASTRONOMY
21.1 GENERAL SURVEY 21-121.2 DEFINITIONS, UNITS, AND BASIC RELATIONS 21-121.2.1 Time, Distance and Motion; Solar Values as Units 21-121.2.2 Celestial Coordinate Systems 21-4
21.2.2.1 Horizon System (Azimuth and Altitude) 21-421.2.2.2 Equatorial Systems 21-421.2.2.3 Conversion Between Horizon and Equatorial Systems . . . . 21-721.2.2.4 Ecliptic System 21-721.2.2.5 Galactic Systems 21-7
21.2.3 Names and Categories of Stars 21-721.2.3.1 Supergiants, Giants, Dwarfs, and White Dwarfs 21-721.2.3.2 Binary and Multiple Stars 21-7
21.2.4 Stellar Magnitudes 21-921.2.5 Color Index and Photometric Color Systems 21-1021.2.6 Spectroscopic Terminology 21-1021.2.7 Curve of Growth '. ". 21-1021.2.8 Spectral Type and Temperature 21-1121.2.9 Saha Theory of Ionization 21-1221.2.10 Luminosity, Temperature, and H-R Diagrams 21-1221.3 STELLAR MASSES AND LUMINOSITIES 21-1421.3.1 Direct Measurement of Mass 21-1421.4 CLASSIFICATION OF STARS 21-1421.4.1 Luminosity Criteria 21-14
21.4.1.1 MK (Luminosity Class) System 21-1421.4.1.2 Two-Color Diagram (U — B vs B — V) 21-15
21.4.2 Quantitative Methods of Spectral Classification 21-1721.4.2.1 Barbier-Chalonge Classification 21-1721.4.2.2 Stromgren's Narrow-Band Photometry 21-18
21.5 INTERSTELLAR GAS AND DUST 21-1821.5.1 Interstellar Absorption Lines 21-1821.5.2 Interstellar Gas Clouds 21-1921.5.3 Interstellar Reddening and Color Excess 21-19
21.5.3.1 Interstellar Dust and Polarization 21-1921.5.3.2 Statistically Corrected Distance of a Star 21-19
21.5.4 Relation of Dust Clouds to Gas Clouds 21-1921.6 STELLAR EVOLUTION 21-2021.6.1 Nuclear Reactions, Stellar Interiors, and H-R Diagrams 21-2021.6.2 Loss of Mass During Evolution 21-2121.6.3 Populations I and II 21-2121.6.4 Clusters and Associations 21-21
21.6.4.1 0 and T Associations 21-2121.6.4.2 Galactic (Open) Clusters 21-2221.6.4.3 Globular Clusters 21-22
21.6.5 H-R Diagrams of Clusters 21-2221.7 INTRINSICALLY VARIABLE STARS 21-2321.7.1 Dwarf Irregular Variable Stars 21-23
21.7.1.1 T Tauri Stars : 21-2321.7.1.2 Flare or UV Ceti Stars 21-2321.7.1.3 U Geminorum (SS Cygni) Stars 21-24
21.7.2 Pulsating Stars . 21-2421.7.2.1 RR Lyrae Stars 21-2621.7.2.2 Cepheids 21-26
21.7.3 Novae and Supernovae 21-2721.8 DETERMINATION OF STELLAR DISTANCES 21-2721.8.1 Parallax and Proper Motion 21-2721.8.2 Spectroscopic Methods 21-2821.8.3 The Period-Luminosity Relation 21-2821.8.4 The Distance Scale 21-2821.9 GALAXIES 21-2821.10 REFERENCES 21-29
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CHAPTER 22. RADIO ASTRONOMY
22.1 ' FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS 22-122.2 EFFECTS OF THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE 22-222.2.1 Refraction 22-222.2.2 Scintillation 22-322.2.3 Absorption 22-322.3 RADIO EMISSION FROM THE MOON AND PLANETS 22-322.3.1 The Moon 22-322.3.2 The Planets 22-5
22.3.2.1 Mercury , 22-522.3.2.2 Venus 22-522.3.2.3 Mars 22-522.3.2.4 Jupiter 22-522.3.2.5 Saturn 22-5
22.4 SOURCES OF RADIO EMISSIONS 22-522.4.1 Maps of Background Radiation 22-522.4.2 Discrete Sources v 22-722.5 HYDROGEN 21-CM LINE 22-722.6 OH LINE AT 18 CM 22-922.7 REFERENCES 22-15
APPENDIX A —UNITS, CONSTANTS, AND CONVERSIONFACTORS
APPENDIX B —BLACKBODY RADIATION
INDEX
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